Falnama
ThePersianwordFalnama(Persian:فالنامه,lit. 'falnameh') covers two forms ofbibliomancy(fortune-telling using a book) used historically inIran,Turkey,andIndia.[2][3]Quranic Falnamas were sections at the end ofQuranmanuscripts used for fortune-telling based on a grid. In the 16th century, Falnama manuscripts were introduced that used a different system; individuals performedpurification rituals,opened a random page in the book and interpreted their fortune in light of the painting and its accompanying text.[4]Only a few illustrated Falnamas now survive; these were commissioned by rich patrons and are unusually large books for the time, with bold, finely executed paintings.[5][6]These paintings illustrate historical and mythological figures as well as events and figures associated with theAbrahamic religions.
Creation
[edit]Bibliomancy has a long history in Islamic culture, using both secular and religious books, especially theQuran.[7]It was common for Quran manuscripts produced in India and Iran to havefoliosat the end specifically for divination ( "Quranic falnamas" ), from at least the late 14th century to the 19th.[8][2]Their popularity intensified inSafavid Iranin the mid-16th century during the reign ofShah Tahmasp.[2]This period also saw the first creation of dedicated Falnama manuscripts, whose popularity spread in the 17th century.[6]
Falnama manuscripts were unusually large books; the surviving examples range from 40 centimetres (16 in) to more than 66 centimetres (26 in) high.[6]The paintings combined secular and religious imagery and their depiction of religious and mythical figures was very influential on other works. Each painting told the story of an event, although there was no narrative for the book as a whole; the order of paintings was random.[9]
Use
[edit]Using a Quranic Falnama for bibliomancy involved performing ritualablutions,reading certain verses from the Quran, then opening the book at random. The tables at the end of the book told the reader how to interpret the omen, and in some versions had numerical tables telling the reader to count a certain number of pages, lines, or words within the Quran and read the word at that position.[10]
Falnama manuscripts built on this tradition. They were consulted to divine the prospects for a major decision (such as a business venture, marriage, or house move) or to divine the condition of absent relatives or friends.[11]Each spread had a painting on the right and text on the left; thusArabicandPersianreaders saw the painting first and then its explanation.[12]To answer a question, readers would perform ablutions, recite prayers from the Quran and then open the book at a random page.[10]The text explained whether the prediction was favourable, unfavourable, or middling. For example, a painting of the Sun would suggest a favourable outcome while a villain usually meant a disastrous outcome.[4]The middle prediction is thought to mean a situation that does not initially seem good but will improve.[7]Falnama manuscripts did not always agree in their interpretations; an event presented as fortunate by one could be unfortunate according to another.[13]To avoid the worst outcomes, the text recommended pious acts such as prayer, pilgrimage, or kindness to others.[4]
Fortune-tellers gave Falnama readings for money on the streets ofIstanbulandIsfahan.Some wealthy families commissioned their own Falnama manuscripts; all of the present surviving examples came about in this way.[4]
Surviving Falnama manuscripts
[edit]The Dispersed Falnama
[edit]The Dispersed Falnama, also called the Falnama Tahmasbi, is the oldest surviving example.[12][11]It is so-named because there are folios in many collections in different countries including theArthur M. Sackler Gallery,theMetropolitan Museum of Art,and theWorcester Art Museumin the United States.[6][1][14]It was commissioned during the reign ofShah Tahmaspin the mid-1550s to early 1560s,[6]a time of political and military upheaval.[12][11]TheIslamic calendarwas approaching the year 1000 and there was a mood ofend timeanxiety.[2][6]Many of the paintings involveAli,an important figure inSafavid Iran's state religion,Shia Islam.[15]This manuscript contains the earliest known depiction in Islamic art ofAdam and Evein the Garden of Eden.[9]
The Khalili Falnama
[edit]
TheKhalili Collection of Islamic Artincludes a Falnama manuscript produced during theQutb Shahi dynastyin 17th centuryGolconda,in what is nowHyderabad.This is the only surviving illustrated Falnama to have been made in South Asia.[3][11]It was most likely created between 1610 and 1630. In this period, Golconda's alliance with Safavid Iran was of great military importance and was celebrated many times in art and literature, of which this Falnama is one example.[12][16]The Khalili Falnama is more opulent than any other Falnama manuscript, with paintings and calligraphy extensively decorated in gold,lapis blue,and other precious materials. The expensive production of the manuscript and its textual advice relating to the business of court suggest it was made for a noble, or even royal, patron.[17]The artists, like the author of the text, are not recorded.[18]
The manuscript is 41 centimetres (16 in) tall, with paintings and textual panels each 30.5 centimetres (12.0 in) by 21 centimetres (8.3 in), excluding their decorative borders.[19][20]There are 35 spreads that each combine a full-page painting and text, plus two additional paintings.[11]A second caption in Persian (innastaliqscript) was added to each painting some time after the manuscript's creation.[3]There are some similarities, both in the text and paintings, to the Dispersed Falnama, but most of the scenes are not present in that earlier manuscript.[11]The style of the paintings combines a strong Safavid influence with the bright colours associated with localDeccaniart.[11]The figures' clothing, for example, matches Safavid dress rather than the much hotter environment of Golconda. The paintings are thus a guide to the design of Safavid buildings, styles of dress, and pottery ware, reproducing the geometric patterns and other design motifs used by Safavid artists, interpreted through subtle influences from Indian art.[21]
The manuscript has many similarities with an illustrated volume of poetry presently at theSalar Jung Museumin Hyderabad; these include the use of bright colours and large amounts of gold as well as many pictorial elements and choices of imagery. That volume is known to have been commissioned by the sultanMuhammad Quli Qutb Shah,whose support for art included funding a workshop bringing together local and foreign artists. This suggests, but does not firmly establish, Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah as the noble for whom the Khalili Falnama was originally created.[22]
Each page of text consists of nine lines: two lines inthuluthscript convey a poetic couplet, often drawn from a well-known text, while the remaining seven lines contain the divination innastaliqscript.[23]The language of the text isPersianwith occasional phrases fromArabic.[24]
In its textual recommendations and choice of imagery, the Khalili Falnama is explicitly promotional of Shia Islam.[25]Its paintings are inspired by sources including theQisas al-Anbiya'(Tales of the Prophets) ofAl-Kisa'i,theKhamsaof Nizami,and the life of the Islamic prophetMuhammad.[3]Unlike the other Falnama manuscripts, it does not include any imagery from thezodiac.Twenty of the paintings are of subjects or stories that do not appear in any other Falnama, including the infantMosesin the lap of the Pharaoh and the murder ofJohn the Baptist.[26]Where it includes the same stories as the other manuscripts, it usually represents them with different scenes.[27]It is the only surviving Falnama to depict a person from the era in which these manuscripts were created:Shah Tamasp,who had died in 1576.[28]
As well as the central figures of each scene, the paintings also include groups of spectators reacting to the events, each figure having a unique combination of dress and physical characteristics.[29]The paintings show:[19][3][12]
| Painting | Omen |
|---|---|
| Ja'far ibn Abi Talibbefore theking of Aksum
The king is not named but the figure in the painting is identifiable asNajashi.[30] |
— |
| Alexander the GreatmeetingPlato
The identity of the figures consulted by Alexander is not known for sure. Although the text mentions Plato who is possibly sitting next toAristotle,the figures are shown veiled with flaminghaloesusually reserved for prophets. This suggests the painting was intended to depict the prophetsKhizrandElijah.[31] |
Good |
| Muhammad distributing thewater of immortalityinParadise
This scene has previously been interpreted as fromNizami's story of Khizr finding the water of life. The text refers to thePool of Kawtharin Paradise from which it is said that Muhammad will distribute water on theDay of Judgement.[32] |
Good |
| The death of Alexander the Great
This is a scene from theShahnameh,depicted in a similar way to earlier Shahnamah manuscripts.[33] |
Bad/Middle |
| Jesusfighting the false prophetAl-Dajjal,watched by Imamal-Mahdi
The story of the young Jesus killing the antichrist, Al-Dajjal, with a spear is taken fromHadithliterature.[34] |
Good |
| The liar Zaynab being devoured by lions at the command ofImam al-Hadi
The caption identifies the veiled, haloed figure asImam Riza,though this is presumably an error as in the traditional story it is Imam al-Hadi who exposes a liar by feeding her to lions.[35] |
Bad |
| Ladies, astonished by the beauty ofJoseph,cutting their fingers on fruit knives
This scene is from the story ofYusuf and Zulaikhain which Yusuf (Joseph) is brought into the home ofZulaikha(Potiphar's wife). Women are so distracted by his appearance that they accidentally slice their own fingers instead of thelemonsthey were cutting.[36] |
Good |
| The prophetSalehand hismiracle of the camel
The story of Saleh miraculously causing acamelto be born from a rock appears several times in the Quran. Although many other paintings depict this story, the composition of this one is unique.[37] |
Middle |
| Muhammad visiting theKaaba
The Kaaba is not shown as a black cube, matching its real appearance, but as a colourful domed structure resembling a tomb. An unidentified crowned man is also shown next to the structure.[38] |
Good |
| Khidr and Elijah finding the water of life, watched by Alexander
The story of Alexander travelling to theLand of Darknessto find thewater of life,with his two spiritual advisors, is told byNizamiin theIskandar-namah(book of Alexander).[39] |
Good |
| TheDay of Judgement
This complex painting includes many aspects of the traditional Islamic view of the Day of Judgement, including the angelsAzrafilandJibrīl.Groups of sinners are shown with physical deformities corresponding to their sins.[40] |
Middle |
| Jesusraising the dead
The text names the veiled figure as Jesus and that is how the painting has been described by some authors. Parikh (2022) disputes this and labels the painting "The Prophet Muhammad reviving a sick child" since the miracles of Muhammad are a common topic in Falnama paintings. Similar paintings appear in two other Falnama manuscripts, one unlabelled and the other explicitly identifying its subject as Muhammad.[41] |
Good |
| Muhammad's flight fromMeccatoJerusalemupon his steed,Buraq
The lower half of the painting shows theAl-Aqsa Mosqueand its towers.[42] |
Good |
| Majnunfainting at the sight of Layla's beauty
The third of Nizami's five poems in theKhamsatells the romance ofLayla and Majnun.Most of the painting illustrates details of life in Layla'sBedouintribe.[43] |
Middle |
| AlirescuingSalman Al-Farsifrom a lion
Ali, mounted on Muhammad's muleDulduland wielding the double-pointed swordDhulfiqar,dominates the scene, representing his power and that of Islam.[44] |
Good |
| Muhammad sleeping inAbu Bakr's lap
This painting combines a Quranic story about Muhammad and Abu Bakr hiding in a cave with a folkloric story about a dove and spider concealing the cave.[45] |
Middle |
| The "Five Holy Ones": Muhammad, his daughterFatimah,Ali,HasanandHusayn
This is not a scene from a narrative, but shows the five members of the holy family, each veiled and haloed, with attendants and spectators.[46] |
Good |
| The Sufi mysticAhmad-i Jamriding a lion
This scene is inspired both by Sadid al-Din Muhammad Ghaznavi'sMaqamat-i Zhandah-piland a rival account of Ahmad-i Jam's life,Siyar al-aqtab.[47] |
Good |
| Barsisa,a devotee who succumbed to the Devil, hanged for adultery
The story of Barsisa, a monk who is tempted by the Devil, is told byal-Tabariin theHistory of the Prophets and Kings.[48] |
Bad |
| Shaddaddying outside the gates of Paradise
Shaddad is briefly mentioned in the Quran and the tale of him meeting theAngel of Deathis recounted inMirkhvand'sRawżat aṣ-ṣafāʾ(Garden of Purity).[49] |
Bad |
| The slaughter ofGhilmanby Ali
Aghilmanis a prisoner of war, so this scene presumably refers to the execution ofNadr ibn al-Harithin the aftermath of Muhammad's triumph at theBattle of Badr.Muhammad appears in the painting, as do his grandsons Hasan and Husayn.[50] |
Bad |
| Animals gathering beforeKing SolomonandQueen Bilqis
This scene is similar to one depicted in frontispieces for Nizami'sKhamsa.The animals are rendered in great detail and in a combination of Persian and Indian styles.[51]This spread differs from the rest of the volume, with a more colourful border and text that is decorated with cloud motifs.[23] |
Good |
| Shah Tahmaspand his army in battle
Corpses and severed heads litter the scene of an active battle between Tahmasp's forces andOttoman Turks.Tahmasp used dreams and divination to guide many of his decisions, so he is a natural subject for a painting used in divination.[52] |
Good |
| BeforeYaqub,Joseph's brothers accuse a wolf of eating Joseph and the wolf denies it
This story is mentioned briefly in the Quran and expanded upon in theQisas al-Anbiya(Stories of the Prophets).[53] |
Middle |
| Karkhi, porter at thetomb of Imam Riza,being honoured
This is an almost exact copy, in better condition, of a mid-16th-century painting titledScene from a Mausoleumwhich is presently in theDavid Collection.[54] |
Good |
| Maryand the infant Jesus visited byZachariasand John the Baptist
Rather than a specific narrative, this painting illustrates the parallels between Jesus and John the Baptist that are discussed in the Quran.[55]The text on the neighbouring folio is unrelated to the painting.[23] |
Good |
| The construction ofNoah's Ark
The story ofNūḥand his ark is mentioned in the Quran as well as subsequent Islamic literature. TheQisas al-Anbiyadescribes wood being cut and shaped with carpentry tools: an activity that fills almost all of this painting.[56] |
Middle |
| Muhammad preaching inMedina
Muhammad, veiled and with a flaming halo, addresses an audience of six unidentified prophets who are shown faceless and also haloed, while the surrounding audience of angels is also shown without faces.[57] |
Good |
| The death of John the Baptist
The execution takes place in the lower third of the painting, much of which is given over to King Joshua and his court in a scene that seems to come from the historianal-Tabari.The text on the neighbouring folio is unrelated to the painting.[58] |
Good |
| The tyrant Murra ibn Qays miraculously sliced in two as he tries to desecrate the tomb of Ali
The painting depicts the shrine of Ali, from which Ali's two fingers protrude, haloed. Murra, having attempted to desecrate the shrine, is shown chopped in two.[59] |
Good |
| The Queen of thePeris(fairies) at her throne in the garden ofIram
The scene seems to be based on depictions of courtly entertainment though with angels, rather than people, enjoying the food, music, and flowers.[60] |
Good |
| Pharaoh with the infant Moses
This is the only depiction of the infant Moses in any Falnama illustration, showing him on the Pharaoh's lap. Next to the Pharaoh is his wife,Asiya.[61] |
Good |
| The death ofKhusraw Parviz
The story of the death of Khusraw at the hands of his son is found in the Nizami'sKhamsa,elaborating on a narrative from theShahnameh.[62] |
Bad |
| Zacharias hiding inside a tree, discovered bySatanand other enemies
The Muslim legend of Zacharias is told byal-Tabariin theHistory of the Prophets and Kings,drawing from the story of Isaiah in Jewish and Christian traditions.[63] |
Bad |
| Ali at theBattle of Khaybar,being attacked from four sides and using the gates ofKhaybaras a shield
The tale of Ali lifting the door with the strength of eight men is told by al-Tabari. In this painting, he is watched over by Muhammad on horseback.[64] |
Good |
| Khusraw and Shirinhunting
Nizami'sKhamsadescribes many hunting scenes involving Khusraw. This painting seems to combine multiple such episodes.[65] |
Good |
| Alexander asking adervishfor advice and prayers before attacking a fortress
This scene is based on Nizami'sIskandar-namahbut shows the figures in a natural setting, surrounded by plants and animals, rather than in the fortress mentioned in the story.[66] |
— |
The Khalili Falnama was the topic of a 2014doctoralthesis at theUniversity of Cambridgeby Rachel Parikh.[67]A completefacsimileof the manuscript, with translation and scholarly commentary by Parikh, was published in 2022.[68]
-
Ladies, astonished by the beauty of Joseph, cutting their fingers on fruit knives -
Muhammad's flight from Mecca to Jerusalem upon his steed, Buraq -
The construction of Noah's Ark -
The Queen of the Peris at her throne in the garden ofIram
Others
[edit]
Four more illustrated manuscripts of the Falnama have survived from the 16th and 17th centuries.[11]A 16th-century manuscript is now held by theNational Museum of Ethnologyin Leiden, the Netherlands. Its 35 paintings include one each for the Moon, Sun, Mercury, Mars, Jupiter, Venus, Saturn and the realm of Paradise. Five more paintings show episodes from the life ofAliand many others have scenes inspired by the Quran. The Kaaba, Noah's Ark, the Last Judgement, andLayla and Majnunhave their own paintings.[69][70]The Dresden Falnama is a Persian volume with similar content which was produced from the 1540s to the 1570s.[6][12]It is now in theSaxon State and University Library Dresden.[12]The Topkapı Persian Falnama, with 41 double-page spreads,[20]dates from the late 17th century and is now in the collection of theTopkapı Palacein Turkey.[12]The palace also holds an Ottoman Turkish version of the Falnama created for the SultanAhmed Iin the early 17th century,[11]with 59 double-page spreads.[20]Similarities between these four manuscripts' paintings suggest that they were influenced by common depictions that have not survived.[6]
See also
[edit]
Media related toManuscripts of the Falnamaat Wikimedia Commons
References
[edit]- ^ab""Coffin of Imam 'Ali", Folio from a Falnama (The Book of Omens) of Ja'far al-Sadiq ".The Met.Retrieved2021-11-26.
- ^abcdCoffey, Heather (2019). "Diminutive Divination and the Implications of Scale: A Miniature Qur'anicFalnamaof the Safavid Period ". In Myrvold, Kristina; Miller Parmenter, Dorina (eds.).Miniature books: the format and function of tiny religious texts.Sheffield. pp. 85–87.ISBN978-1-78179-860-7.OCLC1082402029.
{{cite book}}:CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ^abcdeRogers, J. M.(2008).The arts of Islam: treasures from the Nasser D. Khalili collection(Revised and expanded ed.). Abu Dhabi: Tourism Development & Investment Company (TDIC). pp. 275–9.OCLC455121277.
- ^abcdPy-Lieberman, Beth (22 October 2009)."Falnama's Book of Omens: The Future Will Be Bright and Sunny".Smithsonian Magazine.Retrieved2021-11-11.
- ^Gopnik, Blake(25 October 2009)."Art review: Blake Gopnik on 'Falnama: The Book of Omens' at the Sackler Gallery".Washington Post.Retrieved2021-11-11.
- ^abcdefghNatif, Mika (6 October 2010)."Review of" Falnama: The Book of Omens "by Massumeh Farhad".CAA Reviews.College Art Association.doi:10.3202/caa.reviews.2010.110.ISSN1543-950X.Retrieved2023-09-25.
- ^abParikh 2022,p. 16.
- ^De La Perrière, Eloïse Brac (2016)."Manuscripts in Bihari Calligraphy: Preliminary Remarks on a Little-Known Corpus".Muqarnas.33:63–90.doi:10.1163/22118993_03301P005.ISSN0732-2992.JSTOR26551682.
- ^abHadromi-Allouche, Zohar (2018)."Images of the first woman: Eve in Islamic Fāl-nāma paintings".In Exum, J. Cheryl; Clines, David J. A.; Apostolos-Cappadona, Diana (eds.).Biblical Women and the Arts.London: Bloomsbury. p. 9.ISBN9780567685162.
- ^abParikh 2022,p. 17.
- ^abcdefghiParikh 2022,p. 9.
- ^abcdefghParikh, Rachel (2020)."Faith and Fate: the KhaliliFalnamaand Shi'i Identity in Golconda ".In Overton, Keelan (ed.).Iran and the Deccan: Persianate Art, Culture, and Talent in Circulation, 1400–1700.Indiana University Press. pp. 227, 247–248.ISBN978-0-253-04894-3.
- ^Parikh 2022,p. 33.
- ^""The Prophet Zakariya (Zacharias) in a Tree", folio from a dispersed copy of the Falnama (Book of Omens) ".Worcester Art Museum.Retrieved2021-11-11.
- ^Shaghelani poor, Zahra; Ghazizade, Khashayar; Haseli, Parviz (December 2018)."Investigating the Effect of Shiite Texts on the Imam Ali's (AS) Iconography in Thamesbi's Falnama".Muqarnas.14(32). The Institute of Islamic Art Studies: 97–131.ISSN2676-7759.
- ^Parikh 2022,p. 11.
- ^Parikh 2022,pp. 12, 175.
- ^Parikh 2022,pp. 33, 58.
- ^ab"Falnamah ('Book of Divination')".Khalili Collections.Retrieved2021-11-11.
- ^abcParikh 2022,p. 56.
- ^Parikh 2022,pp. 68–70.
- ^Parikh 2022,pp. 51–52.
- ^abcParikh 2022,p. 167.
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- ^Parikh 2022,p. 47-48.
- ^Parikh 2022,pp. 68, 167.
- ^Parikh 2022,p. 21.
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- ^Parikh 2022,p. 68.
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- ^Parikh 2022,p. 153.
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- ^Ekhtiar, Maryam; Parikh, Rachel (2020)."Power and Piety: Islamic Talismans on the Battlefield".In Yahya, Farouk; Leoni, Francesca; Saif, Liana; Melvin-Koushk, Matthew (eds.).Islamicate Occult Sciences in Theory and Practice.BRILL. p. 425.ISBN978-90-04-42697-9.
- ^"The Khalili Falnamah".Khalili Collections.2021.Retrieved2021-11-11.
- ^Afšār, Īraj (20 January 2012)."FĀL-NĀMA".Encyclopædia Iranica.Vol. IX. pp. 172–176.
- ^Kahl, Oliver (1988)."Ein anonymes persisches Orakelbuch (fāl-nāmah) aus dem späten 10./16. Jahrhundert".Die Welt des Orients(in German).19:118–141.ISSN0043-2547.JSTOR25683294.
Sources
[edit]- Parikh, Rachel (2022).The Khalili Fālnāmah.London: The Nour Foundation in association with Azimuth Editions.ISBN9781874780946.OCLC1340908405.
Further reading
[edit]- Farhad, Massumeh; Baǧci, Serpil (2009).Falnama: the book of omens.London: Thames & Hudson.ISBN9780500515112.OCLC428852533.
- Kahl, Oliver (1988). "Ein anonymes persisches Orakelbuch (fāl-nāmah) aus dem späten 10./16. Jahrhundert".Die Welt des Orients(in German).19:118–141.ISSN0043-2547.JSTOR25683294.
