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Fig

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For other uses, seeFig (disambiguation).
Ficus carica– Common fig
Foliage and fruit drawn in 1771[1]
Scientific classificationEdit this classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Rosids
Order: Rosales
Family: Moraceae
Genus: Ficus
Subgenus: F.subg.Ficus
Species:
F. carica
Binomial name
Ficus carica
Synonyms[2]
Synonymy
  • Caprificus insectiferaGasp.
  • Caprificus leucocarpaGasp.
  • Caprificus oblongataGasp.
  • Caprificus pedunculata(Miq.) Gasp.
  • Caprificus rugosa(Miq.) Gasp.
  • Caprificus sphaerocarpaGasp.
  • Ficus albescensMiq.
  • Ficus burdigalensisPoit.&Turpin
  • Ficus caprificusRisso
  • Ficus colchicaGrossh.
  • Ficus colombraGasp.
  • Ficus communisLam.
  • Ficus deliciosaGasp.
  • Ficus dottataGasp.
  • Ficus globosaMiq. 1848 notBlume1825
  • Ficus hypoleucaGasp.
  • Ficus hyrcanaGrossh.
  • Ficus kopetdagensisPachom.
  • Ficus latifoliaSalisb.
  • Ficus leucocarpaGasp.
  • Ficus macrocarpaGasp.
  • Ficus neapolitanaMiq.
  • Ficus pachycarpaGasp.
  • Ficus pedunculataMiq.
  • Ficus polymorphaGasp.
  • Ficus praecoxGasp.
  • Ficus reginaMiq.
  • Ficus rugosaMiq.
  • Ficus silvestrisRisso
  • Ficus rupestris(Hausskn.exBoiss.) Azizian

Thefigis the edible fruit ofFicus carica,a species of small tree in theflowering plantfamilyMoraceae,nativeto theMediterraneanregion, together with western and southern Asia. It has been cultivated since ancient times and is now widely grown throughout the world.[3][4]Ficus caricais thetype speciesof the genusFicus,containing over 800 tropical and subtropical plant species.

A fig plant is a smalldeciduoustree or large shrub growing up to 7–10 m (23–33 ft) tall, with smooth white bark. Its large leaves have three to five deeplobes.Its fruit (referred to assyconium,a type ofmultiple fruit) is tear-shaped, 3–5 cm (1–2 in) long, with a green skin that may ripen toward purple or brown, and sweet soft reddish flesh containing numerous crunchy seeds. The milkysapof the green parts is anirritantto human skin. In the Northern Hemisphere, fresh figs are in season from late summer to early autumn. They tolerate moderate seasonal frost and can be grown even in hot-summer continental climates.

Figs can be eaten fresh or dried, or processed into jam, rolls, biscuits and other types of desserts. Since ripe fruit does not transport and keep well, most commercial production is in dried and processed forms. Raw figs contain roughly 80% water and 20%carbohydrates,with negligible protein, fat and micronutrient content. They are a moderate source ofdietary fiber.

In 2018, world production of raw figs was 1.14 milliontonnes,led byTurkeyand North African countries (Egypt,Morocco,andAlgeria) as the largest producers, collectively accounting for 64% of the total.[5]

Etymology

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The wordfig,first recorded in English in the 13th century, derives from (Old) Frenchfigue,itself from Occitan (Provençal)figa,from Romance*fica,fromClassical Latinficus(fig or fig-tree).[6]Italian hasfico,directly derived from Latinficus.The name of thecaprifig,Ficus caprificusRisso, is derived both from Latincaper,genitivecapri(he-goat) and Englishfig.[7]

Biology

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Description

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Ficus caricais agynodioecious,deciduoustreeor largeshrubthat grows up to 7–10 m (23–33 ft) tall, with smooth whitebark.Its fragrant leaves are12–25 cm (4+1⁄2–10 in) long and 10–18 cm (4–7 in) wide, and are deeply lobed (three or five lobes).

The fig fruit develops as a hollow, fleshy structure called thesyconiumthat is lined internally with numerousunisexualflowers. The tiny flowers bloom inside this cup-like structure. Although commonly called a fruit, the syconium is botanically aninfructescence,a type ofmultiple fruit.The small fig flowers and later small single-seeded (true) fruits line its interior surface. A small opening orostiole,visible on the middle of the fruit, is a narrow passage that allows thespecialized fig wasp,Blastophaga psenes,to enter the inflorescence and pollinate the flowers, after which each fertilizedovule(one per flower, in itsovary) develops into a seed. At maturity, these 'seeds' (actually single-seeded fruits) line the inside of each fig.

The edible mature syconium develops into a fleshyfalse fruitbearing the numerous one-seeded fruits, which are technicallydrupelets.[8]The whole fig fruit is 3–5 cm (1–2 in) long, with a green skin that sometimes ripens toward purple or brown.Ficus caricahas milky sap, produced bylaticifercells. Thesapof the green parts is anirritantto human skin.[9]

Habitat

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Mountain fig tree inZibad

The common fig tree has been cultivated since ancient times and grows wild in dry and sunny locations with deep and fresh soil, and in rocky locations that are at sea level to 1,700 metres in elevation. It prefers relatively porous and freely draining soil, and can grow in nutritionally poor soil. Unlike other fig species,Ficus caricadoes not always require pollination by a wasp or from another tree,[10][11]but can be pollinated by thefig wasp,Blastophaga psenesto produce seeds. Fig wasps are not present to pollinate in colder regions such as the British Isles.[12]

The species has become naturalized in scattered locations in Asia and North America.[13][14]

Bud
Leaves and immature fruit
Figs in various stages of ripening

The plant tolerates seasonal drought, and the Middle Eastern and Mediterranean climates are especially suitable to it. Situated in a favorable habitat, mature specimens can grow to considerable size as large, dense, shade trees. Its aggressive root system precludes its cultivation in many urban locations, yet in nature this characteristic helps the plant to root in the most inhospitable locations. Having a great need of water, it is mostly aphreatophytethat extracts the needed water from sources in or on the ground. Consequently, it frequently grows in locations with standing or running water, e. g. in valleys of rivers and in ravines that collect water. The deeply rooted plant searches for groundwater inaquifers,ravines,or cracks in rocks. With access to this water, the tree cools the hot environments in which it grows, thus producing fresh and pleasant habitat for many animals that shelter in its shade during periods of intense heat.[citation needed]

The mountain or rock fig (Persian:انجیر کوهی,romanized:anjīr kuhi) is a wild variety, tolerant of cold dry climates, of the semi-arid rocky montane regions of Iran, especially in the Kūhestān mountains ofKhorasan.[9]

Ecology

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Ficus caricais dispersed by birds and mammals that scatter their seeds in droppings. Fig fruit is an important food source for much of the fauna in some areas, and the tree owes its expansion to those that feed on its fruit. The common fig tree also sprouts from the root and stolon tissues.[citation needed]

Cultivation

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From ancient times

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"Schiocca":Calabriandried figs
Further information:Domestication of Ficus carica

The edible fig is one of the first plants that were cultivated by humans. Ninesubfossilfigs of aparthenocarpic(and therefore sterile) type dating to about 9400–9200 BC were found in the earlyNeolithicvillageGilgal I(in theJordan Valley,13 km north of Jericho). The find precedes the domestication ofwheat,barley,andlegumes,and may thus be the first known instance of agriculture. It is proposed that this sterile but desirable type was planted and cultivated intentionally, one thousand years before the next crops were domesticated (wheat andrye).[15][16][17]In ancientPalestine,fig-cakeswere often produced from selected ripe figs.[18]

Figs were widespread inancient Greece,and their cultivation was described by bothAristotleandTheophrastus.Aristotle noted that as in animal sexes, figs have individuals of two kinds, one (the cultivated fig) that bears fruit, and one (the wild caprifig) that assists the other to bear fruit. Further, Aristotle recorded that the fruits of the wild fig containpsenes(fig wasps); these begin life as larvae, and the adultpsensplits its "skin" (pupa) and flies out of the fig to find and enter a cultivated fig, saving it from dropping. Theophrastus observed that just asdate palmshave male and female flowers, and that farmers (from the East) help by scattering "dust" from the male onto the female, and as a male fish releases his milt over the female's eggs, so Greek farmers tie wild figs to cultivated trees. They do not say directly that figs reproduce sexually, however.[19]

Figs were also a common food source for theRomans.Cato the Elder,in his c. 160 BCDe Agri Cultura,lists several strains of figs grown at the time he wrote his handbook: the Mariscan, African, Herculanean, Saguntine, and the black Tellanian.[20]The fruits were used, among other things, to fatten geese for the production of a precursor offoie gras.Rome's firstemperor,Augustus,was reputed to have been poisoned with figs from his garden smeared with poison by his wifeLivia.[21][22]For this reason, or perhaps because of her horticultural expertise, a variety of fig known as theLivianawas cultivated in Roman gardens.[23]

It was cultivated fromAfghanistantoPortugal,also grown inPithoragarhin theKumaonhills ofIndia.From the 15th century onwards, it was grown in areas including NorthernEuropeand theNew World.[3]In the 16th century, CardinalReginald Poleintroduced fig trees toLambeth Palacein London.[citation needed]

In 1769, Spanish missionaries led byJunipero Serrabrought the first figs to California. TheMissionvariety, which they cultivated, is still popular.[24]The fact that it isparthenocarpic(self-pollinating) made it an ideal cultivar for introduction.[citation needed]

The Kadotacultivaris even older, being mentioned by the Roman naturalistPliny the Elderin the 1st century A.D.[25]Pliny recorded thirty varieties of figs.[26]

The name Kadota name did not exist in the era of Pliny the Elder nor is it mentioned in Pliny's works. Also only 29 figs were recorded in his work; Pliny the Elder, The Natural History, English translation by John Bostock and H.T. Riley, Book XV, CHAP. 19. (18.)—TWENTY-NINE VARIETIES OF THE FIG.

The Kadota name was created in the early 20th century in California, USA, to name a "sport" or genetic deviation from a Dotatto fig tree as documented in The Kadota Fig: A Treatise On Its Origin, Planting And Care by W. Sam Clark.

Modern

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Variegated fig
Fresh figs
Dry Figs,Khari Baolimarket,Old Delhi

The common fig is grown for its ediblefruitthroughout thetemperateworld. It is also grown as an ornamental tree, and in theUKthecultivars'Brown Turkey'[27]and 'Ice Crystal' (mainly grown for its unusual foliage)[28]have gained theRoyal Horticultural Society'sAward of Garden Merit.[29]

Figs are also grown inGermany,mainly in private gardens inside built up areas. There is no commercial fig growing.[30]ThePalatine regionin the German South West has an estimated 80,000 fig trees. The variety Brown Turkey is the most widespread in the region.[31]There are about a dozen quite widespread varieties hardy enough to survive winter outdoors mostly without special protection. There are even two local varieties, "Martinsfeige"and"Lussheim",which may be the hardiest varieties in the region.[32]

As the population ofCaliforniagrew, especially after thegold rush,a number of other cultivars were brought there by persons and nurserymen from the east coast of the US and from France and England. By the end of the 19th century, it became apparent that California had the potential for being an ideal fig producing state because of its Mediterranean-like climate and latitude of 38 degrees, lining upSan Franciscowithİzmir,Turkey. G. P. Rixford first brought true Smyrna figs to California in 1880. The most popular cultivar of Smyrna-type fig isCalimyrna,being a name that combines "California" and "Smyrna". The cultivar, however, is not one that was produced by a breeding program, and instead is from one of the cuttings brought to California in the latter part of the 19th century. It is identical to the cultivarLob Injirthat has been grown in Turkey for centuries.[25]

Figs can be found incontinental climateswith hot summers as far north asHungaryandMoravia.Thousands of cultivars, most named, have been developed as human migration brought the fig to many places outside its natural range. Fig plants can bepropagatedby seed or byvegetativemethods. Vegetative propagation is quicker and more reliable, as it does not yield the inedible caprifigs. Seeds germinate readily in moist conditions and grow rapidly once established. For vegetative propagation, shoots with buds can be planted in well-watered soil in the spring or summer, or a branch can be scratched to expose the bast (inner bark) and pinned to the ground to allow roots to develop.[33]

Two crops of figs can be produced each year.[34]The first orbrebacrop develops in the spring on last year's shoot growth. The main fig crop develops on the current year's shoot growth and ripens in the late summer or fall. The main crop is generally superior in quantity and quality, but some cultivars such as 'Black Mission', 'Croisic', and 'Ventura' produce good breba crops.[citation needed]

There are three types of edible figs:[35]

  • Persistent (or common) figs have all female flowers that do not need pollination for fruiting; the fruit can develop throughparthenocarpicmeans. This is a popular horticulture fig for home gardeners. Dottato (Kadota), Black Mission, Brown Turkey, Brunswick, and Celeste are some representative cultivars.
  • Caducous (or Smyrna) figs require cross pollination by thefig waspwith pollen fromcaprifigsfor the fruit to mature. If not pollinated the immature fruits drop. Some cultivars are Marabout, Inchàrio, and Zidi.
  • Intermediate (or San Pedro) figs set an unpollinated breba crop but need pollination for the later main crop. Examples are Lampeira, King, and San Pedro.

There are dozens of fig cultivars, including main and breba cropping varieties, and an edible caprifig (the Croisic). Varieties are often local, found in a single region of one country.[34][36]

Overwintering

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People of theItalian diasporawho live in cold-winter climates have the practice of burying imported fig trees to overwinter them and protect the fruiting hard wood from cold.[37]Italian immigrants to America in the 19th century introduced this common practice in cities such asNew York,Philadelphia,Boston,andToronto,where winters are normally too cold to leave the tree exposed.[38]This practice consists in digging a trench that is appropriate to the size of the specimen, some of which are more than 10 feet tall, severing part of the root system, and bending the specimen into the trench. Specimens are often wrapped in waterproof material to discourage development ofmouldandfungus,then covered with a heavy layer of soil and leaves. Sometimesplywoodorcorrugated metalis placed on top to secure the tree.[39]In borderline climates like New York City burying trees is no longer needed because low winter temperatures have increased. Often specimens are simply wrapped in plastic and other insulating material, or not protected if planted in a sheltered site against a wall that absorbs sunlight.[38]

Breeding

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While the fig contains more naturally occurring varieties than any other tree crop, a formal breeding program was not developed until the beginning of the 20th century.[40]Ira Condit, "High Priest of the Fig," and William Storey tested some thousands of fig seedlings in the early 20th century based atUniversity of California, Riverside.[36]It was then continued at theUniversity of California, Davis.However, the fig breeding program was ultimately closed in the 1980s.[40]

Due to insect and fungal disease pressure in both dried and fresh figs, the breeding program was revived in 1989 by James Doyle and Louise Ferguson using thegermplasmestablished at UC Riverside by Ira Condit and William Storey. Crosses were made and two new varieties are now in production in California: the public variety "Sierra", and the patented variety "Sequoia".[41]

Production

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Fig production – 2020
Country (tonnes)
Turkey
 320,000
Egypt
 201,212
Morocco
 144,246
Algeria
 116,143
Iran
 107,791
Spain
 59,900
Syria
 46,502
United States
 27,084
Albania
 21,889
Greece
 19,840
Brazil
 19,601
World
 1,264,943
Source: United Nations FAOSTAT[5]

In 2020, world production of raw figs was 1.26 million tonnes, led byTurkey(with 25% of the world total),Egypt,Morocco,andAlgeriaas the largest producers collectively accounting for 62% of the total.[5]

Food

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WikibooksCookbookhas a recipe/module on

Figs can be eaten fresh or dried, and used injam-making. Most commercial production is in dried or otherwise processed forms, since the ripe fruit does not transport well, and once picked does not keep well. The widely producedfig roll( "Fig Newton"is a trademark of Nabisco) is a biscuit (or cookie) with a filling made from figs.

In the Northern Hemisphere, fresh figs are in season from August through to early October. Fresh figs used in cooking should be plump and soft, and without bruising or splits. If they smell sour, the figs have become over-ripe. Slightly under-ripe figs can be kept at room temperature for 1–2 days to ripen before serving. Figs are most flavorful at room temperature.[42]

Freshly harvested figs underwent two distinct drying methods for preservation. The first method was natural sun-drying, where the figs were exposed to the warmth and light of the sun. The second method involved oven-drying, where the figs were placed in a controlled temperature environment within an oven.[43]Each process has its unique impact on the texture and flavor profile of the dried figs.[43]

Nutrition

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Fig, raw
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy310 kJ (74 kcal)
19.2 g
Sugars16.3 g
Dietary fiber3 g
0.3 g
0.8 g
Vitamins and minerals
VitaminsQuantity
%DV†
Vitamin A equiv.
1%
7 μg
Thiamine (B1)
5%
0.06 mg
Riboflavin (B2)
4%
0.05 mg
Niacin (B3)
3%
0.4 mg
Pantothenic acid (B5)
6%
0.3 mg
Vitamin B6
6%
0.1 mg
Folate (B9)
2%
6 μg
Vitamin C
2%
2 mg
Vitamin E
1%
0.11 mg
Vitamin K
4%
4.7 μg
MineralsQuantity
%DV†
Calcium
3%
35 mg
Iron
2%
0.4 mg
Magnesium
4%
17 mg
Manganese
6%
0.13 mg
Phosphorus
1%
14 mg
Potassium
8%
232 mg
Sodium
0%
1 mg
Zinc
1%
0.15 mg
Other constituentsQuantity
Water79 g
Link to USDA Database entry
†Percentages estimated usingUS recommendationsfor adults,[44]except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation fromthe National Academies.[45]
Fig, dried, uncooked
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy1,041 kJ (249 kcal)
63.9 g
Sugars47.9 g
Dietary fiber9.8 g
0.93 g
3.3 g
Vitamins and minerals
VitaminsQuantity
%DV†
Vitamin A equiv.
0%
0 μg
Thiamine (B1)
7%
0.085 mg
Riboflavin (B2)
6%
0.082 mg
Niacin (B3)
4%
0.62 mg
Pantothenic acid (B5)
9%
0.43 mg
Vitamin B6
6%
0.11 mg
Folate (B9)
2%
9 μg
Vitamin C
1%
1 mg
Vitamin E
2%
0.35 mg
Vitamin K
13%
15.6 μg
MineralsQuantity
%DV†
Calcium
12%
162 mg
Iron
11%
2 mg
Magnesium
16%
68 mg
Manganese
22%
0.51 mg
Phosphorus
5%
67 mg
Potassium
23%
680 mg
Sodium
0%
10 mg
Zinc
5%
0.55 mg
Other constituentsQuantity
Water30 g
Link to USDA Database entry
†Percentages estimated usingUS recommendationsfor adults,[44]except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation fromthe National Academies.[45]

Rawfigs are 79% water, 19%carbohydrates,1%protein,and contain negligiblefat(table). They are a moderate source (14% of theDaily Value,DV) ofdietary fiberand 310 kilojoules (74 kcal) offood energyper 100-gram serving, and do not supply essentialmicronutrientsin significant contents (table).

Whendehydratedto 30% water, figs have a carbohydrate content of 64%, protein content of 3%, and fat content of 1%.[46]In a 100-gram serving, providing 1,041 kJ (249 kcal) of food energy,driedfigs are a rich source (more than 20% DV) of dietary fiber and theessential mineralmanganese(26% DV), whilecalcium,iron,magnesium,potassium,andvitamin Kare in moderate amounts.[46]

In fig fruits, the levels of glucose and fructose are nearly identical, with glucose being slightly more prevalent overall, while the presence of sucrose is minimal.[47][48][49]Still, in some varieties of figs, the fructose content can occasionally slightly surpass that of glucose.[47]

Research and folk medicine

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Phytochemicals

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Figs contain diversephytochemicalsunderbasic researchfor their potential biological properties, includingpolyphenols,such asgallic acid,chlorogenic acid,syringic acid,(+)-catechin,(−)-epicatechin andrutin.[50][51]Fig color may vary between cultivars due to various concentrations ofanthocyanins,withcyanidin-3-O-rutinosidehaving particularly high content.[52]

Folk medicine

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In some old Mediterraneanfolk practices,the milkysapof the fig plant was used to softencalluses,removewarts,and deterparasites.[53]

Since the late 1800s,syrup of figscombined withsennahas been available as a laxative.

Toxicity

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Like other plant species in the familyMoraceae,contact with the milky sap ofFicus caricafollowed by exposure toultravioletlight can causephytophotodermatitis,[54][55]a potentially serious skin inflammation. Although the plant is not poisonous per se,F. caricais listed in the FDA Database of Poisonous Plants.[56]

Organic chemical compounds calledfuranocoumarinsare known to cause phytophotodermatitis in humans.[57]The common fig contains significant quantities of two furanocoumarins,psoralenandbergapten.[58]The essential oil of fig leaves contains more than 10% psoralen, the highest concentration of any organic compound isolated from fig leaves.[59]Psoralen appears to be the primary furanocoumarin compound responsible for fig leaf-induced phytophotodermatitis.[citation needed]

Psoralen and bergapten are found chiefly in the milky sap of the leaves and shoots ofF. caricabut not the fruits.[58]Neither psoralen nor bergapten were detected in the essential oil of fig fruits.[59]Thus there is no conclusive evidence that fig fruits cause phytophotodermatitis.[citation needed]

Cultural significance

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Babylonian mythology

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BabylonianIshtarfor example took the form of the divine fig tree Xikum, the "primeval mother at the central place of the earth", protectress of the saviourTammuz.Moreover, figs and the fig tree were closely linked with female sexuality. According toBarbara Walker'sencyclopedia on Goddess symbols, "This may account for the common use of the fig tree as a symbol of man's enlightenment, which was formerly supposed to come through his connection with the female principle."[60]

Buddhism

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Main articles:Bodhi treeandFicus religiosa

Gautama Buddhaattainedenlightenment(bodhi) after meditating underneath aFicus religiosa,known as thebodhi tree,for seven weeks (49 days) around 500 BCE. The site of enlightenment is in present-dayBodh Gayaand its bodhi tree has been replaced several times.[61]

Christianity and Judaism

[edit]
Main article:Figs in the Bible

In the BiblicalBook of Genesis,Adam and Eveclad themselves withfig leaves(Genesis 3:7) after eating theforbidden fruitfrom thetree of the knowledge of good and evil.Likewise, fig leaves, or depictions of fig leaves, have long been used to cover thegenitalsof nude figures in painting and sculpture, for example inMasaccio'sThe Expulsion from the Garden of Eden.Moreover, according to one opinion in the Talmud and the Jewish Biblical commentary, the forbidden fruit of the Tree of Knowledge in the Garden of Eden could have been a fig.[62]There is also a Christian tradition that the Tree of Knowledge was the same fig tree Christ withers in the Gospels.[63]

TheBook of Deuteronomyspecifies the fig as one of theSeven Species(Deuteronomy 8:7–8), describing the fertility of the land ofCanaan.This is a set of seven plants indigenous to the Middle East that together can provide food all year round. The list is organized by date of harvest, with the fig being fourth due to its main crop ripening during summer.[citation needed]

The biblical quote "each man under his own vine and fig tree" (Micah 4:4) has been used to denote peace and prosperity. It was commonly quoted to refer to the life that would be led by settlers in theAmerican West,[64]and was used byTheodor Herzlin his depiction of the futureJewish Homeland:"We are a commonwealth. In form it is new, but in purpose very ancient. Our aim is mentioned in the First Book of Kings: 'Judah and Israel shall dwell securely, each man under his own vine and fig tree, from Dan to Beersheba".[65]United States PresidentGeorge Washington,writing in 1790 to theTouro SynagogueofNewport, Rhode Island,extended the metaphor to denote the equality of all Americans regardless of faith.[66]

Islam

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Sura95 of theQur'anis namedal-Tīn(Arabicfor "The Fig" ), as it opens with theoath"By the fig and theolive."[67]

Wrongly attributedhadithsthatMuhammadstated figs are descended from paradise, and that they curehemorrhoidsare judged weak by specialists.[68]

Still lifeMesa( "Table" ) with dried figs and other fruits in a bowl byClara Peeters,1611

Fossil record

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10fossilendocarpsof †Ficus potentilloidesfrom the earlyMiocene,have been found in the Kristina Mine atHrádek nad NisouinNorth Bohemia,theCzech Republic.These fossils are similar to endocarps ofF. carica.[69]

See also

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References

[edit]
  1. ^1771 illustration from Trew, C.J.,Plantae selectae quarum imagines ad exemplaria naturalia Londini, in hortis curiosorum nutrit,vol. 8: t. 73 (1771), drawing by G.D. Ehret
  2. ^"Search results — The Plant List".theplantlist.org.Archivedfrom the original on 2021-06-28.Retrieved2014-12-29.
  3. ^abThe Fig: its History, Culture, and Curing,Gustavus A. Eisen, Washington, Govt. print. off., 1901
  4. ^RHS A-Z encyclopedia of garden plants.United Kingdom: Dorling Kindersley. 2008. p. 1136.ISBN978-1-4053-3296-5.
  5. ^abc"Raw fig production in 2018; Crops/World Regions/Production Quantity from picklists".UN Food and Agriculture Organization Corporate Statistical Database, FAOSTAT. 2019.Archivedfrom the original on 30 October 2018.Retrieved7 June2020.
  6. ^T.F. Hoad,The Concise Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology,Oxford University Press, 1986, page 171a.
  7. ^Condit, Ira J. (1947)The Fig;Chronica Botanica Co., Waltham, Massachusetts, USA.
  8. ^Wayne's Word: Sex Determination & Life Cycle inFicus caricaArchived2009-09-02 at theWayback Machine
  9. ^ab"Fig,Ficus carica".Purdue University: Horticulture & Landscape Architecture.Archivedfrom the original on January 25, 2021.RetrievedDecember 6,2014.
  10. ^Shannon Wolfe, "Carnivorous Figs: The Relationship Between Wasps and FigsArchived2016-12-20 at theWayback Machine",University of California Master Gardener Program of Contra Costa County, 27 August 2014.
  11. ^Louise Ferguson and Carlos H. Crisosto, "The Fig: Overview of an Ancient FruitArchived2016-10-05 at theWayback Machine",inHortScience,August 2007, Vol. 42, No. 5, pages 1083–7.
  12. ^Blackburne-Maze P (2003).Fruit: an Illustrated History.Buffalo, New York: Firefly Books. pp. 209–11.ISBN978-1-55297-780-4.Archivedfrom the original on February 27, 2024.RetrievedMarch 22,2017.
  13. ^"Ficus carica in Flora of China @ efloras.org".efloras.org.Archivedfrom the original on 2015-09-24.Retrieved2015-08-19.
  14. ^"Biota of North America Program 2014 county distribution map".Archivedfrom the original on 2015-10-22.Retrieved2015-08-19.
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Wikisourcehas the text of the1911Encyclopædia Britannicaarticle "Fig".
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