Ethical movement
Ethical movement | |
---|---|
![]() Thelogotypeof the Ethical Humanist movement | |
Scripture | None |
Headquarters | New York City |
Founder | Felix Adler |
Origin | 1877 |
Congregations | about 30 |
Number of followers | Less than 10,000 (2014)[1] |
Official website | aeu.org |
Part ofa serieson |
Humanism |
---|
![]() |
Philosophy portal |
TheEthical movement(also theEthical Culture movement,Ethical Humanism,andEthical Culture) is anethical,educational,and religious movement established in 1877 by the academicFelix Adler(1851–1933).[2]In an effort to develophumanistcodes of behavior, the Ethical movement emerged from the moral traditions of the secular societies of Europe and the secular society of the 19th-century United States. In practice, the Ethical movement organized themselves as two types of organization: (i) asecular humanist movementand (ii) a predominantly moral movement with a religious approach.
In the U.S., Ethical movements became organizations for the advancement of education (e.g., theAmerican Humanist Associationand theAmerican Ethical Union), whereas in the U.K., the Ethical movements became theSouth Place Ethical Societyand the British Ethical Union—organizations which consciously transcended the congregational model of organization as theConway Hall Ethical Society,theHumanists UK,and theSunday Assembly.
Internationally, Ethical Culture and secular humanist organizations organized jointly; the American Ethical Union and the British Ethical Union were the founders ofHumanists International,whose original name, the "International Humanist and Ethical Union", reflected the philosophical unity of the Ethical Culture movement. The premise of Ethical Culture is that honoring and living in accordance with a code of ethics is required to live a meaningful life and for making the world a better place for all people.[3][4]
History
[edit]Background
[edit]The Ethical movement was an outgrowth of the general loss of faith among the intellectuals of theVictorian era.A precursor to the doctrines of the Ethical movement can be found in theSouth Place Ethical Society,founded in 1793 as theSouth Place ChapelonFinsbury Square,on the edge of theCity of London.[5]
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/d4/Fabian_society_1886.jpg/220px-Fabian_society_1886.jpg)
In the early nineteenth century, the chapel became known as "a radical gathering-place".[6]At that point, it was aUnitarianchapel; likeQuakers,the Unitarian movement supportedfemale equality.[7]Under the leadership of ReverendWilliam Johnson Fox(who becameministerof the congregation in 1817),[8]it lent its pulpit to activists such asAnna Wheeler,one of the first women to campaign forfeminismat public meetings in England, who spoke in 1829 on the "Rights of Women." In later decades, the chapel moved away from Unitarianism and changed its name first to the South Place Religious Society. It again changed its name to the South Place Ethical Society (a name it held formally, but it was better known as Conway Hall from 1929); its current name isConway Hall Ethical Society.
TheFellowship of the New Lifewas established in 1883 by the Scottish intellectualThomas Davidson.[9]Fellowship members included poetsEdward CarpenterandJohn Davidson,animal rights activistHenry Stephens Salt,[10]sexologistHavelock Ellis,feministEdith Lees(who later married Ellis), novelistOlive Schreiner[11]andEdward R. Pease.
Its objective was "The cultivation of a perfect character in each and all." They wanted to transform society by setting an example of clean simplified living for others to follow. Davidson was a major proponent of a structured philosophy aboutreligion,ethics,andsocial reform.[12]
At a meeting on 16 November 1883, a summary of the society's goals was drawn up by Maurice Adams:
We, recognizing the evils and wrongs that must beset men so long as our social life is based upon selfishness, rivalry, and ignorance, and desiring above all things to supplant it by a life based upon unselfishness, love, and wisdom, unite, for the purpose of realizing the higher life among ourselves, and of inducing and enabling others to do the same. And we now form ourselves into a Society, to be called the Guild [Fellowship] of the New Life, to carry out this purpose.[13]
Although the Fellowship was a short-lived organization, it spawned theFabian Society,which split in 1884 from the Fellowship of the New Life.[14][15]
In the United States
[edit]![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Felix-Adler-Hine.jpeg/220px-Felix-Adler-Hine.jpeg)
In his youth, Felix Adler was being trained to be a rabbi like his father,Samuel Adler,the rabbi of theReform JewishTemple Emanu-Elin New York. As part of his education, he enrolled at theUniversity of Heidelberg,where he was influenced byneo-Kantianphilosophy. He was especially drawn to the Kantian ideas that one could not prove the existence or non-existence of deities or immortality and that morality could be established independently of theology.[16]
During this time he was also exposed to the moral problems caused by theexploitationof women and labor. These experiences laid the intellectual groundwork for the Ethical movement. Upon his return from Germany, in 1873, he shared his ethical vision with his father's congregation in the form of a sermon. Due to the negative reaction he elicited it became his first and last sermon as a rabbi in training.[17]Instead he took up a professorship atCornell Universityand in 1876 gave a follow-up sermon that led to the 1877 founding of theNew York Society for Ethical Culture,which was the first of its kind.[16]By 1886, similar societies had sprouted up in Philadelphia, Chicago and St. Louis.[17]
These societies all adopted the same statement of principles:
- The belief that morality is independent of theology;
- The affirmation that new moral problems have arisen in modern industrial society which have not been adequately dealt with by the world's religions;
- The duty to engage in philanthropy in the advancement of morality;
- The belief that self-reform should go in lock step with social reform;
- The establishment of republican rather than monarchical governance of Ethical societies
- The agreement that educating the young is the most important aim.
In effect, the movement responded to the religious crisis of the time by replacing theology with unadulterated morality. It aimed to "disentangle moral ideas fromreligious doctrines,metaphysicalsystems, and ethical theories, and to make them an independent force in personal life and social relations. "[17]Adler was also particularly critical of the religious emphasis oncreed,believing it to be the source ofsectarianbigotry.He therefore attempted to provide a universal fellowship devoid of ritual and ceremony, for those who would otherwise be divided by creeds. For the same reasons the movement also adopted a neutral position on religious beliefs, advocating neitheratheismnortheism,agnosticismnordeism.[17]
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Ethical_Culture_Society_%26_school_jeh.jpg/220px-Ethical_Culture_Society_%26_school_jeh.jpg)
The Adlerian emphasis on "deed not creed" translated into several public service projects. The year after it was founded, the New York society started a kindergarten, a district nursing service and a tenement-house building company. Later they opened theEthical Culture School,then called the "Workingman's School," a Sunday school and a summer home for children, and other Ethical societies soon followed suit with similar projects. Unlike the philanthropic efforts of the established religious institutions of the time, the Ethical societies did not attempt to proselytize those they helped. In fact, they rarely attempted to convert anyone. New members had to be sponsored by existing members, and women were not allowed to join at all until 1893. They also resisted formalization, though nevertheless slowly adopted certain traditional practices, like Sunday meetings and life cycle ceremonies, yet did so in a modern humanistic context. In 1893, the four existing societies unified under the umbrella organization, theAmerican Ethical Union(AEU).[17]
After some initial success the movement stagnated until afterWorld War II.In 1946 efforts were made to revitalize and societies were created in New Jersey and Washington D.C., along with the inauguration of theEncampment for Citizenship.By 1968 there were thirty societies with a total national membership of over 5,500. However, the resuscitated movement differed from its predecessor in a few ways. The newer groups were being created in suburban locales and often to provide alternativeSunday schoolsfor children, with adult activities as an afterthought.
There was also a greater focus on organization and bureaucracy, along with an inward turn emphasizing the needs of the group members over the more general social issues that had originally concerned Adler. The result was a transformation of American ethical societies into something much more akin to smallChristiancongregations in which theminister's most pressing concern is to tend to his or her flock.[17]
In the 21st century, the movement attempted to revitalize itself through social media and involvement with other Humanist organizations, with mixed success. As of 2014, there were fewer than 10,000 official members of the Ethical movement.[18]
In Britain
[edit]![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Stanton_Coit_001.jpg/220px-Stanton_Coit_001.jpg)
In 1885, the ten-year-old American Ethical Culture movement helped to stimulate similar social activity in Great Britain, when American sociologistJohn Graham Brooksdistributedpamphletsby Chicago ethical society leaderWilliam Salterto a group of British philosophers, includingBernard Bosanquet,John Henry Muirhead,and John Stuart MacKenzie.
One of Felix Adler's colleagues,Stanton Coit,visited them in London to discuss the "aims and principles" of their American counterparts. In 1886 the first British ethical society was founded. Coit took over the leadership of South Place for a few years. Ethical societies flourished in Britain. By 1896 the four London societies formed the Union of Ethical Societies, and between 1905 and 1910 there were over fifty societies in Great Britain, seventeen of which were affiliated with the Union. Part of this rapid growth was due to Coit, who left his role as leader of South Place in 1892 after being denied the power and authority he was vying for.
Because he was firmly entrenched in British ethicism, Coit remained in London and formed the West London Ethical Society, which was almost completely under his control. Coit worked quickly to shape the West London society not only around Ethical Culture but also the trappings of religious practice, renaming the society in 1914 to the Ethical Church; he did this because he subscribed to a personal theory of using "theological terms in a humanistic sense" in order to make the Ethical movement appealing to irreligious people with otherwise strong cultural attachments to religion, such ascultural Christians.[19]Coit transformed his meetings into "services", and their space into something akin to a church. In a series of books Coit also began to argue for the transformation of theAnglican Churchinto an Ethical Church, while holding up the virtue of ethical ritual. He felt that the Anglican Church was in the unique position to harness the natural moral impulse that stemmed from society itself, as long as the Church replacedtheologywith science, abandoned supernatural beliefs, expanded its bible to include a cross-cultural selection of ethical literature and reinterpreted its creeds and liturgy in light of modern ethics andpsychology.His attempt to reform the Anglican church failed, and ten years after his death in 1944, the Ethical Church building was sold to theRoman Catholic Church.[17]
During Stanton Coit's lifetime, the Ethical Church never officially affiliated with the Union of Ethical Societies, nor did South Place. In 1920 the Union of Ethical Societies changed its name to the Ethical Union.[20]Harold Blackham,who had taken over leadership of the London Ethical Church, consciously sought to remove the church-like trappings of the Ethical movement, and advocated a simple creed of humanism that was not akin to a religion. He promoted the merger of the Ethical Union with theRationalist Press Associationand the South Place Ethical Society, and, in 1957, a Humanist Council was set up to explore amalgamation. Although issues over charitable status prevented a full amalgamation, the Ethical Union under Blackham changed its name in 1967 to become theBritish Humanist Association– establishing humanism as the principle organizing force for non-religious morals and secularist advocacy in Britain. The BHA was the legal successor body to the Union of Ethical Societies.[21]
Between 1886 and 1927, seventy-four ethical societies were started in Great Britain, although this rapid growth did not last long. The numbers declined steadily throughout the 1920s and early 30s, until there were only ten societies left in 1934. By 1954, there were only four. The situation became such that, in 1971, sociologist Colin Campbell even suggested that one could say, "that when the South Place Ethical Society discussed changing its name to the South Place Humanist society in 1969, the English Ethical movement ceased to exist."[17]
The organizations spawned by the 19th century Ethical movement would later live on as the British humanist movement. The South Place Ethical Society eventually changed its name Conway Hall Ethical Society, afterMoncure D. Conway,and is typically known as simply "Conway Hall". In 2017, the British Humanist Association again changed its name, becomingHumanists UK.Both organizations are part ofHumanists International,which had been founded by Harold Blackham in 1952 as the International Humanist and Ethical Union.
Ethical perspective
[edit]![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/William_H_Childs_house.jpg/220px-William_H_Childs_house.jpg)
While Ethical Culturists generally share common beliefs about what constitutes ethical behavior and thegood,individuals are encouraged to develop their own personal understanding of these ideas. This does not mean that Ethical Culturists condonemoral relativism,which would relegate ethics to mere preferences or social conventions. Ethical principles are viewed as being related to deep truths about the way the world works, and hence not arbitrary. However, it is recognized that complexities render the understanding of ethical nuances subject to continueddialogue,exploration, and learning.
While the founder of Ethical Culture, Felix Adler, was atranscendentalist,Ethical Culturists may have a variety of understandings as to the theoretical origins of ethics. Key to the founding of Ethical Culture was the observation that too often disputes over religious or philosophicaldoctrineshave distracted people from actually living ethically and doing good. Consequently,"Deed beforecreed"has long been amottoof the movement.[4][22]
Organizational model
[edit]![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Back_pews_%26_stained_glass_NYSEC_Concert_hall_jeh.jpg/220px-Back_pews_%26_stained_glass_NYSEC_Concert_hall_jeh.jpg)
Functionally, the Ethical Societies are organized in a similar manner tochurchesorsynagoguesand are headed by "leaders" asclergy.Their founders had suspected this would be a successful model for spreading secular morality. As a result, an Ethical Society typically would have Sunday morning meetings, offer moral instruction for children and teens, and do charitable work and social action. They may offer a variety of educational and other programs. They conductweddings,commitment ceremonies,baby namings, andmemorial services.
Individual Ethical Society members may or may not believe in adeityor regard Ethical Culture as their religion. Felix Adler said "Ethical Culture is religious to those who are religiously minded, and merely ethical to those who are not so minded." The movement does consider itself a religion in the sense that
Religion is that set of beliefs and/or institutions, behaviors and emotions which bind human beings to something beyond their individual selves and foster in its adherents a sense of humility and gratitude that, in turn, sets the tone of one’s world-view and requires certain behavioral dispositions relative to that which transcends personal interests.[23]
The Ethical Culture 2003 ethical identity statement states:
It is a chief belief of Ethical religion that if we relate to others in a way that brings out their best, we will at the same time elicit the best in ourselves. By the "best" in each person, we refer to his or her unique talents and abilities that affirm and nurture life. We use the term "spirit" to refer to a person’s unique personality and to the love, hope, and empathy that exists in human beings. When we act to elicit the best in others, we encourage the growing edge of their ethical development, their perhaps as-yet untapped but inexhaustible worth.
Since around 1950, the Ethical Culture movement has been increasingly identified as part of the modernHumanistmovement. Specifically, in 1952, theAmerican Ethical Union,the national umbrella organization for Ethical Culture societies in theUnited States,became one of the founding member organizations of theInternational Humanist and Ethical Union.
In the United Kingdom, the ethical societies consciously rejected the "church model" in the mid-20th century, while still providing services like weddings, funerals, and namings on a secular basis.
Key ideas
[edit]While Ethical Culture does not regard its founder's views as necessarily the final word,Adleridentified focal ideas that remain important within Ethical Culture. These ideas include:
- Human Worth and Uniqueness– All people are taken to have inherent worth, not dependent on the value of what they do. They are deserving of respect and dignity, and their unique gifts are to be encouraged and celebrated.[3]
- Eliciting the Best– "Always act so as to Elicit the best in others, and thereby yourself" is as close as Ethical Culture comes to having aGolden Rule.[3]
- Inter-relatedness– Adler used the termThe Ethical Manifoldto refer to his conception of the universe as made up of myriad unique and indispensable moral agents (individual human beings), each of whom has an inestimable influence on all the others. In other words, we are all interrelated, with each person playing a role in the whole and the whole affecting each person. Our Inter-relatedness is at the heart of ethics.
Many Ethical Societies prominently display a sign that says "The Place Where People Meet to Seek the Highest is Holy Ground".[24]
Locations
[edit]- New York City metropolitan area
The largest concentration of Ethical Societies is in theNew Yorkmetropolitan area, including Societies in New York,Manhattan,the Bronx,[25]Brooklyn Society for Ethical Culture,[26]Brooklyn,Queens, Westchester and Nassau County; andNew Jersey,such asBergenand Essex Counties, New Jersey.[27][28]
- U.S. cities
Ethical Societies exist in several U.S. cities and counties, includingAustin, Texas;Baltimore;Chapel Hill;Asheville, North Carolina;Chicago;San Jose, California;Philadelphia;St. Louis;St. Peters, Missouri;Washington, D.C.;Lewisburg, Pennsylvania,andVienna, Virginia.
- London
Ethical Societies also exist outside the U.S.: Conway Hall inLondonis home to theSouth Place Ethical Society,which was founded in 1787.[29]
Structure and events
[edit]Ethical societies are typically led by "Leaders". Leaders are trained and certified (the equivalent of ordination) by the American Ethical Union. Societies engage Leaders, in much the same way that Protestant congregations "call" a minister. Not all Ethical societies have a professional Leader. (In typical usage, the Ethical movement uses upper case to distinguish certified professional Leaders from other leaders.)[30]A board of executives handles day-to-day affairs, and committees of members focus on specific activities and involvements of the society.
Ethical societies usually hold weekly meetings on Sundays, with the main event of each meeting being the "Platform", which involves a half-hour speech by the Leader of the Ethical Society, a member of the society or by guests.Sunday schoolfor minors is also held at most ethical societies concurrent with the Platform.
The American Ethical Union holds an annual AEU Assembly bringing together Ethical societies from across the US.
Legal challenges
[edit]The tax status of Ethical Societies as religious organizations has been upheld in court cases in Washington, D.C. (1957), and in Austin, Texas (2003). In challenge to a denial of tax-exempt status, theTexas State Appeals Courtdecided that "the Comptroller's test was unconstitutionally underinclusive and that the Ethical Society should have qualified for the requested tax exemptions... Because the Comptroller's test fails to include the whole range of belief systems that may, in our diverse and pluralistic society, merit theFirst Amendment'sprotection... "[31]
Advocates
[edit]British Prime MinisterRamsay MacDonaldwas a strong supporter of the British Ethical movement, having been a Christian earlier in his life. He was a member of the Ethical Church and the Union of Ethical Societies (nowHumanists UK), a regular attender atSouth Place Ethical Society.During his time involved with the Ethical movement, he chaired the annual meeting of the Ethical Union on multiple occasions and wrote forStanton Coit'sEthical Worldjournal.[32][33][34][35]
The British critic and mountaineerLeslie Stephenwas a prominent supporter of Ethical Culture in the UK, serving multiple terms as President of the West London Ethical Society, and was involved in the creation of the Union of Ethical Societies.[36][37]
Albert Einsteinwas a supporter of Ethical Culture. On the seventy-fifth anniversary of the New York Society for Ethical Culture, in 1951, he noted that the idea of Ethical Culture embodied his personal conception of what is most valuable and enduring in religious idealism. Humanity requires such a belief to survive, Einstein argued. He observed, "Without 'ethical culture' there is no salvation for humanity."[38]
First LadyEleanor Rooseveltwas a regular attendee at the New York Society for Ethical Culture at a time when humanism was beginning to coalesce in its modern-day form, and it was there that she developed friendships with the leading humanists and Ethical Culturists of her day. She collaborated with Al Black, Ethical Society leader, in the creation of her nationwide Encampment of Citizenship. She maintained her involvement with the movement as figures on both sides of the Atlantic began to advocate for organizing under the banner ofsecular humanism.She provided a cover endorsement for the first edition ofHumanism as the Next Step(1954) by Lloyd and Mary Morain, saying simply that it was "A significant book."
See also
[edit]- Arthur E. Briggs,Los Angeles City Council member, 1939–41, Ethical Society leader
- British Humanist Association,which inherited many British ethical societies
- International Moral Education Congress
- Religious humanism
- Unitarian Universalism
- Washington Ethical Society v. District of Columbia
References
[edit]- ^"The original 'atheist church': Why don't more atheists know about Ethical Culture?".October 2014.Retrieved25 June2018.
- ^From Reform Judaism to Ethical Culture: The Religious Evolution of Felix AdlerBenny Kraut, Hebrew Union College Press, 1979
- ^abcBrown, Stuart C; Collinson, Diané (1996), "Adler",Biographical dictionary of twentieth-century philosophers,Books, p. 7,ISBN9780415060431
- ^abThe conservator, Volumes 3-4,Horace Traubel, Volume 3, page 31
- ^City of London page on Finsbury Circus Conservation Area Character SummaryArchived8 October 2006 at theWayback Machine
- ^The Sexual ContractbyCarole Patema,1988, p. 160
- ^Rendall, Jane."Women's Politics in Britain 1780-1870: Claiming Citizenship".Archived fromthe originalon 11 March 2012.Retrieved17 March2012.Especially "72. The religious backgrounds of feminist activists".
- ^"Ethical Society history page".Ethicalsoc.org.uk. Archived fromthe originalon 18 January 2000.Retrieved29 September2013.
- ^Good, James A."The Development of Thomas Davidson's Religious and Social Thought".
- ^George Hendrick,Henry Salt: Humanitarian Reformer and Man of Letters,University of Illinois Press, pg. 47 (1977).
- ^Jeffrey Weeks,Making Sexual History,Wiley-Blackwell, pg. 20, (2000).
- ^Knight, William.Memorials of Thomas Davidson.(Boston: Ginn & Company, 1907), 18
- ^Knight, William.Memorials of Thomas Davidson.(Boston: Ginn & Company, 1907), 19
- ^William A. Knight,Memorials of Thomas Davidson: The Wandering Scholar(Boston and London: Ginn and Co, 1907). p. 16, 19, 46.
- ^Pease, Edward R. (1916).The History of the Fabian Society.New York: E.P. Dutton and Co.
- ^abHoward B. Radest. 1969.Toward Common Ground: The Story of the Ethical Societies in the United States.New York: Fredrick Unger Publishing Co.
- ^abcdefghColin Campbell. 1971.Towards a Sociology of Irreligion.London: MacMillan Press.
- ^Stedman, Chris (1 October 2014). "The original 'atheist church': Why don’t more atheists know about Ethical Culture?" Religion World News. Retrieved fromhttps://religionnews /2014/10/01/original-atheist-church-dont-atheists-know-ethical-culture/
- ^"Ethical Church".Humanist Heritage.Humanists UK.Retrieved19 April2021.
- ^I.D. MacKillop. 1986.The British Ethical Societies.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- ^British Humanist Association: Our History since 1896Archived1 August 2013 at theWayback Machine
- ^Ethics as a Religion,David Saville Muzzey,273 pages, 1951, 1967, 1986
- ^Arthur Dobrin, quoted in"Ethical Culture as Religion"Archived12 November 2013 at theWayback Machine,Jone Johnson Lewis, 2003, American Ethical Union Library
- ^Goldberger, Paul (12 August 2010),Architecture, Sacred Space, and the Challenge of the Modern,Chautauqua Institution, archived fromthe originalon 15 July 2011,retrieved3 March2011
- ^"Riverdale Yonkers Society for Ethical Culture".Rysec.org. 24 August 2012.Retrieved29 September2013.
- ^"About BSEC".Brooklyn Society for Ethical Culture.Retrieved16 August2023.
- ^Ethical Societiesaeu.org.
- ^ethicalfocus.org - Bergen, NJ Society
- ^South Place Ethical Society,About the SocietyArchived29 November 2011 at theWayback Machine.
- ^"Meet Our Leaders".American Ethical Union.Retrieved3 January2018.
- ^Carole Keeton Strayhorn, in her Official Capacity as Comptroller of Public Accounts, Appellant v. Ethical Society of Austin, f/k/a Ethical Culture Fellowship of Austin, Appellee,justia, 2003
- ^Lord Godfrey Elton (1939).The Life of James Ramsay Macdonald (1866-1919).Collins. p. 94.
- ^Turner, Jacqueline (2018).The Labour Church: Religion and Politics in Britain 1890-1914.I.B.Tauris & Co Ltd.
- ^Hunt, James D. (2005).An American Looks at Gandhi: Essays in Satyagraha, Civil Rights, and Peace.Promilla & Co Publishers Ltd.
- ^Marquand, David;Ramsay MacDonald;London, 1977; p. 24
- ^Fenwick, Gillian (1993).Leslie Stephen's life in letters: a bibliographical study.p. 125.
- ^Sir Leslie Stephen (2002).Social Rights And Duties: Addresses to Ethical Societies (Complete).Library of Alexandria.
- ^Ericson, Edward L (1988).The Humanist Way: An Introduction to Ethical Humanist Religion.The American Ethical Union.ISBN9780804421768.Retrieved23 July2008.
Sources
[edit]This article incorporates text from a publication now in thepublic domain:Edward William Bennett (1901–1906)."Ethical Culture, Society for".InSinger, Isidore;et al. (eds.).The Jewish Encyclopedia.New York: Funk & Wagnalls.
Further reading
[edit]- Ericson, Edward L.The Humanist Way: An Introduction to Ethical Humanist Religion.A Frederick Ungar book, The Continuum Publishing Company. 205 pages, 1988.
- Muzzey, David Saville.Ethics as a Religion,273 pages, 1951, 1967, 1986.
- Radest, Howard.Toward Common Ground: The Story of the Ethical Societies in the United States.Ungar,1969
External links
[edit]![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png)
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png)
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png)
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png)