Erromintxela language
| Erromintxela | |
|---|---|
| Erromintxela | |
| Native to | Spain, France |
| Region | Basque Country |
Native speakers | (500–1,000 cited 1997)[1] |
| Language codes | |
| ISO 639-3 | emx |
| Glottolog | erro1240 |
Erromintxela(Basque pronunciation:[eromintʃela]) is the distinctive language of a group ofRomaniliving in theBasque Country,who also go by the name Erromintxela. It is sometimes calledBasque Caló[2]orErrumantxela[3]inEnglish;caló vasco, romaní vasco,orerrominchelainSpanish;andeuskado-rromani[4]oreuskado-romani[5]in French. Although detailed accounts of the language date to the end of the 19th century, linguistic research began only in the 1990s.
The Erromintxela are the descendants of a 15th-century wave ofKalderash Roma,who entered the Basque Country via France.[6]Both ethnically and linguistically, they are distinct from theCaló-speakingRomani people in Spainand theCascarotRomani peopleof theNorthern Basque Country.Erromintxela is amixed language(referred to asPara-RomaniinRomani linguistics[3]), deriving most of its vocabulary fromKalderash Romanibut usingBasquegrammar, similar to the way theAngloromani languageof the Roma in England mixes Romani vocabulary and English grammar. The development of the mixed language was facilitated by the unusually deep integration of the Erromintxela people into Basque society and the resultant bilingualism in Basque. The language is in decline; most of the perhaps 1000 remaining speakers live on the coast ofLabourdand in the mountainous regions ofSoule,Navarre,GipuzkoaandBiscay.[7]
Name
[edit]
The origin of the name Erromintxela is unclear and may be of relatively recent origin; Basque speakers had previously grouped the Erromintxela under more general terms for Romani such asijitoak"Egyptians",ungrianok"Hungarians", orbuhameak"Bohemians".[1]However, a number of authors believe it to be a Basque rendering of the French nameromanichelorromané-michel,[3][8]a name attested primarily in the vicinity of thePyreneesand in particular theNorthern Basque Country.[8]Romanichelis in turn a French rendering of the Romani phraseRomani čel"Romani person".[9]Though now uncommon in France, it is found in the names of the BritishRòmanichal[10]and theScandinavianRomanisæl,all descendants, like the Erromintxela, of a group of Roma who had migrated to France.[11]
Early attestations of the name in Basque includeErrama-itçéla, Erroumancel,[8][12]latererrumanzelanderremaitzela.[13]The initiale-is the Basqueprostheticvowel,[8]which was added at a time that no Basque word was allowed to begin with anr-.The final-ais theabsolutive casesuffix, which is used when citing a name. If that etymology is correct, it is a rare case of a native Romani name for themselves (anendonym) being borrowed by another language.
The people identify themselves asijitoak,Basque for "gypsies", but more specifically as Erromintxela, in contrast to the Caló Romani,[14]whom they refer to as thexango-gorriak,Basque for "red-legs".[1][7]
State of the language
[edit]There are currently an estimated 500 speakers in theSouthern Basque Countryin Spain, approximately 2% of a population of 21,000Romanis,and another estimated 500 in France.[1]In Spain the remaining fluent speakers are elderly people mostly over the age of 80; some are equally fluent in Spanish, Basque, orCaló.Middle-aged Erromintxela are mostlypassive bilinguals,and the youngest speak only Basque or Spanish. In the Northern Basque Country, however, the language is still being passed on to children.[7]The percentage of speakers among Spanish Erromintxela are higher than 2%, as large numbers of Caló-speaking Romanis moved to the Basque Country in the intense period ofindustrialisationin the 20th century.[15]
Literary production
[edit]To date, there has been little literary production in the language. The most notable works are a poem byJon Mirandeentitled "Kama-goli" in his 1997anthologyOrhoituz[16]and the 1999 novelAgirre zaharraren kartzelaldi berriakby Koldo Izagirre Urreaga with the main character using the language.[17]
History
[edit]The Erromintxela arrived in the Basque Country in the 15th century speaking Kalderash Romani. They integrated much more deeply into Basque society than other Romani groups. In the process, they acquired the Basque language and adopted aspects of Basque culture such as increased rights of women and important traditions such asbertsolaritza(extemporaneous poetic song) andpelota(the national Basque ballgame).[6][14]Muñoz and Lopez de Mungia suspect that the morphological and phonological similarities between Romani and Basque facilitated the adoption of Basque grammar by the bilingual Romanis.[6]
It appears that many Romanis chose to stay in the Basque Country to escape persecution elsewhere in Europe.[6][15]Nonetheless, even here they were not safe from persecution. For example, theRoyal Council of Navarrein 1602 passed an edict to round up all "vagabonds" (meaning Romani), who were to be condemned to 6 years ofgalleyduty.[13]By the 18th century however attitudes had changed, and the emphasis shifted towards integration. In 1780–1781 the Courts of Navarre passed Law 23, which called for "the authorities to take care of them, find them locations for settlement and honest occupations and ways of living..."[13]
Research
[edit]The oldest account of the language dates to 1855, when the FrenchethnographerJustin Cenac-Moncaut located the Erromintxela primarily in the Northern Basque Country. The oldest coherent Erromintxela text, a poem entitledKama-goli,published by Basque writerJon Mirandein a collection of Basque poetry, only dates to ca. 1960.[18]
Alexandre Baudrimont's 40-page studyVocabulaire de la langue des Bohémiens habitant les pays basques françaisof 1862, the most extensive of the early accounts, covers both vocabulary and aspects of grammar. He worked with two female informants, a mother and her daughter from theUhart-Mixearea nearSaint-Palais,whom he describes as highly fluent. Unfortunately, he was only able to conduct a single session as the women were then told not to cooperate further for the fear of outsiders prying into the secrets of the Romani.[19]There is a certain degree of confusion in Baudrimont's publication—he himself states that he could not always be certain the correct forms were elicited. For example, most of the verb forms he tried to elicit lack the verbal-tuending and appear to beparticiples.[19]
The FrenchsociologistVictor de Rochas refers to the Romani in the Northern Basque Country speaking Basque, rather than French, in his 1876Les Parias de France et d'Espagne (cagots et bohémiens).TheCanonJean-Baptiste Daranatz published a wordlist in the periodicalEskualdun Onain 1906[20]and in 1921 Berraondo and Oyarbide carried out some research.[7]Although labelledgitano(Spanish for 'gypsy') orbohémien / gitan(French for 'gypsy'), some data can also be found inAzkue's1905 dictionary andPierre Lhande's1926 dictionary, both of which list a number of words identifiable as Erromintxela.[7]
Little more was done until the late 20th century. In 1986Federico Krutwigpublished a short article in theRevista Internacional de Estudios Vascosentitled "Los gitanos vascos", with a short word list and a brief analysis of the language's morphology.[21]However, the most detailed research to date was carried out by BasquephilologistJosune Muñoz andhistorianElias Lopez de Mungia, who began their work in the Southern Basque Country in 1996 at the behest of the Romani organisationKalé Dor Kayiko,with support from theEuskaltzaindiaand theUniversity of the Basque Country.[7]Kalé Dor Kayiko, who had been working to promote the Romani language, was alerted to the existence of Erromintxela in the 1990s through an article by the historian Alizia Stürtze,Agotak, juduak eta ijitoak Euskal Herrian"Agotes,Jews, and Gypsies in the Basque Country ".[6]Kalé Dor Kayiko intends to continue research into the language, attitudes, identity, and history of the Erromintxela people in the less well researched provinces ofNavarreand the Northern Basque Country.[6]
Linguistic features
[edit]The research by Muñoz and Lopez de Mungia has confirmed that Erromintxela is not derived fromCaló,the mixed Spanish-Romani language spoken throughout Spain, but is instead based on Kalderash Romani and the Basque language.[7]The vocabulary appears to be almost exclusively Romani in origin; the grammar however, both morphology and syntax, derives from various Basque dialects.[7]Few traces appear to remain of Romani grammatical structures.[6]The language is incomprehensible to speakers of both Basque and of Caló.[7]
Typologically, Erromintxela displays the same features as the Basque dialects it derives its grammatical structures from. Its case marking follows theergative–absolutivepattern where the subject of anintransitive verbis in theabsolutive case(which is unmarked), the same case being used for thedirect objectof atransitive verb.The subject of a transitive verb is marked with theergative case.Similarly,auxiliary verbsagree with the subject and any direct object and indirect object present and verb forms are marked forallocutive(i.e. a marker is used to indicate the gender of the addressee).
Since both Erromintxela and Caló derive from Romani, many Erromintxela words are similar to Spanish Caló and Catalan Caló.
| Erromintxela | Caló[22] | Root | Meaning |
|---|---|---|---|
| baro | varó/baró | baró | large, big |
| dui(l) | dui | dúj | two |
| guruni | guruñí | gurumni | cow |
| kani(a) | casní, caní | khajní | hen, chicken |
| latxo, latxu | lachó (fem. lachí) | lačhó | good |
| mandro(a) | manró, marró | manró | bread |
| nazaro, lazaro | nasaló (fem. nasalí) | nasvalo | ill |
| panin(a) | pañí | paní | water |
| pinro(a), pindru(a) | pinrró | punró | foot |
| trin, tril | trin | trin | three |
| zitzai(a) | chichai | čičaj | cat |
Phonology
[edit]According to Baudrimont's description of 1862[19]and modern southern sources, Erromintxela appears to have, at maximum, the sound system below. Southern speakers appear not to have the rounded vowel/y/or the consonant/θ/,in line with north-south differences in Basque, and it is not clear if the northern distinction between/ɡ/and/ɣ/also exists in the south.
| Labial | Coronal | Dorsal | Glottal | |||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Dental |
Lamino- dental |
Apico- alveolar |
Post- alveolar |
Palatal | Velar | |||||||||||
| Nasal | m /m/ |
n /n/ |
ñ /ɲ/ |
|||||||||||||
| Plosive | p /p/ |
b /b/ |
t /t/ |
d /d/ |
k /k/ |
g /ɡ/ |
||||||||||
| Affricate | tz /ts̻/ |
ts /ts̺/ |
tx /tʃ/ |
|||||||||||||
| Fricative | f /f/ |
/θ/ |
z /s̻/ |
s /s̺/ |
x /ʃ/ |
j /x/ |
/ɣ/ |
h /h/ | ||||||||
| Lateral | l /l/ |
ll /ʎ/ |
||||||||||||||
| Rhotic | Trill | rr /r/ |
||||||||||||||
| Tap | r /ɾ/ |
|||||||||||||||
| Front | Back | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| unrounded | rounded | ||||
| Close | i /i/ |
ü (/y/) |
u /u/ | ||
| Close-mid | e /e/ |
o /o/ | |||
| Open | a /a/ | ||||
Baudrimont uses a semi-phonetic system with the following diverging conventions:
| Baudrimont | u | ȣ | y | Δ | Γ | χ | sh | tsh | z |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| IPA | /y/ | /u/ | /j/ | /θ/ | /ɣ/ | /x/ | /ʃ/ | /tʃ/ | /z/ |
Morphology
[edit]Examples of morphological features in Erromintxela:[1][6][18][21][23]
| Erromintxela | Basque | Root | Function in Erromintxela | Example |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| -a | -a | Basque -a | absolutivesuffix | phiria"the pot" |
| -ak | -ak | Basque-ak | pluralsuffix | sokak"overcoats" |
| -(a)n | -(a)n | Basque-(a)n | locativesuffix | khertsiman"in the tavern" |
| -(a)z | -(a)z | Basque-(a)z | instrumentalsuffix | jakaz"with fire" |
| -(e)k | -(e)k | Basque-(e)k | ergativesuffix | hire dui ankhai koloek"your two black eyes" |
| -ena | -ena | Basque-ena | superlativesuffix | loloena"reddest" |
| -(e)ko(a) | -(e)ko(a) | Basque-(e)ko(a) | localgenitivesuffix | muirako"of the mouth" |
| -(e)rak | -(e)rat (Northern Basque) | Basque-(e)ra(t) | allativesuffix | txaribelerak"to the bed" |
| -pen | -pen | Basque-pen | 1 suffix denoting act or effect 2 under | |
| -ra | -ra | Basque-ra | allativesuffix | penintinora"to the little stream" |
| -tu | -tu | Basque-tu | verb forming suffix | dekhatu"to see" |
| -tzea | -tzea | Basque-tzea | nominalizer | |
| -tzen | -t(z)en | Basque-t(z)en | imperfect suffix | kherautzen"doing" |
Verb formation
[edit]Most verbs have a Romani root plus the Basque verb forming suffix-tu.Examples of Erromintxela verbs are given below.[1][18][21](Forms given in angle brackets indicate spellings in the sources which are no longer in use. Basque is included for comparison.)
| Erromintxela | Basque | Romani[24] | English translation |
|---|---|---|---|
| brikhindu[20] | euria izan | brišínd | to rain |
| burrinkatu[20] | harrapatu | (astaráv) | to catch |
| dikelatu, dekhatu[18] | ikusi | dikháv | to see |
| erromitu (eŕomitu)[25] | ezkondu | to marry | |
| gazinain kheautu[25] | haur egin | to give birth (lit. make a child) | |
| goli kherautu, goli keautu[25] | kantatu | (gilábav) | to sing (lit. make a song) |
| kamatu[18] | maitatu | kamáv[26] | to love |
| kerau, keau, kherautu,[18]keautu[21][25] | egin | keráv | 1 to do, make 2 auxiliary[25] |
| kurratu | lan egin | butjí keráv | to work; J.M. de O. glosses this as "hit"[27]but compare various Basque expressions usingjoin the sense of "getting down to, making an effort" |
| kurrautu⟨kuŕautu⟩[25] | jo | to hit | |
| kuti[18][25] | begiratu | dikáv | to look |
| letu[18][25] | hartu | lav | to take |
| mahutu,[25]mautu[25] | hil | mu(da)ráv | to die, kill |
| mangatu[21][25] | eskatu | mangáv | to ask for, beg |
| mukautu[25] | bukatu | to end | |
| najel-egin[27] | ihes egin | to escape | |
| najin[25] | bukatu | to end | |
| papira-keautu[25] | idatzi | (skirív, ramóv) | to write (lit. make paper) |
| parrautu⟨paŕautu⟩[25] | ebaki | to cut | |
| pekatu[21][25] | egosi | pakáv | to cook |
| pekhautu[18] | erre | to burn | |
| piautu[21][25] | edan | pjav | to drink |
| tarautu,[25]tazautu[25] | ito | to strangle | |
| teilaitu[25] | jan | xav | to eat |
| tetxalitu, texalitu[25] | ibili | to walk | |
| txanatu[21] | jakin | žanáv | to know |
| txiautu[25] | to ram in, push in | ||
| txoratu,[21]xorkatu[25]⟨s̃orkatu⟩,[23]txoatu[27] | lapurtu, ebatsi, harrapatu | čoráv | to steal/swipe |
| ufalitu[25] | ihes egin | to flee | |
| xordo keautu[25] | lapurtu, ebatsi | to steal (lit. "make theft" ) | |
| zuautu[21][25] | lo egin | sováv | to sleep |
Most Erromintxela verbal inflections are virtually identical to those found in Basque dialects:
| Erromintxela[18] | Basque (Lapurdian)[28] | Translation |
|---|---|---|
| ajinen duk[29] | izanen duk | you will have |
| dekhatu nuen | ikusi nuen | I saw it |
| dinat | diñat | I am (familiar female addressee) |
| erantzi nauzkon | erantzi nauzkan | I had taken them off |
| ...haizen hi | ...haizen hi | ...that you are |
| kamatu nuen | maitatu nuen | I loved it |
| letu hindudan | hartu hintudan | You (familiar) took me |
| nintzan | nintzan | I was |
| pekhautzen nina | erretzen naute | They are burning me |
| pekhautu nintzan | erre nintzen | I (intransitive) burnt |
| pekhautzen niagon | erretzen niagon | I (intransitive) was burning (female addressee) |
| tetxalitzen zan | ibiltzen zan | I was going |
| zethorren | zetorren | It came |
| zoaz | zoaz | You go! |
Negations are formed withna/nagi[20][21](Romanina/níči); cf Basqueez/ezetz.The word for "yes" isua[20](Romaniva); cf Basquebai/baietz.
Nouns
[edit]The majority of nouns have Romani roots, but frequently attested with Basque suffixes. The variation of nouns cited with or without a final-ais likely due to informants supplying them with or without theabsolutiveending. (Forms given in angle brackets indicate spellings in the sources which are no longer in use.)
| Erromintxela | Basque | Romani[24] | English translation |
|---|---|---|---|
| angi[30] | ezti | (avdžin) | honey |
| ankhai[18] | begi | (jakh) | eye |
| anput̄a[27] | buru | head | |
| asinia[20] | botila | (fláša) | bottle |
| balitxo,[20]balitxua[27] | txerriki | baló "pig" plus a Basque suffix | pork |
| barki[19][20] | ardi | bakró | ewe, sheep |
| barkitxu,[6]barkotiñu,[20]barkixu ⟨barkicho⟩,[19]barrketxua ⟨baŕketxua⟩[27] | arkume | bakró "sheep", plus Basque diminutive-txu, tiñu | lamb; J.M. de O. glosses it as "sheep" |
| barku[20] | ardi | bakró | sheep |
| basta,[19][27]baste[20][21] | esku | vas(t) | hand, arm |
| bato,[1]batu[20] | aita | dad | father |
| bedeio (bedeyo)[19] | erle | (daraši) | bee |
| bliku[20] | txerri | frombalikanó mas"pork" | pig |
| bluiak,[20]brruttak ⟨bŕut̄ak⟩[27] | poliziak | (policájcur) | policemen |
| budar,[21]budara,[20]buldara[27] | ate | vudár | door |
| burrinkatzea[20] | harrapatze | act of catching | |
| butxa[27] | arropa | clothing | |
| dantzari[18] | dantzari | (Basque root) | dancer |
| dibezi[18][25] | egun | djes | day |
| duta[21][25] | argi | udút | (natural) light |
| egaxi[20][21][25] | gaží | a non-Romani woman | |
| egaxo,[25]ogaxo,[21][25]egaxu[25] | gažó | agadjo,anyone not Romani | |
| elakri,[21]ellakria[31] | neska(til) | raklí | girl |
| elakri-lumia[20][23] | woman of ill repute | ||
| eramaite[18] | erama(i)te | bringing | |
| eratsa,[20][25]erhatsa,[25]erhatza,[20]erratsa ⟨erratça⟩[19] | ahate | (goca) | duck |
| erromi (eŕomi),[21][25]errumi,[23]errumia[20] | senar | rom | 1 husband 2 wedding[32] |
| erromiti, errumitia[20] | emazte | romní | wife |
| erromni | emazte, emakume | romní | woman, wife |
| erromitzea[21] | eskontza | (bjáv) | wedding |
| erromitzeko ⟨eŕomitzeko⟩,[25]erromitzekoa[21] | eraztun | (angruští) | (the) ring (lit. "the one of marrying" ) |
| fula[25] | kaka | khul | excrement |
| futralo[20][25] | eau-de-vie | ||
| gata[18][20][25] | ator | gad | shirt |
| gazin[18][25] | haur | child | |
| giltizinia[25] | giltza | (čája) | key |
| goani[20][21][25] | zaldi | (grast) | horse |
| goia[20] | lukainka | goj | sausage |
| goli[18][25] | kanta | gilí | song |
| grasnia,[20][23]gasnia,[23][25]grasmiña[33]⟨gŕasmiña⟩,[27]gra[21] | zaldi | gras(t) | horse |
| guru,[21]gurru⟨guŕu⟩,[25]grumiña ⟨gŕumiña⟩[27] | idi | gurúv | ox |
| guruni[21] | behi | gurumni | cow |
| gurutiño[20][23] | txahal | gurúvplus a Basque diminutive-tiño | calf (animal) |
| haize[18] | haize | (Basque root) | wind |
| jak,[21]jaka,[20][23][25]zaka,[25]aka[21] | su | jag | fire |
| jakes[23][25] | gazta | (királ) | cheese |
| jelua[27] | soka | rope | |
| jera,[25][34][27]kera ⟨kéra⟩[19] | asto | (esa) | donkey |
| jero[25] | buru | šeró | head |
| jeroko[25] | buruko | beret(lit. "of the head" ) | |
| juiben,[23]juibena[20] | galtzak | (kálca) | trousers |
| kalabera[20][25] | buru | (šeró) | head. Compare Spanishcalavera,"Skull" |
| kalleria⟨kaĺeria⟩[25] | silverware. Compare Spanishquincallería,"hardware" | ||
| kalo,[25]kalu,[23]kalua[20] | kafe | (káfa) | coffee. Compare Calócalé( "black" ) andKali,the dark blue goddess. |
| kalo-kasta[18] | ijito-kastaro | Romaniborough.Compare Calócalé( "Spanish Romani"). | |
| kamatze[18] | maitatze | < kamáv | loving |
| kangei[20][25][34][27]⟨kangey⟩;,[23]kangiria[19] | eliza | kangerí | church; Baudrimont glosses this "altar" |
| kani,[20]kania,[23][25]kañiña[27] | oilo | khajní | hen, chicken |
| kaxta,[19][20][21][25]kasta (casta),[19]kaixta ⟨kaïshta⟩[19] | zur | kašt | wood, stick |
| kaxtain parruntzeko ⟨paŕuntzeko⟩[25] | aizkora | axe | |
| kher,[18]khe,[25]kere,[23][25]khere,[21]kerea,[20]kera[27] | etxe | kher | house |
| kereko-egaxia[20]⟨kereko-egas̃ia⟩[23] | etxeko andre | lady of the house | |
| kereko-egaxoa⟨kereko-egas̃oa⟩,[23]kereko-ogaxoa[20] | etxeko jauna | master of the house | |
| ker-barna[25] | gaztelu | (koštola) | castle |
| ker,[21]⟨qer⟩,[21]kera[20] | asto | (esa) | donkey |
| kero, keru,[25]kerua[20] | buru | šeró | head. See beforejero. |
| khertsima[18][25] | taberna | CompareOld Slavonicкърчьма,кръчьма | tavern |
| kiala,[20][23][25]kilako[23][25] | gazta | királ | cheese |
| kilalo[25] | cold air | ||
| kirkila[20][25] | babarruna | (fusúj) | bean |
| konitza,[25]koanits,[25]koanitsa[20] | saski | kóžnica | basket |
| laia[20][23][25] | jauna | mister, sir | |
| lajai,[25]olajai,[25]lakaia,[20]orajaia[27] | apaiz | (rašáj) | priest |
| laphail,[23][25]lakhaia[23] | apaiz | (rašáj) | priest |
| latzi,[20]latzia[18][23][25] | gau | night | |
| lona[20][23][25] | gatz | lon | salt |
| mahutzea,[21]mautzia[20] | hiltze | mu(da)ráv (v.), plus the Basquenominalizingsuffixex-tze-a | killing (seemahutuv.) |
| malabana[20][25] | gantzu | (thuló mas) | lard |
| mandro,[18][25]mandroa,[20]manrua ⟨manŕua⟩[27] | ogi | manró | bread |
| mangatzia[20] | eske | mangáv (v.), plus the Basquenominalizingsuffixes-tze-a | act of begging |
| marrun[23](maŕun)[25] | senar | husband | |
| mas,[21]maz,[21]maza,[25]masa,[20][27]⟨māsa⟩[19] | haragi | mas | meat |
| megazin,[25]megazina[20] | haur | child (see beforegazin) | |
| milleka[23]⟨miĺeka⟩[25] | arto | corn (maize) | |
| milota[25] | ogi | (manró) | bread |
| milotare-pekautzeko[25] | labe | oven | |
| Mimakaro[23][25] | Ama Birjina, Andra Mari | theBlessed Virgin | |
| miruni[23][25] | emakume | woman | |
| mitxai,[18][25]⟨mits̃ai⟩[23] | alaba | čhaj | daughter |
| mol,[18]mola[20][25][27] | ardo | mol | wine |
| mullon⟨muĺon⟩,[20][25]mullu⟨muĺu⟩[25] | mando | mule | |
| ñandro,[20][23][25]gnandro[25] | arraultz | anró | egg |
| oxtaben,[25][30]oxtaban⟨os̃taban⟩,[23]oxtabena[20] | gartzela | astaripe | prison |
| paba,[25]phabana,[23]pabana[20] | sagar | phabáj | apple |
| paba-mola[25] | sagardo | cider (lit. apple-wine) | |
| panin,[21][25]panina,[20][23]pañia[1] | ur | pají | water |
| panineko,[25]paninekoa[21][27] | pitxer; euritakoa | (the) jug (lit. one for water), J.M. de O. glosses it aseuritakoa"umbrella", literally "one for rain" | |
| paninekoain burrinkatzeko⟨buŕinkatzeko⟩[25] | net(?) ( "for catching [...] of the water", Lhande gives Frenchfilet) | ||
| paninbaru,[25]panin barua[21] | ibai, itsaso | (derjáv, márja) | river, ocean (lit. "big water" ) |
| panintino,[25]panin tiñua,[21]penintino[18] | erreka | (len) | small stream (lit. "small water" ) |
| pangua[6] | larre | meadow | |
| panizua[20][23][25] | arto | corn (maize). Compare Spanish "panizo" | |
| papin,[25]papina[20][23] | antzar | papin | goose |
| papira[25] | paper | papíri | paper |
| pindru, pindrua,[20][23][25]pindro,[18]prindo[25] | hanka, oin | punró | foot |
| pindrotakoa[21] | galtzak | kálca | trousers ( "the one for the foot" ) |
| piri, piria[20][23][25] | lapiko | pirí | saucepan |
| pora[20][23][25] | urdaila | per | stomach |
| potozi[25] | diruzorro | wallet | |
| prindotako[25] | galtzerdi | pinró (trousers) | sock (lit. "the one for the foot" ). See alsopindrotakoa |
| puxka[27](pushka)[19] | arma | puška. Compare Slavicpušĭka | gun, weapon |
| soka[18][20][23][25] | gaineko | overcoat | |
| sumia[20] | zupa | zumí | soup |
| thazautzia[20] | itotze | taslaráv (v.), plus the Basquenominalizingsuffixes-tze-a | act of throttling |
| tejala[27] | jana(ria) | food | |
| tekadi,[23][25]tekari[20][25] | hatz | (naj) | finger |
| ternu[25] | gazte | young person | |
| tiñua[27] | the Basque diminutivetiñu;see also underbarkitxuabove) | J.M. de O. glosses it as "lamb" and "chick" | |
| txai[18][25]⟨ts̃ai⟩[23] | čhaj | young person of either gender. | |
| txaja[25] | aza | (šax) | cabbage |
| txara[25] | belar | čar | grass |
| txaripen,[21]txaribel[18] | ohe | (vodro) | bed |
| txau,[25]xau[29] | seme | čhavó | son. Compare Englishchav. |
| txipa[6] | izen | (aláv) | name |
| txiautu[25] | ijito | a Romani person | |
| txiautzia[20] | ?, plus the Basquenominalizingsuffixes-tze-a | act of ramming in | |
| txohi,[25]txoki[18] | gona | skirt | |
| txohipen,[25]txohipena[20] | čoripé | petty theft | |
| txor,[21]txora[20][25]⟨ts̃ora⟩[23] | lapur | čor | thief |
| txuri,[21][25]txuria[20] | aizto | čhurí | knife |
| xordo,[25]txorda[20][25]⟨ts̃orda⟩[23] | lapurketa | čoripé | theft |
| xukel[25]⟨s̃ukel⟩,[23]txukel,[21]txukela[20][25]⟨ts̃ukela⟩,[23]xukela[27](shȣkéla)[19] | txakur | žukél | dog; J.M. de O. glosses this as "magistrate" and "dog" |
| xukelen-fula⟨s̃ukelen-fula⟩,[23]txukelen fula[20] | txakurren kaka | dogshit | |
| xukel-tino keautzale[25] | female dog (lit. "little dog maker" ) | ||
| zuautzeko,[25]zuautzekoa[21] | estalki | (the) bedcovers | |
| zitzaia,[25]zitzai,[30]txitxai[25]⟨ts̃its̃ai⟩,[23]txitxaia,[20]sitzaia (sitçaia),[19]txitxaia[27] | katu | čičaj[22] | cat |
| zume,[23][25]sume[25] | zupa | zumí | soup |
| zungulu,[23][25]sungulu,[25]sungulua[20] | tabako | (duháno) | tobacco |
| zut,[21]zuta,[25]xut,[21]txuta,[25]txuta⟨ts̃uta⟩[20][23] | esne | thud | milk |
Time
[edit]According to Baudrimot, the Erromintxela have adopted the Basque names of the months. Note that some of the Basque names represent pre-standardisation names of the months, e.g. August isAbuztuainStandard Basquerather thanAgorrila.
| Erromintxela | Basque | Romani[24] | Erromintxela translation |
|---|---|---|---|
| Otarila[19] | Urtarrila | (januáro) | January |
| Otxaila (Otshaïla)[19] | Otsaila | (februáro) | February |
| Martxoa (Martshoa)[19] | Martxoa | (márto) | March |
| Apirilia[19] | Apirila | (aprílo) | April |
| Maitza (Maïtça)[19] | Maiatza | (májo) | May |
| Hekaña (Hékaña)[19] | Ekaina | (júni) | June |
| Uztailla (Uçtaïlla)[19] | Uztaila | (júli) | July |
| Agorilla[19] | Agorrila | (avgústo) | August |
| Burula[19] | Buruila | (septémbro) | September |
| Uria[19] | Urria | (októmbro) | October |
| Azalua (Açalȣa)[19] | Azaroa | (novémbro) | November |
| Abendua (Abendȣa)[19] | Abendua | (decémbro) | December |
Baudrimont claims that subdivisions of the year (apart from the months) are formed with the wordbreja(bréχa) "year":breja kinua"month" andbreja kipia"week".[19]
Numerals
[edit]Numerals (Basque included for contrasting purposes):[1][18][21]
| Erromintxela | Basque | Romani[24] | Erromintxela translation |
|---|---|---|---|
| jek,[25]jeka,[21]eka,[21][25]jek (yek),[19]jet (yet)[19] | bat | jék | one |
| dui,[18][19][21]duil[19] | bi | dúj | two |
| trin,[18][21]trin,[19]tril[19] | hiru | trín | three |
| higa[25] | higa (variant form) | (trín) | three |
| estard[19] | lau | štar | four |
| pantxe,[21]pains,[19]olepanxi (olepanchi)[19] | bost | panž | five |
Adjectives and adverbs
[edit]Adjectives and adverbs are also mostly derived from Romani forms:[1][18][21]
| Erromintxela | Basque | Romani[24] | Erromintxela translation |
|---|---|---|---|
| baro,[18]baru[20][21] | handi | baró | large, big |
| bokali[21] | gose | bokh | hungry |
| buter[21] | asko, ainitz | but | much, a lot |
| dibilo[21] | dilino | crazy | |
| dibilotua[18] | erotua | < dilino (adj.) | gone crazy |
| gabe[18] | gabe | (Basque root) | without |
| eta[18] | eta | (Basque root) | and |
| fukar[30] | ederra | šukar | beautiful |
| geroz[18] | geroz | (Basque root) | once |
| hautsi[18] | hautsi | (Basque root) | broken |
| kalu[21] | beltz | kaló | black. Compare "Caló"andKali,the dark blue goddess. |
| kaxkani[25] | zikoitz | stingy | |
| kilalo[20] | hotz | šilaló | cold |
| latxo,[25]latxu[21] | on | lačhó | good |
| londo[18] | samur | soft | |
| nazaro,[20][21][23][25]lazaro[25] | eri | nasvaló | sick |
| palian[6] | ondoan | nearby | |
| parno[18] | garbi | parnó (white) | clean |
| telian[21] | behean | téla | under |
| tiñu,[21][23]tiñua[20] | txiki | cignó | small |
| upre[18][21] | gain(ean), gora | opré | on top, up |
Pronouns and demonstratives
[edit]Pronouns are derived from both languages:[18][21]
| Erromintxela | Basque | Romani[24] | Erromintxela translation |
|---|---|---|---|
| aimenge[21] | ni | mánge"me", possiblyaménge"us" (dativeforms) | I |
| ene[18] | ene | (Basque root) | my (affectionate) |
| harekin[18] | harekin | (Basque root) | with it (distal) |
| hari[18] | hari | (Basque root) | to you (familiar) |
| hartan[18] | hartan | (Basque root) | in it (distal) |
| heure[18] | heure | (Basque root) | your (familiar emphatic) |
| hi[18] | hi | (Basque root) | you (familiar) |
| hire[18] | hire | (Basque root) | your (familiar) |
| hiretzat[18] | hiretzat | (Basque root) | for you (familiar) |
| mindroa[18] | nirea | miró | my |
| neure[18] | neure | (Basque root) | my (emphatic) |
| ni[18] | ni | (Basque root) | I (intransitive) |
Baudrimont's material
[edit]Much of Baudrimont's wordlist is easily related to other Erromintxela sources. However, some of the material collected by Baudrimont deserves a more detailed overview due to its peculiarities. Most of these relate to the verbs and verb forms he collected but some include nouns and other items.
Nouns
[edit]His material contains a relatively high number of Basque-derived items.
| Erromintxela[19] | Basque | Romani[24] | Erromintxela translation |
|---|---|---|---|
| aitza (aitça) | aritz | oak | |
| aizia (aicia) | haize | (diha) | air |
| egala | hegal | (phak) | wing |
| itxasoa (itshasoa) | itsaso | (derjáv) | sea |
| keia (kéïa) | ke | (thuv) | smoke |
| muxkera (mȣshkera) | musker | (gusturica) | lizard |
| orratza (orratça) | orratz | (suv) | needle |
| sudura (sȣdȣra) | sudur | (nakh) | nose |
| ulia (ȣlia) | euli | (mačhin) | fly (insect) |
| xuria (shȣria) | (t)xori | (čiriklí) | bird |
Certain items are peculiar. Baudrimont listsmintxaas "tooth". The Kalderash term isdand(daníin Caló) but the term given is immediately more reminiscent of Northern Basquemintzo"speech" ormintza"skin" (withexpressive palatalization). This, and other similar items, raise the question of whether Baudrimont was simply pointing at items to elicit forms.
The forms he attempted to elicit are questionable in some cases as well. For example, he attempted to agricultural terms such asplough,harrowandaftermathfrom his (female) informants and records the suspiciously similarsasta"plough" andxatxa(shatsha) "harrow".
Verb system and pronouns
[edit]The verb systems and pronouns recorded by Baudrimont is peculiar in several ways. Apart from his problem of eliciting the citation form of verbs as opposed to participles, he lists pronouns and possessive pronouns that appear to contain Romani roots and an unexpected auxiliary.
The verbajinfor "to have" attested elsewhere although Basque derived forms appear more common overall. Kalderash Romani employs the 3rd person of "to be" and a dative pronoun to express ownership:
| Erromintxela[19] | Basque(allocutive forms) | Romani[24] | Erromintxela translation |
|---|---|---|---|
| mek ajin (mec aχin) tuk ajin (tȣc aχin) ojuak ajin (oχuac aχin) buter ajin (bȣter aχin) tuk ajin (tȣc aχin) but ajin (bȣt aχin) |
(nik) di(n)at (hik) duk1/dun (hark) dik/din (guk) di(n)agu (zuek) duzue (haiek) ditek/diten |
si ma si tu si les/la si amé si tumé si len |
I have you have he/she has we have you have they have |
| mek najin (mec naχin) tuk najin (tȣc naχin) ojuak najin (oχuac naχin) buter najin (bȣter naχin) tuk najin (tȣc naχin) but najin (bȣt naχin) |
(nik) ez di(n)at (hik) ez duk/dun (hark) ez dik/din (guk) ez di(n)agu (zuek) ez duzue (haiek) ez ditek/diten |
naj/nané ma naj/nané tu naj/nané les/la naj/nané amé naj/nané tumé naj/nané len |
I don't have you don't have he/she doesn't have we don't have you don't have they don't have |
| mek naxano (mec nashano) tuk naxano (tȣc nashano) ojuak naxano (oχuac nashano) buter naxano (bȣter nashano) tuk naxano (tȣc nashano) but naxano (bȣt nashano) |
(nik) izanen di(n)at (hik) izanen duk/dun (hark) izanen dik/din (guk) izanen di(n)agu (zuek) izanen duzue (haiek) izanen ditek/diten |
ka si ma ka si tu ka si les/la ka si amé ka si tumé ka si len |
I will have you will have he/she will have we will have you will have they will have |
1Note that forms likeduk(3rd pers-have-2nd per (male)) are the verbal part whereas Erromintxelatukis a pronoun.
The negative particlenais fairly clear in the forms above.Buter,as Baudrimont notes, is the word for "much, many" and may not be a true pronoun. Kalderash uses theaccusativepronouns to express possession but the forms above are more reminiscent of wrongly parsed Kalderash dative formsmangé, tuké, léske, lékeetc. and perhaps a different case of "to be" (the full Kalderash paradigm beingsim, san, si, si, sam, san/sen, si).
On the whole, it raises questions about the level of communication between Baudrimont and his informants and the quality of (some of the) material elicited.
Connected examples
[edit]Examples withinterlinearversions (lexical items of Romani origin marked in bold):
nire
my
kera
house
pali-an
proximity-LOC
hemen-dik
here-ABL
obeto-ao
better-COMP
"My house is next to yours, you can see it better from here."[7]
Bibliography
[edit]- Baudrimont, A. (1862)Vocabulaire de la langue des Bohémiens habitant les Pays Basque FrançaisAcademie Impérial des Sciences,Bordeaux
- Berraondo, R. (1921)La euskera de los gitanosinEuskalerriaren Alde - Revista de Cultura Vasca
- Macritchie, D. (1886)Accounts Of The Gypsies Of India New Society Publications,New Delhi;2007 ReprintISBN978-1-4067-5005-8
- Michel, F. (1857)Le Pays BasqueParis
Notes
[edit]- ^abcdefghijArgüello, XabierIjito euskaldunen arrastoanEl País(2008)
- ^EthnologueLanguages of SpainRetrieved 3 July 2009.
- ^abcMatras, Y.A Linguistic IntroductionCambridge University Press(2002)ISBN0-521-63165-3
- ^Langues d'Europe et de la Méditerranée (LEM)La langue rromani en EuropeRetrieved 3 July 2009.
- ^Lougarot, NicoleBohémiensGatuzain Argitaletxea: 2009ISBN2-913842-50-X
- ^abcdefghijklBrea, UnaiHiretzat goli kherautzen dinat, erromeetako gazi mindroaArgia,San Sebastián(03-2008)
- ^abcdefghijklAgirrezabal, LoreErromintxela, euskal ijitoen hizkeraArgia,San Sebastián(09-2003)
- ^abcdMacritchie, D. (1886)Accounts Of The Gypsies Of IndiaNew Society Publications,New Delhi;2007 ReprintISBN978-1-4067-5005-8
- ^Wood, M. (1973)In the Life of a Romany GypsyRoutledgeISBN978-0-7100-7595-6
- ^Council of Europe"Roma and Travellers Glossary"Retrieved 9 August 2009.
- ^Hancock, I. (2001)A Glossary of Romani Terms, p. 182in Weyrauch, W.Gypsy Law: Romani Legal Traditions and CultureUniversity of California PressISBN978-0-520-22186-4
- ^Mérimée, P. (1930)Lettres a Francisque Michel (1848-1870) & Journal de Prosper Mérimée (1860-1868)Paris, Librarie Ancienne Honoré Champion (pages 118-119)
- ^abcAuñamendi Entziklopedia"Diccionario Auñamendi - Gitano"Retrieved 29 July 2009.
- ^abVizarraga, ÓscarErromintxela: notas para una investigación sociolingüísticain I Tchatchipen, Vol 33, Instituto Romanó, Barcelona (2001)
- ^abPlan Vasco para la promoción integral y participación social del pueblo gitanoBasque Government(2005)
- ^Urkizu, P. & Arkotxa, A. (1997)Jon Mirande Orhoituz - 1972-1997 - AntologiaSan SebastiánISBN978-84-7907-227-8
- ^Cazenave, J.Koldo Izagirre Urreagain theAuñamendi Entziklopedia[1]Retrieved 19 February 2010.
- ^abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzaaabacadaeafagahaiajakalamanaoapaqarasatauavawaxayazbabbbcbdbebfbgMirande, JonPoemak 1950-1966Erein,San Sebastián(1984)
- ^abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzaaabacadaeafagahaiajakalamanaoBaudrimont, A. (1862)Vocabulaire de la langue des Bohémiens habitant les pays basques françaisAcademie Impériale des Sciences,Bordeaux
- ^abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzaaabacadaeafagahaiajakalamanaoapaqarasatauavawaxayazbabbbcbdbebfbgbhbibjbkblbmbnbobpbqbrbsbtbubvbwbxbybzcacbcccdDaranatz, Jean-BaptisteLes Bohémiens du Pays BasqueEskualdun Ona #38 (September 1906)
- ^abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzaaabacadaeafagahaiajakalamanaoapaqarasatauavawaxayazbabbbcbdbebfbgbhbibjbkblbmFederico Krutwig SagredoLos gitanos vascosin Revista Internacional de Estudios Vascos, Volume 31 (1986)
- ^abAdiego, I.Un vocabulario español-gitano del Marqués de Sentmenat (1697-1762)EdicionesUniversitat de Barcelona2002ISBN84-8338-333-0
- ^abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzaaabacadaeafagahaiajakalamanaoapaqarasatauavawaxayAzkue, Resurrección María de (1905)Diccionario Vasco Español Francesrepr.Bilbao1984
- ^abcdefghHeinschink, Mozes & Krasa, DanielRomani Wort für WortKauderwelsch 2004
- ^abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzaaabacadaeafagahaiajakalamanaoapaqarasatauavawaxayazbabbbcbdbebfbgbhbibjbkblbmbnbobpbqbrbsbtbubvbwbxbybzcacbcccdcecfcgchcicjckclcmcncocpcqcrcsctcucvcwcxcyczdadbdcdddedfdgdhdidjdkdldmdndodpdqdrdsdtdudvdwdxdydzeaebecedeeefegeheiejekelLhande, PierreDictionnaire Basque-Français et Français-BasqueParis1926
- ^Compare Sanskritkamaas inKama Sutra.
- ^abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzaaJ. M. de O.El euskera de los gitanos.Euskal-Esnalea (1921)
- ^Laffitte, PierreGrammaire Basque Pour TousHaize Garbia,Hendaye1981
- ^abSaizar, Joxemi & Asurmendi, MikelArgota: Hitz-jario ezezagun horiArgia Nr 1704,San Sebastián(1999)
- ^abcdIzagirre, Koldo.Agirre Zaharraren Kartzelaldi Berriak.Elkar (1999)ISBN84-8331-439-8
- ^Mitxelena, LuisDiccionario General Vasco - Orotariko Euskal Hiztegia VI Dag-ErdEuskaltzaindia,Bilbao(1992)
- ^Mitxelena, LuisDiccionario General Vasco - Orotariko Euskal Hiztegia VII Ere-FaEuskaltzaindia,Bilbao(1992)
- ^Mitxelena, LuisDiccionario General Vasco - Orotariko Euskal Hiztegia VIII Fe-GubEuskaltzaindia,Bilbao(1995)
- ^abMitxelena, LuisDiccionario General Vasco - Orotariko Euskal Hiztegia X Jad-KopEuskaltzaindia,Bilbao(1997)
External links
[edit]- Kalé Dor Kayiko
- Full version of the Erromintxela poem with Basque translation
- Gitanoin the Spanish-languageAuñamendia Encyclopedia.