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Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church
የኢትዮጵያ ኦርቶዶክስ ተዋሕዶ ቤተ ክርስቲያን[1]
Yä-ityopp'ya ortodoks täwahədo betäkrəstyan
Holy Trinity Cathedral in Addis Ababa, the seat of the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church
Holy Trinity CathedralinAddis Ababa,the seat of the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church
AbbreviationEOTC
ClassificationEastern Christianity
OrientationOriental Orthodoxy
ScriptureOrthodox Tewahedo Bible
TheologyMiaphysitism
PolityEpiscopal
PatriarchMathias
RegionEthiopiaandEthiopian diaspora
LanguageGeʽez,Amharic,Oromo,Tigrinya,Gurage
LiturgyAlexandrian
HeadquartersHoly Trinity Cathedral,Addis Ababa,Ethiopia
FounderFrumentiusaccording to Ethiopian Orthodox tradition
Origin4th century
Kingdom of Aksum
Branched fromOrthodox Tewahedo
SeparationsAmerican synod-in-exile (1991–2018)
Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church(1991)
Tigrayan Orthodox Tewahedo Church(2021)
Members36 million[2][3]–51 million[4]in Ethiopia
Other name(s)Ethiopian Orthodox Church
This article containsEthiopic text.Without properrendering support,you may seequestion marks, boxes, or other symbolsinstead of Ethiopic characters.
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TheEthiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church(Amharic:የኢትዮጵያ ኦርቶዶክስ ተዋሕዶ ቤተ ክርስቲያን,romanized:Yä-ityopp'ya ortodoks täwahədo betä krəstiyan)[1]is the largest of theOriental Orthodox Churches.One of the few Christian churches insub-Saharan Africaoriginating before European colonization of the continent,[5]the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church dates back to theChristianizationof theKingdom of Aksumin330,[6]and has between 36 million and 51 million adherents inEthiopia.[2][3][4]It is a founding member of theWorld Council of Churches.[7]The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church is incommunionwith the other Oriental Orthodox churches (theEritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church,theCoptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria,theMalankara Orthodox Syrian Church,theArmenian Apostolic Church,and theSyriac Orthodox Church).

The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church had been administratively part of theCoptic Orthodox Church of Alexandriafrom the first half of the 4th century until 1959, when it was grantedautocephalywith its ownpatriarchbyPope Cyril VI of Alexandria,Pope of the Coptic Orthodox Church.[8]

Tewahedo(Ge'ez:ተዋሕዶtäwaḥədo) is aGeʽezword meaning "united as one". This word refers to the Oriental Orthodox belief in theone perfectly unified nature of Christ;i.e., a complete union of the divine and human natures into one nature is self-evident to accomplish the divine salvation of mankind, as opposed to the "two natures of Christ"belief commonly held by theLatinandEastern Catholic,Eastern Orthodox,Anglican,Lutheran,and most otherProtestant churches.The Oriental Orthodox Churches adhere to a miaphysite Christological view followed byCyril of Alexandria,the leading protagonist in the Christological debates of the 4th and 5th centuries, who advocatedmia physis tou Theo logou sesarkōmenē,or "one (mia) nature of the Word of God incarnate" (μία φύσις τοῦ θεοῦ λόγου σεσαρκωμένη) and ahypostatic union(ἕνωσις καθ' ὑπόστασιν,henōsis kath hypostasis).[9][10]The distinction of this stance was that the incarnate Christ has one nature, but that one nature is of the two natures, divine and human, and retains all the characteristics of both after the union.

Miaphysitismholds that in the one person ofJesus Christ,divinity and humanity are united in one (μία,mia) nature (φύσις - "physis") without separation, without confusion, without alteration and without mi xing where Christ isconsubstantialwithGod the Father.[11]Around 500 bishops within the patriarchates ofAlexandria,Antioch,andJerusalemrefused to accept thedyophysitism(two natures) doctrine decreed by theCouncil of Chalcedonin 451, an incident that resulted in the second major split in the main body of theCatholic-Orthodox Church in the Roman Empire.[12]

Name

[edit]

Tewahedo(Ge'ez:ተዋሕዶtäwaḥədo) is a Ge'ez word meaning "being made one" or "unified". This word refers to theOriental Orthodoxbelief in the one composite unifiednature of Christ;i.e., a belief that a complete, natural union of the divine and human natures into one is self-evident to accomplish the divine salvation of humankind. This is in contrast to the "two natures of Christ" belief (unmixed, but unseparated divine and human natures, called thehypostatic union) which is held by theCatholic Churchand theEastern Orthodox Church.

The Oriental Orthodox Churches are known as "non-Chalcedonian",and, sometimes by outsiders as"monophysite"(meaning" One Single Nature ", in allusion to Jesus Christ). However, these churches themselves describe their Christology asmiaphysite,[13][14]meaning "one united nature" about Jesus (the Greek equivalent of "Tewahedo" ).

History

[edit]
See also:Timeline of Orthodox Tewahedo Christianity

Origins

[edit]
Ethiopian Orthodox icon depictingSaint George,theCrucifixion,and theVirgin Mary

John Chrysostomspeaks of the "Ethiopians present in Jerusalem" as being able to understand the preaching ofPeterinActs,2:38.[15]Possible missions of some of theApostlesin the lands now calledEthiopiais also reported as early as the 4th century.Socrates of Constantinopleincludes Ethiopia in his list as one of the regions preached byMatthew the Apostle,[16]where a specific mention of "Ethiopia south of the Caspian Sea" can be confirmed in some traditions such as theRoman Catholic Churchamong others.[17]Ethiopian Church tradition tells thatBartholomewaccompaniedMatthewin a mission which lasted for at least three months.[15]Paintings depicting these missions can be seen in the Church of St. Matthew found in theProvince of Pisa,in northernItalyportrayed by Francesco Trevisan (1650–1740) andMarco Benefial(1688–1764).[18]

The earliest account of an Ethiopian converted to the faith in theNew Testamentbooks isa royal officialbaptized byPhilip the Evangelist(distinct fromPhilip the Apostle), one of theseven deacons(Acts, 8:26–27):

Then the angel of the Lord said to Philip, Start out and go south to the road that leads down from Jerusalem to Gaza. So he set out and was on his way when he caught sight of anEthiopian.This man was a eunuch, a high official of theKandake(Candace) Queen of Ethiopia in charge of all her treasure. (Acts, 8:26–27)

The passage continues by describing how Philip helped the Ethiopian treasurer understand a passage from theBook of Isaiahthat the Ethiopian was reading. After Philip interpreted the passage as prophecy referring toJesus Christ,the Ethiopian requested that Philip baptize him, and Philip did so. TheEthiopicversion of this verse reads "Hendeke" (ህንደኬ); Queen Gersamot Hendeke VII was the Queen of Ethiopia from c. 42 to 52. Where the possibility of gospel missions by theEthiopian eunuchcannot be directly inferred from the Books of the New Testament,Irenaeus of Lyonsaround 180 AD writes that "Simon Backos" preached the good news in his homeland outlining also the theme of his preaching as being the coming in flesh of God that "was preached to you all before."[19]The same kind of witness is shared by 3rd and 4th century writers such asEusebius of Caesarea[20]andOrigen of Alexandria.[15]

Coin of KingEzana,under whom Early Christianity became the established church of theKingdom of Aksum

Early Christianity became theestablished churchof the EthiopianAxumite Kingdomunder kingEzanain the 4th century when priesthood and the sacraments were brought for the first time through a Syrian Greek namedFrumentius,known by the local population in Ethiopia as "Selama, Kesaté Birhan" ( "Father of Peace, Revealer of Light" ). As a youth, Frumentius had been shipwrecked with his brother Aedesius on theEritreancoast. The brothers managed to be brought to the royal court, where they rose to positions of influence and baptizedEmperor Ezana.Frumentius is also believed to have established the first monastery in Ethiopia, namedDabba Selamaafter him. In 2016, archaeologists excavated a 4th-century AD basilica (radio-carbon dated) in northeastern Ethiopia at a site calledBeta Samati.This is the earliest known physical evidence of a church in sub-Saharan Africa.[5]

Middle Ages

[edit]
Late 17th century portrait ofGiyorgisby Baselyos

Union with the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria continued after the Arab conquest ofEgypt.Abu Saleh records in the 12th century that the patriarch always sent letters twice a year to the kings of Abyssinia (Ethiopia) andNubia,until Al Hakim stopped the practice.Cyril,67th patriarch, sentSeverusas bishop, with orders to put downpolygamyand to enforce the observance of canonical consecration for all churches. These examples show the close relations of the two churches throughout theMiddle Ages.[21]In 1439, in the reign ofZara Yaqob,a religious discussion betweenGiyorgisand a French visitor led to the dispatch of an embassy from Ethiopia to theVatican.[21][22]

Jesuit interim

[edit]

The period ofJesuitinfluence, which broke the connection with Egypt, began a new chapter in church history. The initiative inRoman Catholicmissions to Ethiopia was taken not byRome,but byPortugal,in the course of a conflict with theMuslimOttoman Empireand theSultanate of Adalfor the command of the trade route toIndiavia theRed Sea.[23]

In 1507,Mateus,or Matthew, anArmenian,had been sent as an Ethiopian envoy to Portugal. In 1520, an embassy under Dom Rodrigo de Lima landed in Ethiopia. An interesting account of the Portuguese mission, which lasted for several years, was written byFrancisco Álvares,its chaplain.[24]

Later,Ignatius Loyolawished to take up the task of conversion, but was forbidden to do so. Instead, thepopesent out João Nunes Barreto as patriarch of the East Indies, withAndre de Oviedoas bishop; and fromGoaenvoys went to Ethiopia, followed by Oviedo himself, to secure the king's adherence to Rome. After repeated failures some measure of success was achieved under EmperorSusenyos I,but not until 1624 did the Emperor make formal submission to thepope.[24]Susenyos made Roman Catholicism the official state religion but was met with heavy resistance by his subjects and by the authorities of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church, and eventually had to abdicate in 1632 in favour of his son,Fasilides,who promptly restored Ethiopian Orthodox Christianity as the state religion. He then in 1633 expelled the Jesuits, and in 1665 Fasilides ordered that all Jesuit books (the Books of the Franks) be burned.[citation needed]

Influence on the Reformation

[edit]
Icon ofSamuel of Waldebba,a 15th-century Ethiopian monk and ascetic of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church

David Daniels has suggested that the Ethiopian Church has had a stronger impact on the Reformation than most scholars acknowledge. ForMartin Luther,who spearheaded theReformation,Daniels says "the Ethiopian Church conferred legitimacy on Luther's emerging Protestant vision of a church outside the authority of the Roman Catholic papacy" as it was "an ancient church with direct ties to the apostles".[25]According to Daniels, Martin Luther saw that the Ethiopian Orthodox Church practiced elements of faith including "communion under both kinds,vernacular Scriptures, and married clergy "and these practices became customary in theLutheran churches.The Ethiopian church also rejectedpapal supremacy,purgatoryandindulgences,which the Lutherans disagreed with, and thus for Luther, the Ethiopian church was the "trueforerunner of Protestantism".[25]Luther believed that the Ethiopian church kept true apostolic practices which the Lutherans would adopt through reading the scriptures.[26]

In 1534, a cleric of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church,Michael the Deacon,met with Martin Luther and affirmed theAugsburg Confession,saying "This is a good creed, that is, faith".[27][25]In addition, Martin Luther stated that theLutheran Massagreed with that used by the Ethiopian Orthodox Church.[25]As a result, Luther invited the Ethiopian church and Michael to full fellowship.[25][28]

Recent history

[edit]
Engraving ofAbuna Salama III,head of the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church (1841–1867)

In more modern times, the Ethiopian Church has experienced a series of developments. The 19th century witnessed the publication of an Amharic translation of the Bible. Largely the work ofAbu Rumiover ten years in Cairo, this version, with some changes, held sway until EmperorHaile Selassieordered a new translation which appeared in 1960/1.[29]Haile Selassie also played a prominent role in further reforms of the church, which included encouraging the distribution of Abu Rumi's translation throughout Ethiopia,[30]as well as his promotion of improved education of clergy, a significant step in the Emperor's effort being the founding of the Theological College of the Holy Trinity Church in December 1944.[31]A third development came after Haile Selassie's restoration to Ethiopia, when he issued, on 30 November, Decree Number 2 of 1942, a new law reforming the church. The primary objectives of this decree were to put the finances of the church in order, to create a central fund for its activities, and to set forth requirements for the appointment of clergy—which had been fairly lax until then.[32]

The Coptic and Ethiopian churches reached an agreement on 13 July 1948, that led toautocephalyfor the Ethiopian Church. Fivebishopswere immediately consecrated by the Coptic Pope of Alexandria and Patriarch of All Africa, empowered to elect a new patriarch for their church, and the successor to Qerellos IV would have the power to consecrate new bishops.[33]This promotion was completed when Coptic OrthodoxPope Joseph IIconsecrated an Ethiopian-born Archbishop,Abuna Basilios,14 January 1951. Then in 1959,Pope Cyril VI of Alexandriacrowned Basilios as the first Patriarch of Ethiopia.

An Ethiopian Orthodox priest displays theprocessional crosses.

Basilios died in 1970, and was succeeded that year byTewophilos.With the fall of Emperor Haile Selassie in 1974, the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church was disestablished as thestate church.The new Marxist government began nationalizing property (including land) owned by the church. Tewophilos was arrested in 1976 by theMarxistDergmilitary junta,and secretly executed in 1979. The government ordered the church to elect a new Patriarch, andTakla Haymanotwas enthroned. The Coptic Orthodox Church refused to recognize the election and enthronement of Tekle Haymanot on the grounds that theSynodof the Ethiopian Church had not removed Tewophilos and that the government had not publicly acknowledged his death, and he was thus still the legitimate Patriarch of Ethiopia. Formal relations between the two churches were halted, although they remained in communion with each other. Formal relations between the two churches resumed on July 13, 2007.[34]

Tekle Haymanot proved to be much less accommodating to the Derg regime than it had expected, and so when the patriarch died in 1988, a new patriarch with closer ties to the regime was sought. The Archbishop ofGondar,a member of the Derg-era Ethiopian Parliament, was elected and enthroned asAbuna Merkorios.Following the fall of the Derg regime in 1991, and the coming to power of theEPRDFgovernment, Merkorios abdicated under public pressure. The church then elected a new Patriarch,Paulos,who was recognized by the Coptic Orthodox Pope of Alexandria. The former Merkorios then fled abroad, and announced from exile that his abdication had been made under duress and thus he was still the legitimate Patriarch of Ethiopia. Several bishops also went into exile and formed a break-away alternate synod.[35]TheEritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Churchwas grantedautocephalyfrom the Ethiopian Orthodox Church on 28 September 1993 following ratification by Coptic church PatriarchShenouda III.The schism has met opposition from dissent that saw it as a disintegration of Ethiopia's spiritual heritage.[36]

As of 2005, there are many Ethiopian Orthodox churches located throughout the United States and other countries to which Ethiopians have migrated (Archbishop Yesehaq 1997).

Paulos died on 16 August 2012. On 28 February 2013, a college of electors assembled in Addis Ababa and electedMathiasto be the 6th Patriarch of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church.[37]

On 25 July 2018, delegates from the Patriarchate in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia and those in the United States, declared reunification inWashington, D.C.Declaring the end of a 26-year-old schism, the church announced that it acknowledges two Patriarchs, Merkorios, Fourth Patriarch of Ethiopia and Mathias I, Sixth Patriarch and Catholicos of Ethiopia, Archbishop of Axum and Ichege of the See of Saint Taklehaimanot.[38]

On 22 January 2023, an attempt to overthrow Abune Mathias was failed following a secret formation of new 26-made bishop Synod led by Abune Sawiros in Oromia Region diocese, such as in Haro Beale Wold Church inWoliso,and nine bishops of diocese outside the region. The Patriarchate called it an "illegal appointment", where Abune Mathias decried it as "great event that has targeted the church".[39][40] After not apologising for the illegal ordination, three Archbishops were excommunicated by the Holy Synod on 26 January.[41]On 31 January 2023, Prime Minister Abiy Ahmed convened a discussion surrounding the incident where he responded he is ready to resolve the conflict. The speech led backlash from the Holy Synod and accused his government of meddling in the Church in reference toseparation of church and statein the Article 11 of theFDRE Constitution.[42][43]

On 4 February, three people were reportedly killed inShashemeneby theOromia Special Forces.According Tewahedo Media Center (TMC), two Orthodox youth were killed and four others were injured by the Oromo Special Forces. Abune Henok, Archbishop of Addis Ababa Diocese described it as "shameful and heart-wrenching".[44]In response to grievance, numerous celebrities expressed their solidarity to the Church via social media and other platforms and donned black clothing during three-daysFast of Nineveh.[45][46]On 9 February, the government imposed restrictions on social sites targeted toFacebook,Messenger,TelegramandTikTok.[47][48]On the next day, the delegation of Synod held an urgent meeting with Abiy at his office, which resulted in condemnation of the proclaimed Oromia Synod from Abiy.[49]On 12 February, a nationwide protest was postponed.Abune Petros,the Secretary of the Holy Synod announced that the demonstration would be postponed following peaceful talks with the Prime Minister and a government agreement to solve the problem.[50]On 15 February, the Church reached an agreement with the illegally ordinated synod.[51]The government lifted the internet ban after five months on 17 July.[52]

Traditions

[edit]
InsideDebre Sema'itvillage rock church
Priests and deacons conducting a church liturgy service at Debre Meheret Kedus Michael Ethiopian Orthodox Cathedral, Washington, DC, US

The faith and practice of Orthodox Ethiopian Christians include elements fromMiaphysiteChristianity as it has developed in Ethiopia over the centuries. Christian beliefs include belief in God (in Ge'ez / Amharic,′Egziabeher,lit. "Lord of the Universe" ),venerationof the Virgin Mary, the angels, and the saints, besides others. According to the Ethiopian Orthodox Church itself, there are no non-Christian elements in the religion other than those from theOld Testament,orHəggä 'Orät(ሕገ ኦሪት),[citation needed]to which are added those from theNew Testament,orHəggä Wongel(ሕገ ወንጌል).[53]A hierarchy ofK'ədusanቅዱሳን[citation needed](angelic messengers and saints) conveys the prayers of the faithful to God and carries out the divine will, so when an Ethiopian Christian is in difficulty, he or she appeals to them as well as to God. In more formal and regular rituals, priests communicate on behalf of the community, and only priests may enter the inner sanctum of the usually circular or octagonal church where thetabot( "ark" ) dedicated to the church's patron saint is housed.[54][unreliable source?]On important religious holidays, the tabot is carried on the head of a priest and escorted in procession outside the church. It is the tabot, not the church, which is consecrated. At many services, most parish members remain in the outer ring, wheredebterassing hymns and dance.[55]

Mid-20th centuryprocessional crossfrom theAmhara Region,typically carried on long poles in Ethiopian Orthodox religious processions

TheEucharistis given only to those who feel pure, have fasted regularly, and have, in general, properly conducted themselves.[54]In practice, communion is mainly limited to young children and the elderly; those who are at a sexually active age or who have sexual desires generally do not receive the Eucharist.[54][56]Worshipers receiving communion may enter the middle ring of the church to do so.[54]

Ethiopian Orthodox believers are strictTrinitarians,[57]maintaining the Orthodox teaching that God is united in three persons: Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. This concept is known assəllase(ሥላሴ),[citation needed]Ge'ez for "Trinity".

Daily services constitute only a small part of an Ethiopian Orthodox Christian's religious observance. Several holy days require prolonged services, singing and dancing, and feasting.

Fast days

[edit]
Main article:Fasting and abstinence in the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church

An important religious requirement, however, is the keeping offastdays, during which adherents abstain from consuming meat and animal products, and refrain from sexual activity.[54][56][58]The Ethiopian Orthodox Church has 250 fasting days, 180 of which are obligatory for laypeople, not just monks and priests, whenveganfood is eaten by the faithful. During the 40-day Advent fast, only one vegan meal is allowed per day.[59]

An Ethiopian Orthodox ceremony at Fasilides' Bath inGondar,Ethiopia, celebratingTimkat(Epiphany)
  1. Fast for Hudadi or Abiye Tsome [ሁዳዴ/ዓብይ ጾም] (Great Lent), 55 days prior toEaster(Fasika).[60][61]This fast is divided into three separate periods: Tsome Hirkal (ጾመ ህርቃል), eight days commemoratingHeraclius;Tsome Arba (ጾመ አርባ), forty days ofLent;and Tsome Himamat (ጾመ ሕማማት), seven days commemoratingHoly Week.[60][61][62]
  2. Fast of the Apostles, 10–40 days, which the Apostles kept after they had received theHoly Spirit.It begins afterPentecost.
  3. The fast Tsome Dihnet (ጾመ ድህነት), which is on Wednesdays in commemoration of the plot organized to killJesus ChristbyCaiaphasand the members of the house of the high priest and Fridays in commemoration of theCrucifixionofJesus Christ(starts on Wednesday afterPentecostand spans up to Easter, in other words all Wednesdays and Fridays except during 50 days after Easter).[54]
  4. The fast ofDormition,16 days.
  5. The fast preceding Christmas, 40 days (Advent). It begins with Sibket on 15th Hedar and ends on Christmas Eve with the feast of Gena and the 29th of Tahsas and 28th if the year is preceded by leap year.
  6. TheFast of Nineveh,commemorating the preaching ofJonah.It comes on Monday, Tuesday and Wednesday of the third week before Lent.
  7. ThegahadofTimkat(Epiphany), fast on the eve of Epiphany.

In addition to standard holy days, most Christians observe many saints' days. A man might give a small feast on his personal saint's day. The local voluntary association (called themaheber) connected with each church honours its patron saint with a special service and a feast two or three times a year.[55]

Monasticism

[edit]
Main article:Christian monasticism in Ethiopia

Exorcism

[edit]
Inda Abba Hadera holy water inInda Sillasie

Priests intervene and performexorcismson behalf of those believed to be afflicted by demons orbuda.According to a 2010Pew Research Centerstudy, 74% of Christians in Ethiopia report having experienced or witnessed an exorcism.[63]Demon-possessed persons are brought to a church or prayer meeting.[64]Often, when an ill person has not responded to modern medical treatment, the affliction is attributed to demons.[64]Unusual or especially perverse deeds, particularly when performed in public, are symptomatic of a demoniac.[64]Superhuman strength—such as breaking one's bindings, as described in the New Testament accounts—along withglossolaliaare observed in the afflicted.[64]Amsalu Geleta, in a modern case study, relates elements that are common to Ethiopian Christian exorcisms:

It includes singing praise and victory songs, reading from the Scripture, prayer and confronting the spirit in the name of Jesus. Dialogue with the spirit is another important part of the exorcism ceremony. It helps the counsellor (exorcist) to know how the spirit was operating in the life of the demoniac. The signs and events mentioned by the spirit are affirmed by the victim after deliverance.[64]

The exorcism is not always successful, and Geleta notes another instance in which the usual methods were unsuccessful, and the demons apparently left the subject at a later time. In any event, "in all cases the spirit is commanded in no other name than the name of Jesus."[64]

Biblical canon

[edit]
Main article:Orthodox Tewahedo biblical canon

The Old Testament Books:

  1. Genesis
  2. Exodus
  3. Leviticus
  4. Numbers
  5. Deuteronomy
  6. Joshua
  7. Judges
  8. Ruth
  9. 1st & 2nd Samuel
  10. 1st & 2nd Kings
  11. 1st Chronicles
  12. 2nd Chronicles (incl. Prayer of Manasseh)
  13. Jubilees
  14. Enoch
  15. 1st & 2nd Esdras
  16. 3rd Esdras & Ezra Sutuel
  17. Tobit
  18. Judith
  19. Esther (with additions)
  20. 1st Meqabyan*
  21. 2nd & 3rd Meqabyan
  22. Josippon
  23. Job
  24. Psalms (incl. Psalm 151)
  25. Proverbs
  26. Reproof
  27. Ecclesiastes
  28. Song of Solomon
  29. Wisdom of Solomon
  30. Ecclesiasticus
  31. Isaiah
  32. Jeremiah (incl. Lamentations, 1st Baruch, Letter of Jeremiah, & 4th Baruch)
  33. Ezekiel
  34. Daniel (with additions, incl. Susanna & Bel and the Dragon)
  35. Hosea
  36. Joel
  37. Amos
  38. Obadiah
  39. Jonah
  40. Micah
  41. Nahum
  42. Habakkuk
  43. Zephaniah
  44. Haggai
  45. Zechariah
  46. Malachi

The New Testament Books:

  1. Matthew
  2. Mark
  3. Luke
  4. John
  5. Acts
  6. Romans
  7. 1st Corinthians
  8. 2nd Corinthians
  9. Galatians
  10. Ephesians
  11. Philippians
  12. Colossians
  13. 1st Thessalonians
  14. 2nd Thessalonians
  15. 1st Timothy
  16. 2nd Timothy
  17. Titus
  18. Philemon
  19. Hebrews
  20. James
  21. 1st Peter
  22. 2nd Peter
  23. 1st John
  24. 2nd John
  25. 3rd John
  26. Jude
  27. Revelation
  28. 1st Sinodos
  29. 2nd Sinodos
  30. 3rd Sinodos
  31. 4th Sinodos
  32. 1st Covenant
  33. 2nd Covenant
  34. Ethiopic Clement
  35. Didascalia
Drawing of theVirgin Mary'with her beloved son'in pencil and ink, from a manuscript copy of Weddasé Māryām,c. 1875

Language

[edit]
Ethiopian Orthodox celebration ofMeskel(Geʽez for "cross" )

The divine services of the Ethiopian Church are celebrated inGeʽez,which has been theliturgical languageof the church at least since the arrival of theNine Saints(Pantelewon, Gerima (Isaac, or Yeshaq), Aftse, Guba, Alef, Yem’ata, Liqanos, and Sehma), who are believed to have fled persecution by theByzantine Empireafter theCouncil of Chalcedon(451).[65]The GreekSeptuagintwas the version of theOld Testamentoriginally translated into Ge'ez, but later revisions show clear evidence of the use ofHebrew,SyriacandArabicsources. The first translation into a modern vernacular was done in the 19th century by a man usually known asAbu Rumi(died 1819). Later, Haile Selassie sponsoredAmharictranslations of the Ge'ez Scriptures during his reign (1930–1974): one in 1935 before World War II and one afterwards (1960–1961).[66]Sermonstoday are usually delivered in the local language.

Architecture

[edit]
TheChurch of Saint George,a monolithic church in Lalibela

There are manymonolithic (rock-hewn) churchesin Ethiopia, most famously eleven churches atLalibela.Besides these, two main types of architecture are found—onebasilican,the other native. TheChurch of Our Lady Mary of Zionat Axum is an example of the basilican design, though the early basilicas are nearly all in ruin. These examples show the influence of the architects who, in the 6th century, built the basilicas atSanʻāʼand elsewhere in theArabian Peninsula.There are two forms of native churches: one oblong, traditionally found inTigray;the other circular, traditionally found inAmharaandShewa(though either style may be found elsewhere). In both forms, the sanctuary is square and stands clear in the centre, and the arrangements are based onJewishtradition. Walls and ceilings are adorned withfrescoes.Acourtyard,circular or rectangular, surrounds the body of the church. Modern Ethiopian churches may incorporate the basilican or native styles and use contemporary construction techniques and materials. In rural areas, the church and outer court are oftenthatched,with mud-built walls. The church buildings are typically surrounded by aforested area,acting as a reservoir of biodiversity in otherwise de-forested parts of the country.[67][68][24]

Ark of the Covenant

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The Chapel of the Tablet at theChurch of Our Lady Mary of Zionis said to house the originalArk of the Covenant.

The Ethiopian Church claims that one of its churches,Our Lady Mary of Zion,is host to the originalArk of the CovenantthatMosescarried with theIsraelitesduring theExodus.Only one priest is allowed into the building where the Ark is located, ostensibly due to biblical warnings of danger. As a result, international scholars doubt that the original Ark is truly there.[citation needed]

Throughout Ethiopia, Orthodox churches are not considered churches until the local bishop gives them atabot,a replica of the original Ark of the Covenant.[69][70]Thetabotis at least six inches (15 cm) square, and it is made of eitheralabaster,marble,or wood (seeacacia). It is always kept in ornate coverings on the altar.[69]Only priests are allowed to see or touch thetabot.[70][71]In an elaborate procession, thetabotis carried around the outside of the church amid joyful song on the feast day of that particular church's namesake.[69]On the great Feast ofT'imk'et,known asEpiphanyor Theophany in Europe, a group of churches send theirtabotto celebrate the occasion at a common location where a pool of water or a river is to be found.[72]

Similarities to Judaism and Islam

[edit]
The Ethiopian Church, Jerusalem

The Ethiopian Church places a heavier emphasis on Old Testament teachings than one might find inEastern Orthodox,Roman Catholic orProtestantchurches, and its followers adhere to certain practices that one finds inOrthodoxorConservative Judaism.Ethiopian Christians, like some otherEastern Christians,traditionally follow dietary rules that are similar to JewishKashrut,specifically with regard to the slaughter of animals. Similarly, pork is prohibited, though unlikeRabbinicalKashrut,Ethiopian cuisinedoes mixdairy products with meat,which in turn makes it even closer toKaraiteandIslamic dietary laws(seeHalal). Women are prohibited from entering the church temple duringmenses;[73]they are also expected tocover their hairwith a large scarf (orshash) while in church, as described in 1 Corinthians, chapter 11. As with Orthodoxsynagogues,men and women sit separately in the Ethiopian church, with men on the left and women on the right (when facing the altar).[74](Women covering their heads and separation of the sexes in churches officially is common to few other Christian traditions; it is also the rule in some non-Christian religions,IslamandOrthodox Judaismamong them).[75]

Before praying, the Ethiopian Orthodox wash their hands and face, in order to be clean before and present their best to God;shoes are removedin order to acknowledge that one is offering prayer before a holy God.[76][77]Ethiopian Orthodox worshippers remove their shoes when entering a church temple,[74]in accordance withExodus3:5 (in whichMoses,while viewing theburning bush,was commanded to remove his shoes while standing on holy ground). Furthermore, the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church upholds a form ofSabbatarianism,observing theseventh-day Sabbath(Saturday), in addition to theLord's Day(Sunday),[78]although more emphasis, because of theResurrectionof Christ, is laid upon Sunday.

The Ethiopian Church does not call for circumcision, yet it is a cultural practice.[79]It is not regarded as being necessary to salvation.[80]The liturgy explicitly mentions, "let us not be circumcised like the Jews."

The Ethiopian Orthodox Church prescribes several kinds ofhand washingand traditionally follow rituals that are similar to Jewishnetilat yadayim,for example after leaving the latrine, lavatory or bathhouse, or before prayer, or after eating a meal.[81]The Ethiopian Orthodox Church observes days ofritual purification.[82][83]People who are ritually unclean may approach the church but are not permitted to enter it; they instead stand near the church door andprayduring the liturgy.[84]

Rugare Rukuni and Erna Oliver identify the Nine Saints asJewish Christians,and attribute the Judaic character of Ethiopian Christianity, in part, to their influence.[85]: 6, 8 

Debtera

[edit]
Main article:Debtera
A painting of performingdebteras

A debtera is an itinerant lay priest figure (not a member of the priesthood) trained by the Ethiopian Church to function principally as ascribeorcantor.But often he is also a folk healer, who may also function in roles comparable to adeaconorexorcist.Folklore and legends ascribe the role of magician to the debtera as well.[86]

Music

[edit]
Main article:Orthodox Tewahedo music
Ethiopian Orthodox priests dancing during 2015Timkatcelebration

The music of Ethiopian Orthodox Church traced back to SaintYared,who composedZemaor "chant", which divided into three modes: Ge'ez (ordinary days), Ezel (fast days and Lent) and Araray (principal feasts).[87]It is important to Ethiopian liturgy and divided into fourteen Anaphoras, the normal use being of the Twelve Apostles. In ancient times, there were six Anaphoras used by many monasteries.[88]

Patriarch-Catholicoi, archbishops and bishops

[edit]
Patriarch-Catholicos
Main article:List of abunas of Ethiopia

Since 1959, when the church was grantedautocephalybyCyril VI,Pope of the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria,an Ethiopian Patriarch-Catholicos of Eritrea also carrying the title of Abuna is the head of the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church. The Abuna is officially known asPatriarch and Catholicos of Ethiopia, Archbishop of Axum and Ichege of the See of Saint Taklahaimanot.The incumbent head of the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church isMathiaswho acceded to this position on 28 February 2013.

Archbishops and bishops

Ethiopia:

  • Mathias,Patriarch and Head of all Archbishops of the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church

Canada:

  • Demetrios, archbishop of Eastern Canada
  • Abraham, archbishop of Western Canada[89]
Abune Abraham, Archbishop of Western Canada

Middle East:

  • Dimetros, Archbishop of the United Arab Emirates and its surrounding areas
  • Kewestos, Archbishop of Jerusalem[90]

South America:

  • Thaddaeus, archbishop of the Caribbean and Latin America

United States:

  • Fanuel, archbishop of Washington, D.C.[91]
  • Markos, archbishop of New York and its surrounding areas.
  • Philipos, archbishop of Pennsylvania and Head of Eyesus Church in Baltimore
  • Yaekob, archbishop of Georgia and its surrounding areas (Southeastern States)
  • Ewesatewos, archbishop of Minnesota and its surrounding areas.
  • Natnael, archbishop of Colorado and surrounding areas
  • Selama, archbishop of Ohio
  • Sawiros, archbishop of Texas
  • Michael, archbishop of Northern California
  • Barnabas, archbishop of Southern California

Western Europe:

  • Yosef, Archbishop of Europe, in Rome.

Australia & New Zealand:

  • Lukas, Archbishop of Australia & New Zealand

Eparchies

[edit]

The currenteparchiesof the church include:[92]

See also

[edit]

Further reading

[edit]
  • Budge, Ernest Alfred Wallis (1928).The Book of the Saints of the Ethiopian church.Cambridge, The University Press.

References

[edit]
  1. ^abEthiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church, Addis Ababa."የኢትዮጵያ ኦርቶዶክስ ተዋሕዶ ቤተ ክርስቲያን".ZEOrthodox.org.Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church.Retrieved2021-06-20.
  2. ^ab"Orthodox Christianity in the 21st Century".Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project.8 November 2017.Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church has an estimated 36 million adherents, nearly 14% of the world's total Orthodox population.
  3. ^ab"Ethiopia: An outlier in the Orthodox Christian world".Pew Research Center.
  4. ^ab"Ethiopia".The World Factbook.6 November 2023.Retrieved2022-09-16.Population 116,462,712 (2023 est.)… Ethiopian Orthodox 43.8%
  5. ^abHarrower, Michael J (Winter 2019)."Beta Samati: discovery and excavation of an Aksumite town"(PDF).Antiquity.93(372): 1534–52.doi:10.15184/aqy.2019.84– via Cambridge.org.
  6. ^Moore, Dale H. (1936)."Christianity in Ethiopia".Church History.5(3): 271–284.doi:10.2307/3160789.ISSN0009-6407.JSTOR3160789.S2CID162029676.
  7. ^"Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church",World Council of Churches website (accessed 2 June 2009)
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  9. ^Pope Shenouda III of Alexandria(1999)."NATURE OF CHRIST"(PDF).copticchurch.net.St. Mark Coptic Orthodox Church.Retrieved30 November2014.
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  27. ^Daniels, David D. (2 November 2017)."Martin Luther and Ethiopian Christianity: Historical Traces".University of Chicago.Retrieved9 April2018.Luther expressed his approval of the Church of Ethiopia along with his embrace of Deacon Michael in a letter dated July 4, 1534: "For this reason we ask that good people would demonstrate Christian love also to this [Ethiopian] visitor." According to Luther, Michael responded positively to his articles of the Christian faith, proclaiming: "This is a good creed, that is, faith" (see Martin Luther, Table-Talk, November 17, 1538 [WA, TR 4:152–53, no. 4126]).
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  79. ^"Issue 122 – Circumcision and the Copts | the British Orthodox Church".
  80. ^"Gizret - ግዝረት [Circumcision]".9 January 2022.
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  82. ^Ian Bradley(2 November 2012).Water: A Spiritual History.Bloomsbury Publishing.ISBN978-1-4411-6767-5.
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Bibliography

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