Eshnunna
![]() | |
Alternative name | Tell Asmar |
---|---|
Location | Iraq |
Coordinates | 33°29′3″N44°43′42″E/ 33.48417°N 44.72833°E |
Type | settlement |
History | |
Founded | Late 4th Millennium BC |
Periods | Bronze Age |
Cultures | Early Dynastic, Akkadian, Ur III, Isin-Larsa, Old Babylonian |
Site notes | |
Excavation dates | 1930 to 1936, late 1990s |
Archaeologists | Henri Frankfort, Seton Lloyd, Thorkild Jacobsen |
Condition | Ruined |
Ownership | Public |
Public access | Yes |
Eshnunna(modernTell AsmarinDiyala Governorate,Iraq) was an ancientSumerian(and laterAkkadian) city and city-state in centralMesopotamia12.6 miles northwest ofTell Agraband 15 miles northwest ofTell Ishchali.Although situated in theDiyala Valleynorthwest ofSumerproper, the city nonetheless belonged securely within the Sumerian cultural milieu. It is sometimes, in archaeological papers, called Ashnunnak or Tuplias.
The tutelary deity of the city wasTishpak(Tišpak) though other gods, includingSin,Adad,andInannaofKititumwere also worshiped there. The personal goddesses of the rulers wereBelet-Šuḫnir and Belet-Terraban.
History
[edit]Early Bronze
[edit]Inhabited since theJemdet Nasr period,around 3000 BC, Eshnunna was a major city during theEarly Dynastic periodof Mesopotamia. It is known, from cuneiform records and excavations, that the city was occupied in the Akkadian period though its extent was noticeably less than it reached in Ur III times.[1]Areas of the Northern Palace date to this period and show some of the earliest examples of widespread sewage disposal engineering including toilets in private homes.[2]
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Third_Mari.png/315px-Third_Mari.png)
The first known rulers of the city were a series of vassal governors under theThird dynasty of Ur.Eshnunna may have had special relationships to the royal family. For example,Shulgi'swife Shulgi-Simtum showed devotion to two goddesses closely connected with the governor's dynasty at Eshnunna, and Shu-Sin's uncle Babati temporarily lived in Eshnunna.[3]
Ituria, the governor of Eshnunna, erected a temple toShu-Sinin a new lower town. Soon after Shu-Sin's death, Ituria was followed by his son Shu-iliya, who in 2026 BCE got rid of the Ur III calendar and replaced it with a local one.[3][4][5]He also stopped calling himself the ensi (governor) of Eshnunna, instead referring to himself as lugal (king) and "beloved ofTishpak".[3][6]His personal seal shows him facing the god Tishpak, who is holding a rod and ring in one hand and an axe in the other while standing on two subdued enemies.[6]Rulers of Eshnunna after Shu-iliya would call themselves the steward of Eshnunna on behalf of Tishpak, and Tishpak even took on traditional titles usually attested by kings.[7]Bilalamaformed a diplomatic marriage withElam,giving his daughter Me-Kubi to Tan-Ruhuratir.[6]
Middle Bronze
[edit]After the fall of the Ur III empire there was a period of chaos in Akkad with numerous city-states vying for power. For a time Eshnunna was under the control ofSubartu.Ishbi-Erra(in his 9th year, circa 2010 BC) of the southern Mesopotamia city ofIsindefeated them and installed Nurahum as the new king of Eshnunna.[3]Ipiq-Adad II's reign marked the rise of Eshnunna to a world power. He revived the title of king and deified himself by writing his name with a divine determinative.[8]
About the time of the middle 19th century BC Babylon, underSumu-la-El,and Eshnunna, under Ipiq-adad II, rose to fill the void. The boundary of control between the two city-states was fluid running somewhere aboutSippar-Amnanum(now Tell ed-Der).Apil-Sinstrengthened territorial acquisitions and extended Babylon's zone of control to the banks of the Tigris, howeverNaram-Sinof Eshnunna reversed some of these territorial gains.[9][10]Naram-Sin was also the one that forcedShamshi-Adad Iinto exile.[11]
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Mesopotamia_male_worshiper_2750-2600_B.C.jpg/170px-Mesopotamia_male_worshiper_2750-2600_B.C.jpg)
Dadusha, king of Eshnunna, launched an offensive againstShamshi-Adad I.However, Shamshi-Adad launched a counter-offensive and the resulting military stand off was concluded with a peace treaty in 1782 BCE.[12][10]Dadusha then collaborated with Shamshi-Adad in a military campaign against Qabra[12][8]
After the death of Shamshi-Adad, his kingdom disintegrated and the conquered kingdoms regained independence.Zimri-Lim,with the help of the king ofAleppoYarim-Lim, deposedYasmah-Adduand took the throne of Mari.Ibal-pi-el IItried to impose an alliance with Zimri-Lim of Mari with Eshnunna in the dominant position. However, relations soon broke down and Zimri-Lim was soon openly collaborating withHammurabi.[13]
Ibal-pi-El also captured Rapiqum and proceeded along the Suhum,[10]and also launched an offensive towards the north, occupyingAssur,Ekallatumand Qattara before proceeding to captureShubat-Enlil.Ishme-Dagan Iabandoned Ekallatum and took refuge inBabylon.[11]
By then the geopolitical situation had grown very complicated, as shown by a record found at Mari in Zimri-Lim's sixth year (Zimri-Lim's Mari is likely not mentioned because it is taken for granted):
"No king is truly powerful just on his own: ten to fifteen kings follow Hammurabi of Babylon, as many follow Rim-Sin of Larsa, as many follow Ibal-pi-El of Eshnunna, and as many follow Amut-pi-El of Qatna; but twenty kings follow Yarim-Lim of Yamhad"[14]
However, less than eight years later, Eshnunna would lose their status as a great power.[15]TheElamiterulerSiwe-Palar-Khuppaklaunched an offensive against Eshnunna, which was supported by Zimri-Lim and Hammurabi.[10][16]However, the sukkalmah had further ambitions and conquered multiple other cities and even pitted Babylon and Larsa against each other.[17]Eventually Elam's ambitions would be put to an end by a coalition led by Hammurabi. Eshnunna was looted by the retreating Elamite troops, and the military of Eshnunna installedSilli-Sin,a commoner who used to be a section leader as king despite the presence of a pro-Babylonian faction (ARM 26 377).[18]
Silli-Sin negotiated a treaty with Hammurabi and married one of his daughters to the king of Babylon, then diplomatic relationships with Eshnunna and Babylon worsened. Ishme-Dagan, now back on the throne in Ekallatum, received help from Silli-Sin after Hammurabi denied his request, although Ishme-Dagan would later go back to seek refuge in Babylon again.[11][10]Zimri-Lim, now wary of Hammurabi, supported Silli-Sin in his war against Hammurabi.[10]
In 1762 BC, in Year 31 ofHammurabiof Babylon, the Babylonians occupied the city of Eshnunna. He returned the titular deity of Assur which had been removed when Eshnunna captured the city of Assur.[19]
In his 38th year name, Hammurabi would claim to have destroyed Eshnunna with a flood.[20]
Late Bronze
[edit]In the 12th century BC the Elamite rulerShutruk-Nakhunteconquered Eshnunna and carried back a number of statues, ranging from the Akkadian period to the Old Babylonian period, to Susa.[21][22]
Because of its promise of control over lucrative trade routes, Eshnunna could function somewhat as a gateway between Mesopotamian andElamiteculture. The trade routes gave it access to many exotic, sought-after goods such as horses from the north, copper, tin, and other metals andprecious stones.In a grave in Eshnunna, a pendant made ofcopalfromZanzibarwas found.[23]A small number of seals and beads from theIndus Valley civilizationwere also found.[24]
Archaeology
[edit]![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Old-Babylonian_plaque_of_a_nude_female%2C_from_Tell_Asmar%2C_Iraq.jpg/220px-Old-Babylonian_plaque_of_a_nude_female%2C_from_Tell_Asmar%2C_Iraq.jpg)
The remains of the ancient city are now preserved in thetell,or archaeological settlement mound, of Tell Asmar, some 50 miles northeast ofBaghdadand 15 km in a straight line east ofBaqubah.It was first located byHenri Pognonin 1892 but he neglected to report the location before he died in 1921.[25]It was refound, after antiquities from the site began to appear in dealers shops in Baghdad, and excavated in six seasons between 1930 and 1936 by anOriental Instituteof theUniversity of Chicagoteam led byHenri FrankfortwithThorkild Jacobsen,Pinhas Delougaz, Gordon Loud, andSeton Lloyd.[26][27][28][29][30][31]The expedition's field secretary wasMary Chubb.[32]
The primary focuses of the Chicago excavations were the palace and the attached temple (28 meters by 28 meters with 3 meter wide walls) of Su-Sin (termed by the excavators The Palace of the Rulers and The Gimilsin Temple respectively). The palace was built during the time of Ur III ruler Shugi and the Temple by governor Ituria to the deified Ur III ruler Su-Sin during his reign. The palace was partially destroyed during the reign of Bilalama but was eventually fully restored. The remaining excavation efforts were directed to the Abu Temple whose beginnings went back to the Early Dynastic I period and which had undergone a series of major changes over the centuries. A large Southern Building was discovered, believed to be from the time of Ipiq-Adad II, of which only the foundations remained. A number of private houses and a palace from the Akkadian period were also excavated. Much effort was also put into the search for E-sikil, temple of Tishpak, without success. In records written in Sumerian the temple is dedicated to Ninazu while those in Akkadian refer to Tishpak.[5][1]
Despite the length of time since the excavations at Tell Asmar, the work of examining and publishing the remaining finds from that dig continues to this day. [33] These finds include, terracotta figurines, toys, necklaces, cylinder seals, and roughly 200 clay sealings and around 1,750cuneiformtablets (about 1000 of which came from the palace). Because only inexperienced laborers were available many of the tablets were damaged or broken during the excavation. A project to clean, bake, and catalog all the tablets did not occur until the 1970s.[34]The tablets from the Akkadian period were published in 1961.[35]While most of the Eshnunna tablets are of an administrative nature 58 are letters which are rare in this time period. The letters are written in an early form of the Old Babylonian dialect of theAkkadian language,termed "archaic Old Babylonian". They are roughly in two groups a) earlier primarily from the reigns of Bilalama, Nur-ahum and Kirikiri and b) later primarily from the reigns of Usur-awassu, Ur-Ninmar, and Ipiq-Adad I.[5][36]
In the late 1990s, Iraqi archaeologists worked at Tell Asmar. The results from that excavation have not yet been published.[37][38]
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Stele_of_Dadusha.jpg/220px-Stele_of_Dadusha.jpg)
Square Temple of Abu
[edit]![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Head_of_a_statue_from_Tell_Asmar%2C_excavated_by_the_Oriental_Institute_in_1933._The_Sulaymaniyah_Museum.jpg/220px-Head_of_a_statue_from_Tell_Asmar%2C_excavated_by_the_Oriental_Institute_in_1933._The_Sulaymaniyah_Museum.jpg)
During the Early Dynastic period, the Abu Temple at Tell Asmar (Eshnunna) went through a number of phases. This included the Early Dynastic Archaic Shrine, Square Temple, and Single-Shrine phases of construction.[39]They, along with sculpture found there, helped form the basis for the three part archaeological separation of the Early Dynastic period into ED I, ED II, and ED III for the ancient Near East.[40]A cache of 12 gypsum temple sculptures, in a geometric style, were found in the Square Temple; these are known as theTell Asmar Hoard.They are some of the best known examples of ancient Near East sculpture. The group, now split up, show gods, priests and donor worshipers at different sizes, but all in the same highly simplified style. All have greatly enlarged inlaid eyes, but the tallest figure, the maincult imagedepicting the local god, has enormous eyes that give it a "fierce power".[41][42][43]
Laws of Eshnunna
[edit]"If a man begat sons, divorced his wife and married another, that man shall be uprooted from the house and property and may go after whom he loves. His wife (on the other hand) she claims the house."[44]
The Laws of Eshnunna consist of two tablets, found atShaduppum(Tell Harmal) and a fragment found at Tell Haddad, the ancientMê-Turan.[45]They were written sometime around the reign of king Dadusha of Eshnunna and appear to not be official copies. When the actual laws were composed is unknown. They are similar to theCode of Hammurabi.[46][47]
List of rulers
[edit]Rulers from the Early Dynastic period and governors under the Akkadian empire are currently unknown. Eshnunna was ruled by vassal governors under Ur III for a time, then was independent under its own rulers for several centuries, and finally controlled by vassal governors under Babylon after the city's capture by Hammurabi. Rulership is unknown afterwards though the city did survive at least until the 12th century BC.[48]The following list should not be considered complete:
Portrait or inscription | Ruler | Approx.date and length of reign (Middle Chronology) | Comments, notes, and references for mentions |
---|---|---|---|
Ur III period(c. 2119– c. 2010 BC) | |||
Urguedinna | Uncertain | ||
Bamu | Uncertain |
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Kallamu | Uncertain |
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Lugal-Kuzu | Uncertain |
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Ituria | fl. c. 2030 BC |
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DShu-iliya | reignedc. 2026 BC | ||
Portrait or inscription | Ruler | Approx.date and length of reign (MC) | Comments, notes, and references for mentions |
Isin-Larsa period(c. 2010– c. 1765 BC) | |||
Nurahum | fl. c. 2010 BC |
| |
Kirikiri | Uncertain (10 years) |
| |
Bilalama | fl. c. 1981– c. 1962 BC (20 years) |
| |
Isharramashu | Uncertain |
| |
Usur-awassu | fl. c. 1940 BC |
| |
Anum-muttabil | Uncertain | ||
Abimadar | Uncertain |
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Azuzum | Uncertain |
| |
Ur-Ninmar | Uncertain |
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Urningizzida | Uncertain |
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Ipiq-Adad I | Uncertain |
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Shiqlanum | Uncertain |
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Abdi-Erah | Uncertain |
| |
Sarrija | fl. c. 1895 BC |
| |
Belakum | Uncertain |
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Warassa | Uncertain |
| |
Ibal-pi-El I | fl. c. 1870 BC (10 years) |
| |
DIpiq-adad II | r. c. 1862 BC (36 years) |
| |
DNaram-Suen | r. c. 1830 BC (9 years) |
| |
Dannum-tahaz | r. c. 1797 BC |
| |
Ibni-Erra | Uncertain |
| |
Iqishi-Tishpak | Uncertain |
| |
Ibbi-Suen | Uncertain |
| |
![]() |
Dadusha | r. c. 1790 BC (10 years) |
|
Ibal-pi-el II | r. c. 1779 – c. 1765 BC (14 years) |
| |
Portrait or inscription | Ruler | Approx.date and length of reign (MC) | Comments, notes, and references for mentions |
Old Babylonian period(c. 1765– c. 1595 BC) | |||
Silli-Sin | r. c. 1764 – c. 1756 BC | ||
Iluni | r. c. 1742 – c. 1740 BC |
| |
Anni | fl. c. 1736 BC |
| |
Ahu-šina | fl. c. 1700 BC |
|
Excavation photographs
[edit]-
Dancers Eshnunna Louvre
-
Plaque of Ishtar from Eshnunna
-
Sumerian Statues from Eshnunna and Khafajah
-
Statuette of male worshiper from Tell Asmar - Early Dynastic period 2600-2350 BC
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Plaque_with_female_and_male_figures, Tell Asmar Single-Shrine Temple III - Early Dynastic period, 2500-2330 BC, alabaster, shell and bitumen
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Plaques with nude females from Tell Asmar, baked clay, (left)_city wall area, Isin-Larsa period, 2000-1800 BC, (right) Ishchali, 2000-1600 BC
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God with ax attacks eagle while Shamash and Worshipper stand behind
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Statue of a Sumerian seated worshiper from Tell Asmar
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Administrative tablet - Akkadian period
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Sumerian Status from Tell Asmar - part of Tell Asmar Hoard
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Pendants from Tell Asmar North Palace - Early Dynastic period - lapis lazuli, silver, and carnelian
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Copper Straw from Tell Asmar North Palace Area - Akkadian period
See also
[edit]![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png)
- List of cities of the ancient Near East
- Khafajah
- Tell Ishchali
- Chronology of the ancient Near East
- Mari
- Andarig
References
[edit]- ^ab[1]Thorkild Jacobsen, "Philological Notes on Eshnunna and Its Inscriptions", Assyriological Studies 6, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1934
- ^George, A. R. "On Babylonian Lavatories and Sewers.", Iraq, vol. 77, 2015, pp. 75–106
- ^abcd[2]Reichel, C. 2008. "The King is Dead, Long Live the King: The Last Days of the Šu-Sîn Cult at Ešnunna and its Aftermath.", In: N. Brisch (ed.), Religion and Power. Divine Kingship in the Ancient World and Beyond, 133-155. OIS 4, Chicago.
- ^Frankfort, Henri (1948).Kingship and the Gods: A Study of Ancient Near Eastern Religion as the Integration of Society and Nature.University of Chicago Press.ISBN978-0-226-26011-2.
- ^abcReichel, Clemens. "Centre and Periphery–The Role of the ‘Palace of the Rulers’ at Tell Asmar in the History of Ešnunna (2,100–1,750 BCE)." Journal of the Canadian Society for Mesopotamian Studies 11 (2018): 29-53
- ^abcPeyronel, Luca (2013-01-01),"Elam and Eshnunna: Historical and Archaeological Interrelations during the Old Babylonian Period",Susa and Elam. Archaeological, Philological, Historical and Geographical Perspectives,Brill, pp. 51–70,doi:10.1163/9789004207417_005,ISBN978-90-04-20741-7,retrieved2023-08-15
- ^"3. The Origins of Assyrian Cultural Tradition",Religion and Ideology in Assyria,DE GRUYTER, pp. 93–144, 2015-09-25,doi:10.1515/9781614514268-005,ISBN9781614514824,retrieved2023-08-15
- ^abSuter, Claudia E. (2018)."The Victory Stele of Dadusha of Eshnunna: A New Look at its Unusual Culminating Scene".Ash-Sharq: Bulletin of the Ancient Near East Archaeological, Historical and Societal Studies.2(2): 1–30 – via Academia.edu.
- ^[3]Van Koppen, Frans, and Denis Lacambre, "Sippar and the Frontier between Ešnunna and Babylon. New Sources for the History of Ešnunna in the Old Babylonian Period", Jaarbericht van het Vooraziatisch-Egyptisch Genootschap Ex Oriente Lux 41, pp. 151-177, 2009
- ^abcdefBeaulieu, Paul-Alain (2017).A History of Babylon: 2200 BC–AD 75.Wiley Blackwell. p. 75.ISBN9781405188999.
- ^abcVeenhof, Klaas R. (2017-04-07)."The Old Assyrian Period (20th–18th Century<scp>bce</scp>)".A Companion to Assyria:57–79.doi:10.1002/9781118325216.ch3.
- ^abJordi Vidal. "‘Kill Them All!’ Some Remarks on the Annihilation of the Ya’ilanum Tribe (1781 B.C.E.)." Journal of the American Oriental Society, vol. 133, no. 4, 2013, pp. 683–89
- ^Guichard, Michaël (2002)."Les Relations Diplomatiques Entre Ibal-Pi-El Ii Et Zimri-Lim: Deux Étapes Vers La Discorde".Revue d'Assyriologie et d'archéologie orientale.96(2): 109–142.doi:10.3917/assy.096.0109.ISSN0373-6032.JSTOR23281220.
- ^Sasson, Jack M. “The King and I a Mari King in Changing Perceptions." Journal of the American Oriental Society, vol. 118, no. 4, 1998, pp. 453–70
- ^"Kingship",From the Mari Archives,Penn State University Press, pp. 21–118, 2015-07-09,doi:10.5325/j.ctv1bxgxg3.5,ISBN9781575063768,retrieved2023-08-15
- ^Beaulieu, Paul-Alain (2004).Hammurabi King of Babylon: a Biography.Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 16–17.ISBN978-1-405-12660-1.
- ^"Warfare",From the Mari Archives,Penn State University Press, pp. 181–214, 2015-07-09,doi:10.5325/j.ctv1bxgxg3.7,ISBN9781575063768,retrieved2023-08-15
- ^"Culture",From the Mari Archives,Penn State University Press, pp. 294–342, 2015-07-09,doi:10.5325/j.ctv1bxgxg3.10,ISBN9781575063768,retrieved2023-08-15
- ^Richardson, Seth. "Axes Against Ešnunna." Orientalia, vol. 74, no. 1, 2005, pp. 42–50
- ^Matthew Rutz, and Piotr Michalowski. "The Flooding of Ešnunna, the Fall of Mari: Hammurabi’s Deeds in Babylonian Literature and History." Journal of Cuneiform Studies, vol. 68, 2016, pp. 15–43
- ^Blocher, Felix. "Thoughts about the Audience-Hall of Naramsin at Tell Asmar-Ešnunna." Over the Mountains and Far Away: Studies in Near Eastern history and archaeology presented to Mirjo Salvini on the occasion of his 80th birthday, pp. 90-97, 2019
- ^Harper, Prudence; Aruz, Joan; Tallon, Frangoise (1993).The Royal City of Susa: Ancient Near Eastern Treasures in the Louvre.New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art.
- ^Carol Meyer et al., "From Zanzibar to Zagros: A Copal Pendant from Eshnunna," Journal of Near Eastern Studies, vol. 50, no. 4, pp. 289–298, 1991
- ^Henri Frankfort, "The Indus civilization and the Near East." Annual Bibliography of Indian Archaeology for 1932, Leyden, VI, pp. 1–12, 1934
- ^J. B. Istas editor, "Le Muséon", Volume 11, Société des lettres et des sciences (Louvain, Belgium), 1892
- ^[4]Henri Frankfort, Thorkild Jacobsen, and Conrad Preusser, "Tell Asmar and Khafaje: The First Season's Work in Eshnunna 1930/31", Oriental Institute Communication 13, 1932
- ^[5]Archived2010-06-18 at theWayback MachineHenri Frankfort, "Tell Asmar, Khafaje and Khorsabad: Second Preliminary Report of the Iraq Expedition", Oriental Institute Communication 16, 1933
- ^[6]Archived2010-06-18 at theWayback MachineHenri Frankfort, "Iraq Excavations of the Oriental Institute 1932/33": Third Preliminary Report of the Iraq Expedition, Oriental Institute Communication 17, 1934
- ^[7]Henri Frankfort with a chapter by Thorkild Jacobsen, "Oriental Institute Discoveries in Iraq, 1933/34: Fourth Preliminary Report of the Iraq Expedition", Oriental Institute Communication 19, 1935
- ^[8]Henri Frankfort, "Progress of the Work of the Oriental Institute in Iraq, 1934/35: Fifth Preliminary Report of the Iraq Expedition'", Oriental Institute Communication 20, 1936
- ^[9]Henri Frankfort, Seton Lloyd, and Thorkild Jacobsen with a chapter by Günter Martiny, "The Gimilsin Temple and the Palace of the Rulers at Tell Asmar", Oriental Institute Publication 43, 1940
- ^Chubb, Mary (7 November 1961). "Rebuilding The Tower Of Babel".The Times.No. 55232.
- ^[10]Lise A. Truex, "3 Households and Institutions: A Late 3rd Millennium BCE Neighborhood at Tell Asmar", Iraq (Ancient Eshnunna), Special Issue: Excavating Neighborhoods: A Cross‐Cultural Exploration, American Anthropological Association, vol. 30, iss. 1, July 2019
- ^[11]"Clay Sealings And Tablets From Tell Asmar", The Oriental Institute News and Notes, no. 159, pp. 1-5, Oriental Institute of Chicago, Fall 1998
- ^[12]I.J. Gelb, "Sargonic Texts from the Diyala Region", Materials for the Assyrian Dictionary, vol. 1, Chicago, 1961
- ^[13]R. M. Whiting Jr., "Old Babylonian Letters from Tell Asmar",Assyriological Studies22, Oriental Institute, 1987
- ^"Rescuing Iraqi Archeological Reports".Archived fromthe originalon 2015-10-09.
- ^Rumaidhy, S., et al. "Iraqi Excavations in the Diyala Region: Tell Asmar (Eshnunna) and Tell Muqtadiya." (forthcoming)
- ^[14]Evans, Jean M. "A Reconsideration of the So-Called Single-Shrine Temple at Tell Asmar." in From Sherds to Landscapes: Studies on the Ancient Near East in Honor of McGuire Gibson 71 (2021): 91-105
- ^"The Square Temple at Tell Asmar and the Construction of Early Dynastic Mesopotamia ca. 2900-2350 B.C.E",Jean M Evans,American Journal of Archaeology,Boston, Oct 2007, Vol. 111, Iss. 4; pg. 599
- ^Frankfort, Henri,"The Art and Architecture of the Ancient Orient", Pelican History of Art, 4th ed 1970, pp. 46-49, Penguin (now Yale History of Art),ISBN0140561072;the group are now divided between theMetropolitan Museum,New York,Oriental Institute,Chicago, and theNational Museum of Iraq(with the god).
- ^[15]Henri Frankfort, "Sculpture of the Third Millennium B.C. from Tell Asmar and Khafajah,Oriental Institute Publication 44, 1939 "
- ^[16]Henri Frankfort, "More Sculpture from the Diyala Region", Oriental Institute Publications 60, Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1943
- ^Falkowitz, Robert S. "Paragraph 59 of the ‘Laws of Ešnunna.’" Revue d’Assyriologie et d’archéologie Orientale, vol. 72, no. 1, 1978, pp. 79–80
- ^[17]Al-Rawi, F. N. H., "Assault and Battery", Sumer, vol. 38, pp. 117–120, 1982
- ^The Laws of Eshnunna, Reuven Yaron, BRILL, 1988,ISBN90-04-08534-3
- ^Rosen, Bruce L. "Some Notes on Eshnunna Laws 20 and 21 and a Legal Reform in the Laws of Hammurapi." Revue d’Assyriologie et d’archéologie Orientale, vol. 71, no. 1, 1977, pp. 35–38
- ^Maria deJong Ellis, "Notes on the Chronology of the Later Eshnunna Dynasty", Journal of Cuneiform Studies, vol. 37, no. 1, pp. 61–85, 1985
- ^Michalowski, Piotr. "Chapter 6. The Royal Letters in Their Historical Setting 2: Great Walls, Amorites, and Military History: The Puzur-Šulgi and Šarrum-bani Correspondence (Letters 13–14 and 19–20)". The Correspondence of the Kings of Ur: An Epistolary History of an Ancient Mesopotamian Kingdom, University Park, USA: Penn State University Press, 2021, pp. 122-16
- ^Allred, Lance. "The Tenure of Provincial Governors: Some Observations". From the 21st Century B.C. to the 21st Century A.D.: Proceedings of the International Conference on Neo-Sumerian Studies Held in Madrid, 22–24 July 2010, edited by Steven J. Garfinkle and Manuel Molina, University Park, USA: Penn State University Press, 2021, pp. 115-124
- ^Martin, Richard.Discoveries in Anatolia, 1930-31.
- ^Bloch, Yigal. "The Conquest Eponyms of Šamšī-Adad I and the Kaneš Eponym List." Journal of Near Eastern Studies, vol. 73, no. 2, 2014, pp. 191–210
- ^Matthew Rutz, and Piotr Michalowski. "The Flooding of Ešnunna, the Fall of Mari: Hammurabi’s Deeds in Babylonian Literature and History." Journal of Cuneiform Studies, vol. 68, 2016, pp. 15–43
Further reading
[edit]- Al-Luhaibi, Ahmed A., "New Cylinder Seals From Tell Asmar (The Ancient City Of Eshnunna) From The Iraqi Eexcavations 2001–2002", Iraq 85, pp. 29-48, 2023
- Chubb, Mary (1999).City In the Sand(2nd ed.). Libri.ISBN1-901965-02-3.
- Civil, M., “A School Exercise from Tell Asmar”. Studia Orientalia Electronica, vol. 46, pp. 39–42, Apr. 2015
- Reichel C. 2003, A Modern Crime and an Ancient Mystery: The Seal of Bilalama, in: Selz G. J. (ed.), Festschrift für Burkhart Kienast zu seinem 70. Geburtstage dargebracht von Freunden, Schülern und Kollegen, Alter Orient und Altes Testament 274, Münster, pp. 355–389.
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