Essaouira
Essaouira
الصويرة | |
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Clockwise from top: Essaouira skyline, city wall bastion, Magana clocktower, Essaouira citadel by Scala harbour, Mosque Ben Youssef | |
Coordinates:31°30′47″N9°46′11″W/ 31.51306°N 9.76972°W | |
Country | Morocco |
Region | Marrakesh-Safi |
Province | Essaouira |
Founded | 1769 |
Founded by | Mohammed III |
Government | |
• Mayor | Tarik Ottmani |
Highest elevation | 50 m (160 ft) |
Lowest elevation | 0 m (0 ft) |
Population (2014)[1] | |
• Total | 77,966 |
Time zone | UTC+1(CET) |
Official name | Medina of Essaouira (formerly Mogador) |
Criteria | Cultural: ii, iv |
Reference | 753 |
Inscription | 2001 (25thSession) |
Area | 30 ha |
Buffer zone | 15 ha |
Essaouira(/ˌɛsəˈwɪərə/ESS-ə-WEER-ə;Arabic:الصويرة,romanized:aṣ-Ṣawīra), known until the 1960s asMogador(Arabic:موغادور,romanized:Mūghādūr,orموݣادور,Mūgādūr), is aportcityin the westernMoroccanregion ofMarrakesh-Safi,on theAtlantic coast.It has 77,966 inhabitants as of 2014.
The foundation of the city of Essaouira was the work of the Moroccan'AlawidsultanMohammed bin Abdallah,who made an original experiment by entrusting it to several architects in 1760, in particularThéodore CornutandAhmed al-Inglizi,who designed the city using French captives from the failedFrench expedition to Larachein 1765, and with the mission of building a city adapted to the needs of foreign merchants. Once built, it continued to grow and experienced a golden age and exceptional development, becoming the country's most important commercial port but also its diplomatic capital between the end of the 18thcentury andthe first half of the19thcentury.
Medina of Essaouirawas designated by theUNESCOaWorld Heritage Sitein 2001.
Name and etymology[edit]
The name of the city is usually spelledEssaouirain Latin script, andالصويرةin Arabic script. Both spellings represent its name inMoroccan Arabic,aṣ-Ṣwiṛa.This is the diminutive[2](with definite article) of the nounṣuṛwhich means "wall (as round a yard, city), rampart".[3]The pronunciation withpharyngealized/ṣ/ and /ṛ/ is a typically Moroccan development. In Classical Arabic, the noun issūr(سور,with plain /s/ and /r/), diminutivesuwayrah(سويرة); this is the only form cited in all dictionaries of Classical Arabic. Hence, the spelling of the name in Arabic script according to the classical pronunciation isالسويرةal-Suwayrah(withsīnnotṣād).
Until the 1960s, Essaouira was generally known by itsPortuguesename,Mogador.This name is probably a corruption ofAmegdul(Arabic:أمقدول,romanized:Ameqdūl), which was mentioned by the 11th-century geographeral-Bakrī.[4]The nameMogadororiginated from thePhoenicianwordMigdol,meaning 'small fortress'.[5]
History[edit]
Archaeologicalresearch shows that Essaouira has been occupied sinceprehistorictimes. The bay at Essaouira is partially sheltered by theisland of Mogador,making it a peaceful harbor protected against strong marine winds.
Antiquity[edit]
Essaouira has long been considered one of the best anchorages of the Moroccan coast. TheCarthaginiannavigatorHannovisited in the 5th century BCE and established the trading post of Arambys.
Around the end of the 1st century BCE or early 1st century CE, theBerberkingJuba IIestablished aTyrian purplefactory, processing themurexand purpura shells found in theintertidalrocks at Essaouira and theIles Purpuraires.Thisdyecolored the purple stripe in thetogasworn by theSenatorsofImperial Rome.
A Roman villa was excavated onMogador island.[6]A Roman vase was found as well as coinage from the 3rd century CE. Most of the artifacts are now visible in theSidi Mohammed ben Abdallah Museumand theRabat Archaeological Museum.
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Phoenicianplate with redslip,7th century BCE, excavated inMogador island,Essaouira.Sidi Mohammed ben Abdallah Museum.
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Beticaamphora found in Essaouira, 1-2nd century CE.
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Aegeanamphora found in Essaouira, 3-4th century CE.
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Romancoins excavated in Essaouira, 3rd century.
Early modern period[edit]
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Sidi_Mogdul_resting_place.jpg/220px-Sidi_Mogdul_resting_place.jpg)
During theMiddle Ages,aMuslimsaint namedSidi Mogdoulwas buried in Essaouira, probably giving its origin to the name "Mogador".
Portuguese establishment (1506–1510)[edit]
In 1506, the king of Portugal, D.Manuel I,ordered a fortress to be built there, namedCastelo Real de Mogador.Altogether, the Portuguese are documented to have seized six Moroccan towns and built six stand-alone fortresses on the Moroccan Atlantic coast, between the river Loukos in the north and theriver of Sousin the south. Four of them only had a short duration:Graciosa(1489),São João da Mamora(1515),Castelo Real of Mogador(1506–10) andAguz(1520–25). Two became permanent urban settlements:Santa Cruz do Cabo de Gué(modernAgadir,founded in 1505–06), andMazagan,founded in 1514–17. Following the 1541Fall of Agadir,the Portuguese had to abandon most of their settlements between 1541 and 1550, although they were able to keepCeuta,Tangierand Mazagan.[7]
Thefortressof Castelo Real of Mogador fell to the local resistance of theRegragafraternity four years after its establishment, in 1510.
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Castelo_Real_Adriaen_Matham_1641.jpg/220px-Castelo_Real_Adriaen_Matham_1641.jpg)
During the 16th century, powers including Spain, England, the Netherlands and France tried in vain to conquer the locality. Essaouira remained a haven for the export of sugar andmolassesand as an anchorage forpirates.[8]
De Razilly expedition (1629)[edit]
France was involved in an early attempt to colonize Mogador in 1629. AsRichelieuandPère Josephwere attempting to establish a colonial policy, AdmiralIsaac de Razillysuggested they occupy Mogador in 1626, which he had reconnoitered in 1619. The objective was to create a base against the Sultan of Morocco and asphyxiate the harbour ofSafi.[citation needed]
He departed forSaléon 20 July 1629 with a fleet composed of the shipsLicorne,Saint-Louis,Griffon,Catherine,Hambourg,Sainte-Anne,Saint-Jean.He bombarded the city of Salé, destroyed three corsair ships, and then sent theGriffonunder Captain Treillebois to Mogador. The men of Razilly saw the fortress of Castelo Real in Mogador and landed 100 men with wood and supplies on Mogador island, with the agreement of Richelieu. After a few days, however, theGriffonreembarked the colonists and departed to rejoin the fleet in Salé.[9]
After these expeditions, France signed a treaty withAbd el-Malek IIin 1631, giving France preferential treatment, known as "capitulations":preferential tariffs, the establishment of a Consulate, and freedom of religion for French subjects.[10]
Foundation of modern Essaouira (1760–1770)[edit]
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Theodore_Cornut_Essaouira_1767.jpg/220px-Theodore_Cornut_Essaouira_1767.jpg)
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Essaouira_harbour_fortifications_1770.jpg/440px-Essaouira_harbour_fortifications_1770.jpg)
The present city of Essaouira was built during the mid-eighteenth century by the Moroccan King.[11]Mohammed IIItried to reorient his kingdom toward the Atlantic for increased exchanges with European powers, choosing Mogador as his key location. One of his objectives was to establish a harbour at the closest possible point to Marrakesh.[12]The other was to cut off trade from Agadir in the south, which had been favouring a political rival of Mohammed III, and the inhabitants of Agadir were forced to relocate to Essaouira.[12]
For 12 years, Mohammed III directed a French engineer,Théodore Cornut,and several other Moroccan and European architects and technicians to build the fortress and city along modern lines.[12][13]Originally called "Souira" ( "the small fortress" ), the name became "Es-Saouira" ( "the beautifully designed" ).
Thédore Cornut designed and built the city itself, particularly the Kasbah area, corresponding to the royal quarters and the buildings for Christian merchants and diplomats. Other parts were built by other architects, including Moroccan architects especially from Fez, Marrakesh, and Rabat. The harbour entrance, with the "Porte de la Marine", was built by an Englishrenegadeby the name ofAhmed el Inglizi( "Ahmed the English" ) or Ahmed El Alj ( "Ahmed the Renegade" ).[13]Mohammed III took numerous steps to encourage the development of Essaouira including closing off the harbour of Agadir to the south in 1767 so that southern trade could be redirected through Essaouira. European communities in the northern harbour ofRabat-Saléwere ordered to move to Essaouira through an ordinance of 21 January 1765.[citation needed]
From the time of its rebuilding by Muhammad III until the end of the nineteenth century, Essaouira served as Morocco's principal port, offering the goods of thecaravan tradeto the world. The route brought goods fromsub-Saharan AfricatoTimbuktu,then through the desert and over theAtlas Mountainsto Marrakesh. The road from Marrakesh to Essaouira is a straight line, explaining the king's choice of this port among the many others along the Moroccan coast.
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City walls.
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The ramparts from theMedina.
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The Genoese-built citadel by the harbour.
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Harbour scala.
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tower and walls
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Dutch cannon made by Adrianus Crans inThe Haguein 1744, installed in Essaouira.
Jewish presence[edit]
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/A_Jewish_house_in_Mogador_by_Darondeau_1807_1841.jpg/220px-A_Jewish_house_in_Mogador_by_Darondeau_1807_1841.jpg)
Mohammed III encouraged Moroccan Jews to settle in the town and handle the trade with Europe. Jews once comprised the majority of the population,[14]and the Jewish quarter (ormellah) contains many oldsynagogues.The town also has a large Jewish cemetery. The city flourished until the caravan trade died, superseded by direct European shipping trade with sub-Saharan Africa.[15]Changes in trade, the founding of Israel, the resulting wars with Arab states, and the independence of Morocco all resulted in Sephardic Jews leaving the country. As of 2017, Essaouira had only three Jewish inhabitants.[16]On 15 January 2020, KingMohammed VIvisitedBayt Dakira,a Jewish heritage house, in Essaouira.[17]
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Old Jewish quarter in Essaouira.
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Jewish cemetery in Essaouira.
European trade and diplomacy[edit]
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Essaouira_in_1809.jpg/880px-Essaouira_in_1809.jpg)
In the 19th century, Essaouira became the first seaport of Morocco, with trade volumes about double those ofRabat.[18]The city functioned as the harbour for Marrakesh, as it was only a few days from the inland city.[19]Diplomatic and trade representations were established by European powers in Essouira.[20]In the 1820s, European diplomats were concentrated in either Tangier or Essaouira.[21]
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Remains of the 19th-century Dutch Consulate in Essaouira.
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Remains of the 19th-century Portuguese Consulate in Essaouira.
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Former Essaouira English Consulate.
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Former French Consulate in Essaouira.
French interventions and Protectorate[edit]
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/The_attack_of_Mogador_by_the_French_fleet_Serkis_Diranian.jpg/220px-The_attack_of_Mogador_by_the_French_fleet_Serkis_Diranian.jpg)
Following Morocco's alliance with Algeria'sAbd-El-Kaderagainst France, Essaouira was bombarded and briefly occupied by theFrench Navyunder thePrince de Joinvilleon 16 August 1844, in theBombardment of Mogador,an important battle of theFirst Franco-Moroccan War.
From 1912 to 1956, Essaouira was part of theFrench protectorate of Morocco.Mogador was used as a base for a military expedition against Dar Anflous, when 8,000 French troops were located outside the city under the orders of GeneralsFranchet d'Espereyand Brulard. The Kasbah of Dar Anflous was taken on 25 January 1913. In 1930, brothers,MichelandJean Vieuchangeused Essaouira as a base before Michel set off into theWestern Saharato try to findSmara.
France had an important administrative, military and economic presence. Essaouira had a Franco-Moroccan school, still visible in Derb Dharb street. Linguistically, many Moroccans of Essaouira speak French fluently today.
Recent years[edit]
In the early 1950s film director and actorOrson Wellesstayed at the Hotel des Iles just south of the town walls during the filming of his 1952 classic version of "Othello"which contains several memorable scenes shot in the labyrinthine streets and alleyways of themedina.Legend has it that during Welles' sojourn in the town he metWinston Churchill,another guest at the Hotel des Iles. A bas-relief of Orson Welles is located in a small square just outside the medina walls close to the sea. Several other film directors have utilized Essaouira as a location due to the photogenic and atmospheric qualities.
The town was used in the filming of "The Game of Thrones" as the home of the Army of the Unsullied. The scene of the rows of crucified slaves were props to cover the Portuguese cannons.
Beginning in the late 1960s, Essaouira became something of ahippiehangout.[22][23]
Geography[edit]
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Iles_Purpuraires_with_Mogador_island_in_the_background_seen_from_the_Essaouira_citadel.jpg/220px-Iles_Purpuraires_with_Mogador_island_in_the_background_seen_from_the_Essaouira_citadel.jpg)
Essaouira is protected by a natural bay partially shielded from wave action by theIles Purpuraires.A broad sandy beach extends from the harbour south of Essaourira, at which point theOued Ksobdischarges to the ocean; south of the discharge lies the archaeological ruin, theBordj El Berod.[24]TheCanary Currentis responsible for the generally southward movement of ocean circulation and has led to enhancement of the localfishery.[25]The village ofDiabatlies about five kilometres (3.1 miles) south of Essaouira, immediately south of theOued Ksob.
Essaouira connects toSafito the north and toAgadirto the south via theN1road and to Marrakech to the east via the R 207 road. There is asmall airportsome 7 to 8 km (4 to 5 mi) away from the town, which schedules several flights a week toParis-Orly,London-Luton and Brussels-South (Charleroi) and daily toCasablanca.
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Essaouira viewed from space.
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The desert road betweenMarrakeshand Essaouira.
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Argantree near Essaouira.
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Essaouira beach.
Climate[edit]
Essaouira's climate issemi-arid(BSk/BSh) with mild temperatures year round. The gap between highs and lows is small and summers are warm while winters are mild. Annual rainfall is usually 300 to 500 millimetres (12 to 20 in). The highest temperature ever recorded in Essaouira was 48.3 °C (118.9 °F) on 8 July 2022.[26]The lowest temperature ever recorded was 1.1 °C (34.0 °F) on 20 January 1988. The lowest maximum temperature ever recorded was 11.8 °C (53.2 °F) on 15 February 2018. The highest minimum temperature ever recorded was 26.7 °C (80.1 °F) on 13 October 2017. The maximum amount of precipitation recorded in one day was 99.1 millimetres (3.90 in) on 8 March 2013.[27]
Climate data for Essaouira (1991-2020, extremes 1966–present, humidity and sun 1961-1990) | |||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
Record high °C (°F) | 28.9 (84.0) |
36.4 (97.5) |
33.8 (92.8) |
35.7 (96.3) |
32.0 (89.6) |
38.0 (100.4) |
48.3 (118.9) |
38.0 (100.4) |
32.0 (89.6) |
38.0 (100.4) |
33.2 (91.8) |
30.0 (86.0) |
48.3 (118.9) |
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) | 18.5 (65.3) |
18.8 (65.8) |
19.5 (67.1) |
19.4 (66.9) |
20.3 (68.5) |
21.4 (70.5) |
21.7 (71.1) |
22.2 (72.0) |
22.4 (72.3) |
22.2 (72.0) |
20.7 (69.3) |
19.7 (67.5) |
20.6 (69.0) |
Daily mean °C (°F) | 14.9 (58.8) |
15.5 (59.9) |
16.6 (61.9) |
16.9 (62.4) |
18.0 (64.4) |
19.3 (66.7) |
19.7 (67.5) |
20.1 (68.2) |
20.2 (68.4) |
19.6 (67.3) |
17.6 (63.7) |
16.0 (60.8) |
17.9 (64.2) |
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) | 11.2 (52.2) |
12.2 (54.0) |
13.6 (56.5) |
14.3 (57.7) |
15.6 (60.1) |
17.1 (62.8) |
17.7 (63.9) |
18.1 (64.6) |
18.0 (64.4) |
17.0 (62.6) |
14.5 (58.1) |
12.4 (54.3) |
15.1 (59.3) |
Record low °C (°F) | 1.1 (34.0) |
5.0 (41.0) |
1.8 (35.2) |
9.0 (48.2) |
6.0 (42.8) |
13.0 (55.4) |
14.2 (57.6) |
13.0 (55.4) |
10.4 (50.7) |
10.0 (50.0) |
3.0 (37.4) |
5.0 (41.0) |
1.1 (34.0) |
Averageprecipitationmm (inches) | 66.4 (2.61) |
45.4 (1.79) |
54.3 (2.14) |
19.0 (0.75) |
14.1 (0.56) |
1.1 (0.04) |
2.0 (0.08) |
1.4 (0.06) |
3.2 (0.13) |
26.8 (1.06) |
68.9 (2.71) |
61.6 (2.43) |
364.2 (14.36) |
Average precipitation days | 5.9 | 5.2 | 5.5 | 3.4 | 2.0 | 0.3 | 0.5 | 0.3 | 0.9 | 3.4 | 6.0 | 6.1 | 39.5 |
Averagerelative humidity(%) | 80 | 81 | 81 | 82 | 82 | 84 | 86 | 86 | 84 | 83 | 80 | 81 | 83 |
Mean monthlysunshine hours | 208.5 | 204.9 | 247.2 | 264.0 | 289.5 | 290.9 | 301.6 | 291.4 | 251.8 | 234.1 | 197.0 | 197.6 | 2,978.5 |
Source 1: NOAA,[28](February record high)[29] | |||||||||||||
Source 2:Deutscher Wetterdienst(extremes and humidity)[30][31][27][32][26] |
Essaouira today[edit]
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Essaouira_harbour_docks.jpg/220px-Essaouira_harbour_docks.jpg)
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Faience_in_Essasouira.jpg/220px-Faience_in_Essasouira.jpg)
TheMedinaof Essaouira (formerly "Mogador") is aUNESCOWorld Heritage listedcity, an example of a late 18th-century fortified town, as transferred toNorth Africaby European colonists.
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Xiphias gladius,Essaouira
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Fishmarket in Essaouira
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Funfair in Essaouira
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Fishermen in Essaouira after a bountiful fishing day
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Clock tower in Essaouira
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Essaouira book market.
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Saidi-Souiri type Essaouira carpet.
Accommodation[edit]
There are only a handful of modern purpose-built hotels within the walls of the old city. Newer international hotels have been built along the sea front, with local planning regulations restricting buildings to 4 storeys in height.[citation needed]There are also many privately ownedriads,also known asdars,that may be rented on a daily or weekly basis.
Activities[edit]
Themedinais home to many small arts and crafts businesses, notablycabinet makingand 'thuya'wood-carving(using roots of theTetraclinistree), both of which have been practised in Essaouira for centuries.
The fishingharbour,suffering from the competition ofAgadirandSafi,remains rather small, although the catches (sardines,conger eels) are surprisingly abundant due to the coastalupwellinggenerated by the powerfultrade windsand theCanaries Current.Essaouira remains one of the major fishing harbours of Morocco.
Essaouira is also renowned for itskitesurfingandwindsurfing,with the powerful trade wind blowing almost constantly onto the protected, almost waveless, bay. Several world-class clubs rent top-notch material on a weekly basis. The township ofSidi Kaoukiis located 25 km south of Essaouira and is becoming one of the best locations in Morocco for surfing, windsurfing and kitesurfing.[33]There are several businesses inSidi Kaoukiwhich offer gear rental.
Essaouira is also a center ofargan oilproduction. It has become a tourist attraction due to the tree-climbing goats who are unique to the region, as argan trees are the only type the goats climb.[34]
Education[edit]
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Franco-Moroccan_school_in_Derb_Dharb_street_Essaouira.jpg/170px-Franco-Moroccan_school_in_Derb_Dharb_street_Essaouira.jpg)
![]() | This sectionneeds expansion.You can help byadding to it.(May 2016) |
There is a French international school in Essaouira,Groupe scolaire Eric-Tabarly.[35]
Culture[edit]
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Gnaoua_%28Gnawa%29_musicians_performing_during_the_2010_Gnaoua_festival_in_the_city_of_Essaouira%2C_Morocco.jpg/220px-Gnaoua_%28Gnawa%29_musicians_performing_during_the_2010_Gnaoua_festival_in_the_city_of_Essaouira%2C_Morocco.jpg)
Since 1998, theGnaoua Festival of World Musicis held in Essaouira, normally in the last week of June. It brings together artists from all over the world. Although focused ongnaoua music,it includes rock, jazz and reggae. Known as the "MoroccanWoodstock"it lasts four days and attracts around 450,000 spectators annually.[36]
Sights[edit]
Jewish quarter "Mellah" of Essaouira's old medina
- Bayt Dakira - "House of Memory" (Jewish museum)
- Chaim Pinto Synagogue
- Jewish cemeteries of Essaouira (old and new)
- Gravesite of Rabbi Haim Pinto
- Medina
- Fortifications:
- Sqala du Port
- Sqala de la Kasbah
- The most picturesque gates:
- Port de la Marine
- Bab Manjana with clocktower
- Tagart beach (with sand dunes)
- Notre-Dame-de-l’Assomption church (catholic, operational)
- Sidi Mogdoul mosque
- Sidi Mogdoul lighthouse
- Ben Youssef mosque[37]
International relations[edit]
Essaouira istwinnedwith:[38][39]
Changshu,China
La Rochelle,France
Notable people[edit]
- Albert Almoznino,hand shadow artist
- André Azoulay,adviser to the king
- David Bensoussan,memoirist[40][41]
- David Hanania Pinto,rabbi
- Edmond Amran El Maleh,writer
- Jacques Amir,politician
- Mahmoud Guinia,Gnawa musician
- Meir Cohen,politician
- Victor Elmaleh,businessman and athlete
See also[edit]
- Haha
- Regraga
- Tensift River
- Souira Guedima
- Gnaoua World Music Festival
- Gnaoua
- André Jodin
- William Willshire
Notes[edit]
- ^"POPULATION LÉGALE DES RÉGIONS, PROVINCES, PRÉFECTURES, MUNICIPALITÉS, ARRONDISSEMENTS ET COMMUNES DU ROYAUME D'APRÈS LES RÉSULTATS DU RGPH 2014"(in Arabic and French).High Commission for Planning, Morocco.8 April 2015.Retrieved29 September2017.
- ^On the formation of diminutive nouns in Moroccan Arabic, see R.S. Harrell,A short reference grammar of Moroccan Arabic(Washington, D.C., 1962), p. 81.
- ^See T. Fox and M. Abu-Talib,A Dictionary of Moroccan Arabic(Washington, D.C., 1966), p. 148.
- ^Mac Guckin de Slane (ed. and transl.),Description de l'Afrique septentrionale par el-Bekri(Alger 1913), Arabic text p. 86مرسى امقدولmarsá Ameqdūl"the port of Ameqdūl", translation p. 175Amegdoul(Amegdul), with footnote: "Le tombeau ou chapelle de Sîdi Megdoul est situé tout auprès de Mogador; ce dernier est une altération deMegdoul".
- ^Centre, UNESCO World Heritage."Medina of Essaouira (formerly Mogador)".UNESCO World Heritage Centre.Retrieved9 March2024.
- ^MarokkoIngeborg Lehmann, Rita Henss p.243
- ^City walls: the urban enceinte in global perspective,James D. Tracy, p.352
- ^Notes toThe History and Description of Africa and of the Notable Things Thereinby Leo Africanus p.338
- ^E.J. Brill's first encyclopaedia of Islam, 1913–1936, Volume 9by Martijn Theodoor Houtsma, p.549
- ^France in the age of Louis XIII and Richelieuby Victor Lucien Tapié p.259
- ^Goldberg, Harvey E. (1996).Sephardi and Middle Eastern Jewries: History and Culture in the Modern Era.Indiana University Press. p.103.ISBN0253210410.
Essaouira.
- ^abcThe Anglo American, Volume 3by Alexander D. Paterson p.521
- ^abOf Essaouira: "He employed European architects to design it, one a Frenchman said to be his prisoner, and the other an Englishman, converted to Islam and known as Ahmed el-Inglizi— otherwise Ahmed the Englishman." inMorocco,Dorothy Hales Gary, Baron Patrick Balfour Kinross, Viking Press, 1971, p.35
- ^"Moroccan schools to teach Jewish history and culture".13 December 2020.
- ^The Sultan's Jew: Morocco and the Sephardi Worldby Daniel J. Schroeter, pp. 17ff
- ^"Morocco's little idyll of Jewish-Muslim coexistence".The Economist.2 November 2017.
- ^"Moroccan king visits restored Bayt Dakira in Essaouira".Middle East Online.16 January 2020.
- ^The Anglo American, Volume 3by Alexander D. Paterson p.520ff
- ^The sultan's Jew: Morocco and the Sephardi worldby Daniel J. Schroete,r p.125
- ^The sultan's Jew: Morocco and the Sephardi worldby Daniel J. Schroeter p.17
- ^The sultan's Jew: Morocco and the Sephardi worldby Daniel J. Schroeter, p.121
- ^Day, Meagan (20 October 2016)."The 1970s Hippie Trail: drugs, danger, and a magical pudding shop in Asia".Timeline.Archived fromthe originalon 22 May 2023.Retrieved14 May2022.
- ^"Jimi Hendrix's Morocco".Washington Post.ISSN0190-8286.Retrieved14 May2022.
- ^C.Michael Hogan,Mogador: promontory fort,The Megalithic Portal, ed. Andy Burnham, 2 November 2007[1]
- ^William Adams Hance,The Geography of Modern Africa,Columbia University Press, 1975ISBN0-231-03869-0
- ^ab"60222: Essaouira - Mogador Intl. Airport (Morocco)".ogimet.OGIMET.8 July 2022.Retrieved10 July2022.
- ^ab"Météo climat stats | Station Essaouira / Données Météorologiques Gratuites".
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Further reading[edit]
- David Bensoussan & Asher Knafo, "Mariage juif à Mogador" Éditions Du Lys, editionsdulys.ca, Montréal, 2004 (ISBN2-922505-15-4)
- David Bensoussan, Le fils de Mogador, editionsdulys.ca,Éditions Du Lys, Montréal, 2002 (ISBN978-2-922505-21-4)
- David Bensoussan,Il était une fois le Maroc: témoignages du passé judéo-marocain,éd. du Lys, editionsdulys.ca, Montréal, 2010 (ISBN2-922505-14-6); Deuxième édition: iuniverse,ISBN978-1-4759-2608-8,620p. ebookISBN978-1-4759-2609-5,Prix Haïm Zafrani de l'Institut universitaire Élie Wiesel, Paris 2012.
- David Bensoussan, La rosace du roi Salomon, Les Éditions Du Lys, editionsdulys.ca, 2011,ISBN978-2-922505-23-8.
- Hamza Ben Driss Ottmani,Une cité sous les alizés, MOGADOR, Des origines à 1939,Éditions La Porte, Rabat, 1997ISBN9981889180
- Jean-Marie Thiébaud,Consuls et vice-consuls de France à Mogador (Maroc),L'Harmattan, 2010Harmattan.fr
- Jean-Marie Thiébaud,Les Inscriptions du cimetière [chrétien] de Mogador (Essaouira, Maroc)– étude épigraphique et généalogique, L'Harmattan, 2010Harmattan.fr
- Doris Byer:Essaouira, endlich,Wien 2004,ISBN978-3-8542-0651-4
- Brigitte Tast, Hans-Juergen Tast:Still the wind cries Jimi. Hendrix in Marokko,Schellerten 2012,ISBN978-3-88842-040-5
- Brigitte Tast, Hans-Jürgen Tast:Orson Welles – Othello – Mogador. Aufenthalte in Essaouira,Kulleraugen Vis.Komm. Nr. 42, Schellerten 2013,ISBN978-3-88842-042-9
External links[edit]
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