Ulster Cycle

"Cuchulain in Battle", illustration byJ. C. Leyendeckerin T. W. Rolleston'sMyths & Legends of the Celtic Race,1911

TheUlster Cycle(Irish:an Rúraíocht),formerly known as theRed Branch Cycle,is a body ofmedieval Irishheroic legends and sagas of theUlaid.It is set far in the past, in what is now easternUlsterand northernLeinster,particularly countiesArmagh,DownandLouth.It focuses on the mythical Ulster kingConchobar mac Nessaand his court atEmain Macha,the heroCú Chulainn,and their conflict with theConnachtaand queenMedb.The longest and most important tale is the epicTáin Bó Cúailnge(Cattle Raid of Cooley). The Ulster Cycle is one of the four 'cycles' ofIrish mythologyand legend, along with theMythological Cycle,theFianna Cycleand theKings' Cycle.

Ulster Cycle stories

The Ulster Cycle stories are set in and around the reign of KingConchobar mac Nessa,who rules the Ulaid fromEmain Macha(now Navan Fort nearArmagh). The most prominent hero of the cycle is Conchobar's nephew,Cú Chulainn.The Ulaid are most often in conflict with theConnachta,led by their queen,Medb,her husband,Ailill,and their allyFergus mac Róich,a former king of the Ulaid in exile. The longest and most important story of the cycle is theTáin Bó Cúailngeor "Cattle Raid of Cooley", in which Medb raises an enormous army to invade theCooley peninsulaand steal the Ulaid's prize bull,Donn Cúailnge,opposed only by the seventeen-year-old Cú Chulainn. In the Mayo Táin, theTáin Bó Flidhaisit is a white cow known as the 'Maol' that is the object of desire. One of the better known stories is the tragedy ofDeirdre,source of plays byW. B. YeatsandJ. M. Synge.Other stories tell of the births, courtships and deaths of the characters and of the conflicts between them.

The stories are written inOldandMiddle Irish,mostly in prose, interspersed with occasional verse passages, with the earliest extant versions dated to the 12th century. The tone is terse, violent, sometimes comic, and mostly realistic, although supernatural elements intrude from time to time. Cú Chulainn in particular has superhuman fighting skills, the result of his semi-divine ancestry, and when particularly aroused his battle frenzy orríastradtransforms him into an unrecognisable monster who knows neither friend nor foe. EvidentdeitieslikeLugh,theMorrígan,AengusandMidiralso make occasional appearances.

Unlike the majority of early Irish historical tradition, which presents ancient Ireland as largely united under a succession ofHigh Kings,the stories of the Ulster Cycle depict a country with no effective central authority, divided into local and provincial kingdoms often at war with each other. The civilisation depicted is a pagan, pastoral one ruled by a warrior aristocracy. Bonds between aristocratic families are cemented by fosterage of each other's children. Wealth is reckoned in cattle. Warfare mainly takes the form ofcattle raids,or single combats between champions at fords. The characters' actions are sometimes restricted by religious taboos known asgeasa.

Manuscripts

The stories are preserved in manuscripts of the 12th to 15th centuries but, in many cases, are believed to be much older. The language of the earliest stories is dateable to the 8th century, and events and characters are referred to in poems dating to the 7th.

The earliest extant manuscripts of the Ulster Cycle areLebor na hUidre,"The Book of the Dun Cow", dating to no later than 1106, andThe Book of Leinster,compiled around 1160.

Chronology

The events of the cycle are traditionally supposed to take place around the time ofChrist.The stories of Conchobar's birth and death are synchronised with the birth and death of Christ,and theLebor Gabála Érenndates theTáin Bó Cúailngeand the birth and death of Cú Chulainn to the reign of the High KingConaire Mor,who it says was a contemporary of theRoman emperorAugustus(27 BC — AD 14).Some stories, including theTáin,refer toCairbre Nia Feras the king ofTara,implying that no High King is in place at the time.

The presence of the Connachta as the Ulaid's enemies is an apparent anachronism: the Connachta were traditionally said to have been the descendants ofConn Cétchathach,who is supposed to have lived several centuries later. Later stories use the nameCóiced Ol nEchmachtas an earlier name for the province of Connacht to get around this problem. However, the chronology of early Irish historical tradition is an artificial attempt by Christian monks to synchronise native traditions with classical and biblical history, and it is possible that historical wars between the Ulaid and the Connachta have been chronologically misplaced.

Historicity

Along with theLebor Gabála Érenn,elements of the Ulster Cycle were for centuries regarded as historical in Ireland, and the antiquity of these records was a matter of politicised debate; modern scholars have generally taken a more critical stance.

Some scholars of the 19th and early 20th centuries, such asEugene O'CurryandKuno Meyer,believed that the stories and characters of the Ulster Cycle were essentially historical;T. F. O'Rahillywas inclined to believe the stories were entirely mythical and the characterseuhemerisedgods; andErnst Windischthought that the cycle, while largely imaginary, contains little genuine myth.Elements of the tales are reminiscent of classical descriptions ofCelticsocieties inGaul,GalatiaandBritain.Warriors fight with swords, spears and shields, and ride in two-horse chariots, driven by skilled charioteers drawn from the lower classes.They take and preserve the heads of slain enemies,and boast of their valour at feasts, with the bravest awarded thecuradmíror "champion's portion", the choicest cut of meat.Kings are advised bydruids(Old Irishdruí,pluraldruíd), and poets have great power and privilege. These elements led scholars such asKenneth H. Jacksonto conclude that the stories of the Ulster Cycle preserved authentic Celtic traditions from the pre-ChristianIron Age.Other scholars have challenged that conclusion, stressing similarities with early medieval Irish society and the influence of classical literature,while considering the possibility that the stories may contain genuinely ancient material from oral tradition.J. P. Mallorythus found the archaeological record and linguistic evidence to generally disfavour the presence of Iron Age remnants in the Ulster andMythologicalCycles, but emphasised the links to theCorlea Trackwayin the earlierTochmarc Étaíneas a notable exception.

It is probable that the oldest strata of tales are those involving the complex relationship between the Ulaid and theÉrainn,represented in the Ulster Cycle byCú Roíand theClanna Dedad,and later byConaire Mór.It was observed a century ago byEoin MacNeilland other scholars that the historical Ulaid, as represented by theDál Fiatach,were apparently related to the Clanna Dedad.T. F. O'Rahillylater concluded that the Ulaid were in fact a branch of the Érainn.A number of the Érainn appear to have been powerfulKings of Tara,with a secondary base of power at the now lostTemair Luachra"Tara of the Rushes" in West Munster, where some action in the Ulster Cycle takes place and may even have been transplanted from the midland Tara. Additionally it may be noteworthy that the several small cycles of tales involving the early dominance of the Érainn in Ireland generally predate the majority of the Ulster Cycle tales in content, if not in their final forms, and are believed to be of a substantially more pre-Christian character. Several of these do not even mention the famous characters from the Ulster Cycle, and those that do may have been slightly reworked after its later expansion with theTáinand rise in popularity.

Texts

Earliest strata

• Conailla Medb míchuru"Medbhas entered evil contracts "(7th-century poem attributed toLuccreth moccu Chiara)
• The lost manuscriptCín Dromma Snechtai,associated with Bangor, is thought to have included versions of these five texts:
  • Compert Con Culainn"The Birth ofCú Chulainn"
  • Compert Conchobuir"The Birth ofConchobor"
  • Fíl and grían Glinne Aí
  • Forfess fer Falchae"Night-watch against the men of Falgae"
  • Verba Scathaige"The words ofScáthach"
• Material related to Cú Roí, such asAmra Con RoíandAided Con Roi
• References in Old Irish law, e.g.Cethairslicht Athgabálae.

Here follows a list of tales which are assigned to the Ulster Cycle, although it does not claim to be exhaustive. The classification according to 'genre' followed here is merely a convenient tool to bring clarity to a large body of texts, but it is not the only possible one nor does it necessarily reflect contemporary approaches of classifying texts.

CompertBirth

• Compert Con Culainn"The Birth ofCú Chulainn"
• Compert Conchobuir"The Birth ofConchobor"

Wooings and elopements

• Aided Conrói maic Dáiri
• Aithed Emere (le Tuir nGlesta)"The Elopement of Emer (with Tuir Glesta)"
• Aislinge Óenguso"The Dream of Óengus"
• Longes mac n-Uislenn"The Exile of the sons of Uisliu"
• Oided mac n-Uisneg
• Tochmarc Emire
• Tochmarc Étaíne
• Tochmarc Ferbe(orFís Conchobair)
• Tochmarc Luaine 7 aided Arthirne(second half of the 12th century)
• Tochmarc Treblainne

Feasts

• Da Gábail int sída"On the Taking of the (síd-)Mound "
• Echtra Neraí
• Scéla mucce maic Dathó"The Tale ofMac Da Thó's Pig "
• Mesca Ulad"The Intoxication of the Ulstermen"
• Fled Bricrenn"The Feast of Bricriu"
• Fled Bricrenn 7 Longes mac n-Duil Dermait
• Bruiden da Chocae"The Hostel of Da Choca"
• Togal Bruidne Da Derga"The Destruction of Da Derga's Hostel"
  • De Shíl Chonairi Móir"On the Descendants of Conaire Mór"
  • De Maccaib Conaire"On the sons of Conaire (Mór)"

Cath'Battle'

• Cath Airtig"The Battle of Airtech"
• Cath Aenaig Macha"The Battle of the Assembly of Macha"
• Cath Cumair"The Battle of Cumar" orCath Atha Comair
• Cath Findchorad"The Battle of Findchorad"
• Cath Leitrich Ruide"The Battle of Leititr Ruide"
• Cath Ruis na Ríg"The Battle ofRosnaree"
• Cogadh Fheargusa agus Chonchobhair"The Battle ofFergusandConchobor"
• Forfess fer Falchae"Night-watch against the men of Falgae"
• Comracc Con Chulainn re Senbecc"The Combat of Cú Chulainn with Senbecc"
• Cathcharpat Serda"The Scythed Battle-Chariot"

Táin Bó'Cattle-raid'

• Táin Bó CúailngeI
• Táin Bó CúailngeII
• Táin Bó CúailngeIII
• De Faillsigud Tána Bó Cuailnge"On the finding of theTáin Bó Cúailnge"
• Táin Bó Dartada"The Cattle Raid of Dartaid"
• Táin Bó FlidhaisI "The Cattle Raid ofFlidais"I
• Táin Bó FlidhaisII "The Cattle Raid ofFlidais"II
• Tain Bó Fraích"The Raid of Fróech's Cattle"
• Tain Bó Regamain"The Cattle Raid of Regamon"
• Tain Bó Regamna"The Cattle Raid of Regamain"

Remscéla(Fore-tales) to theTáin Bó Cúailnge

• Ces Noínden,In Ceas Naigen
• De Chophur in Dá Mucado
• Echtra Nerai
• see further:Táin Bó Cúailnge

Aided"Violent death"

• Aided Chonchobuir"The Death ofConchobor"
• Aided Áenfir Aífe"The Death ofAífe's Only Son "
• Cuchulinn 7 Conlaech"Cú Chulainn and Conla"
• Aided Con CulainnorBrislech Mór Maige Muirthemne
• Aided Ceit maic Mágach"The Death of Cét mac Mágach"
• Aided Cheltchair mac Uthechair"The Death of Celtchar mac Uthechair"
• Aided Derbforgaill"The Death of Derbforgaill"
• Aided Fergusa maic Roig"The Death of Fergus mac Róig"
• Imthechta Tuaithe Luachra 7 Aided Fergusa"The Proceedings of the People of Luchra and the Death of Fergus (mac Léti)"
• Aided Guill meic Garbada ocus Aided Gairb Glinne Ríge
• Aided Laegairi Buadaig"The Death of Loegaire Buadach"
• Goire Conaill Chernaig 7 Aided Aillela 7 Conall Chernaig"The Cherishing of Conall Cernach and the Deaths of Ailill and Conall Cernach"
• Aided Meidbe"The Death ofMedb"
• Ferchuitred Medba,Cath Boinne

Miscellaneous

• Verba Scathaige"The words ofScáthach"
• Scéla Conchobair maic Nessa"The Story of Conchobor mac Nessa"
• Siaburcharpat Con Culaind"Cú Chulainn's Phantom Chariot"
• Foglaim Con Culainn"Cú Chulainn's Training"
• Serglige Con Culainn"The Wasting Sickness of Cú Chulainn"
• Immacaldam in dá thuarad"The Colloquy of the Two Sages"
• Talland Étair"The Siege ofHowth"
• Cath Étair"The Battle ofHowth"
• Tromdámh Guaire(orImthecht na Tromdáime)
• Lánellach Tigi Rích 7 Ruirech"The Full Complement of the House of a King and an Overlord"
• Fochonn Loingse Fergusa meic Róig"The cause of the exile ofFergus mac Róig"
• Nede 7 Caier"NédeandCaier"
• Echtra Fergusa maic Léti"The Adventures of Fergus mac Léti"

Texts in translation

Most of the important Ulster Cycle tales can be found in the following publications:

• Thomas Kinsella,The Táin,Oxford University Press, 1969
• Stephen Dunford,Táin Bó Flidhaisor The Mayo Táin, Enniscrone, 2008
• Jeffrey Gantz,Early Irish Myths and Sagas,Penguin, 1981
• Tom Peete Cross & Clark Harris Slover,Ancient Irish Tales,Henry Holt & Company, 1936 (reprinted by Barnes & Noble, 1996)
• John T Koch & John Carey,The Celtic Heroic Age,Celtic Studies Publications, 2000
• Kuno Meyer,The Death-Tales of the Ulster Heroes,Todd Lecture Series, 1906
• A H Leahy,Heroic Romances of Ireland,2 vols, 1905–1906 (Online at Sacred Texts)

Online translations

• The Martial Career of Conghal Cláiringhnech
• The Birth of Conchobar
• Tidings of Conchobar son of Ness
• The War of Fergus and Conchobar
• Medb's Men, or the Battle of the Boyne
• The Conception of Conall Cernach
• The Birth of Cú Chulainn
• The Wooing of Emer
• The Death of Aífe's Only Son
• The Story of Mac Dathó's Pig
• Bricriu's Feast
• The Exile of the Sons of Usnech
• The Dream of Óengus
• The Cattle Raid of Fráech
• The Raid for the Cattle of Regamon
• The Raid for Dartaid's Cattle
• The Driving of Flidais's Cattle
• The Courtship of FerbBook of Leinster version;Egerton version
• The Adventures of Nera
• The Cattle Raid of Regamna
• The Debility of the Ulstermen
• The Cattle Raid of CooleyRecension 1;Recension 2
• The Battle of Ross na Ríg
• The Death of Cú Roí
• The Sick-Bed of Cuchulain
• The Pursuit of Gruaidh Ghriansholus
• The Destruction of Da Derga's Hostel
• The Death of Celtchar mac Uthechair
• The Affliction of the Ulstermen
• The Colloquy of the Two Sages
• The Death of Cú Chulainn
• The Death of Cet mac Mágach
• The Death of Lóegaire Búadach
• The Death of Conchobar
• The Battle of Airtech
• The Death of Fergus mac Róich
• The Violent Death of Medb
• The Phantom Chariot of Cú Chulainn
• The Revealing of theTáin Bó Cúailnge

Adaptations

The Ulster Cycle provided material for Irish writers of theGaelic revivalaround the turn of the 20th century.Augusta, Lady Gregory'sCuchulain of Muirthemne(1902) retold most of the important stories of the cycle,as didEleanor Hullfor younger readers inThe Boys' Cuchulain(1904).William Butler Yeatswrote a series of plays –On Baile's Strand(1904),Deirdre(1907),The Green Helmet(1910),At the Hawk's Well(1917),The Only Jealousy of Emer(1919) andThe Death of Cuchulain(1939) – and a poem,Cuchulain's Fight with the Sea(1892), based on the legends, and completed the lateJohn Millington Synge's unfinished playDeirdre of the Sorrows(1910), in collaboration with Synge's widow Molly Allgood.

Literary adaptations of the 20th and 21st centuries includeRosemary Sutcliff's children's novelThe Hound of Ulster(1963),Morgan Llywelyn'sRed Branch(1989),Patricia Finney's novelA Shadow of Gulls(1977), andVincent Woods' playA Cry from Heaven(2005). Randy Lee Eickhoff has also created a series of six novelistic translations and retellings, beginning withThe Raid(2000).

Parts of the cycle have been adapted aswebcomics,including Patrick Brown'sNess(2007–2008) andThe Cattle Raid of Cooley(2008–2015); and M.K. Reed's unfinishedAbout a Bull(2011–2013) based around Queen Medb.The myth ofCú Chulainnwas also adapted intographic novelssuch asAn Táin(2006) byColmán Ó Raghallaighand byBarry ReynoldsandHound(2014–2018) byPaul J. BolgerandBarry Devlin.

The dramatic musical program "Celtic Hero" in theRadio Talesseries forNational Public Radio,was based on the Ulster Cycle storyTochmarc Emire.Deirdreis an opera adaptation of the Ulster Cycle composed 1943-5, by the Canadian composer,Healey Willan,the text byJohn Coulter.It was the first full-length opera commissioned by the CBC, and was premiered 20 Apr 1946 on radio asDeirdre of the Sorrows,conducted byEttore Mazzoleniand withFrances Jamesas Deirdre. The myth of Cú Chulainn was adapted by Irish musicianGavin Dunne,better known as "Miracle of Sound," in the song "Tale of Cú Chulainn" on his 2020 albumLevel 11.

External links

• Media related toUlster Cycleat Wikimedia Commons
• Timeless Myths: Ulaid Cycle
• theulstercycle.org Analysis of Texts