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For other uses, seeFire (disambiguation).

A burningcandle

Fireis the rapidoxidationof a material (thefuel) in theexothermicchemical process ofcombustion,releasingheat,light,and various reactionproducts.[1][a] At a certain point in the combustion reaction, called the ignition point, flames are produced. Theflameis the visible portion of the fire. Flames consist primarily of carbon dioxide, water vapor, oxygen and nitrogen. If hot enough, the gases may become ionized to produceplasma.[2]Depending on the substances alight, and any impurities outside, thecolorof the flame and the fire'sintensitywill be different.[3]

Fire, in its most common form, has the potential to result inconflagration,which can lead to physical damage, which can be permanent, throughburning.Fire is a significant process that influences ecological systems worldwide. The positive effects of fire include stimulating growth and maintaining various ecological systems. Its negative effects include hazard to life and property, atmospheric pollution, and water contamination.[4]When fire removesprotective vegetation,heavyrainfallcan contribute to increasedsoil erosion by water.[5]Additionally, the burning of vegetation releasesnitrogeninto the atmosphere, unlike elements such aspotassiumandphosphoruswhich remain in theashand are quickly recycled into the soil.[6][7]This loss of nitrogen caused by a fire produces a long-term reduction in the fertility of the soil, which can be recovered as atmospheric nitrogen isfixedand converted toammoniaby natural phenomena such aslightningor byleguminousplants such asclover,peas,andgreen beans.

Fire is one of the fourclassical elementsand has been used by humans inrituals,in agriculture for clearing land, for cooking, generating heat and light, for signaling, propulsion purposes,smelting,forging,incinerationof waste,cremation,and as a weapon or mode of destruction.

Etymology

The word "fire" originated fromOld EnglishFyr'Fire, a fire', which can be traced back to theGermanicroot*fūr-,which itself comes from theProto-Indo-European*perjosfrom the root*paewr-'fire'.The current spelling of "fire" has been in use since as early as 1200, but it was not until around 1600 that it completely replaced theMiddle Englishtermfier(which is still preserved in the word "fiery" ).[8]

History

Fossil record

Main article:Fossil record of fire

The fossil record of fire first appears with the establishment of a land-based flora in theMiddle Ordovicianperiod,470million years ago,[9]permitting the accumulation ofoxygenin the atmosphere as never before, as the new hordes of land plants pumped it out as a waste product. When this concentration rose above 13%, it permitted the possibility ofwildfire.[10]Wildfire is first recorded in theLate Silurianfossil record,420million years ago,by fossils ofcharcoalifiedplants.[11][12]Apart from a controversial gap in theLate Devonian,charcoal is present ever since.[12]The level of atmospheric oxygen is closely related to the prevalence of charcoal: clearly oxygen is the key factor in the abundance of wildfire.[13]Fire also became more abundant when grasses radiated and became the dominant component of many ecosystems, around6 to 7million years ago;[14]this kindling providedtinderwhich allowed for the more rapid spread of fire.[13]These widespread fires may have initiated apositive feedbackprocess, whereby they produced a warmer, drier climate more conducive to fire.[13]

Human control of fire

Early human control

Main article:Control of fire by early humans
Bushman starting a fire inNamibia

The ability to control fire was a dramatic change in the habits of early humans.[15]Making fireto generate heat and light made it possible for people tocookfood, simultaneously increasing the variety and availability of nutrients and reducing disease by killing pathogenic microorganisms in the food.[16]The heat produced would also help people stay warm in cold weather, enabling them to live in cooler climates. Fire also kept nocturnal predators at bay. Evidence of occasional cooked food is found from1million years ago.[17]Although this evidence shows that fire may have been used in a controlled fashion about 1 million years ago,[18][19]other sources put the date of regular use at 400,000 years ago.[20]Evidence becomes widespread around 50 to 100 thousand years ago, suggesting regular use from this time; interestingly, resistance toair pollutionstarted to evolve in human populations at a similar point in time.[20]The use of fire became progressively more sophisticated, as it was used to create charcoal and to control wildlife from tens of thousands of years ago.[20]

Fire has also been used for centuries as a method of torture and execution, as evidenced bydeath by burningas well as torture devices such as theiron boot,which could be filled with water,oil,or evenleadand then heated over an open fire to the agony of the wearer.

Here, food is cooked in acauldronabove fire inSouth Africa.

By theNeolithic Revolution,during the introduction of grain-based agriculture, people all over the world used fire as a tool inlandscapemanagement. These fires were typicallycontrolled burnsor "cool fires", as opposed to uncontrolled "hot fires", which damage the soil. Hot fires destroy plants and animals, and endanger communities.[21]This is especially a problem in the forests of today where traditional burning is prevented in order to encourage the growth of timber crops. Cool fires are generally conducted in the spring and autumn. They clear undergrowth, burning upbiomassthat could trigger a hot fire should it get too dense. They provide a greater variety of environments, which encourages game and plant diversity. For humans, they make dense, impassable forests traversable. Another human use for fire in regards to landscape management is its use to clear land for agriculture. Slash-and-burn agriculture is still common across much of tropical Africa, Asia and South America. For small farmers, controlled fires are a convenient way to clear overgrown areas and release nutrients from standing vegetation back into the soil.[22]However, this useful strategy is also problematic. Growing population, fragmentation of forests and warming climate are making the earth's surface more prone to ever-larger escaped fires. These harm ecosystems and human infrastructure, cause health problems, and send up spirals of carbon and soot that may encourage even more warming of the atmosphere – and thus feed back into more fires. Globally today, as much as 5 million square kilometres – an area more than half the size of the United States – burns in a given year.[22]

Later human control

The Lyceum in 1861
The Great Fire of London(1666) andHamburgafter fourfire-bombingraids in July 1943, which killed an estimated 50,000 people[23]

There are numerous modern applications of fire. In its broadest sense, fire is used by nearly every human being on Earth in a controlled setting every day. Users ofinternal combustionvehicles employ fire every time they drive. Thermalpower stationsprovideelectricityfor a large percentage of humanity by igniting fuels such ascoal,oilornatural gas,then using the resultant heat to boil water intosteam,which then drivesturbines.

Use of fire in war

The use of fire inwarfarehas a longhistory.Fire was the basis of allearly thermal weapons.TheByzantinefleet usedGreek fireto attack ships and men.

The invention ofgunpowderin China led to thefire lance,a flame-thrower weapon dating to around 1000 CE which was a precursor toprojectile weapons driven by burning gunpowder.

The earliest modernflamethrowerswere used by infantry in theFirst World War,first used by German troops against entrenched French troops near Verdun in February 1915.[24]They were later successfully mounted on armoured vehicles in the Second World War.

Hand-thrownincendiary bombsimprovised from glass bottles, later known asMolotov cocktails,were deployed during theSpanish Civil Warin the 1930s. Also during that war, incendiary bombs were deployed againstGuernicaby FascistItalianand NaziGermanair forces that had been created specifically to supportFranco'sNationalists.

Incendiary bombs were dropped byAxisandAlliesduring the Second World War, notably onCoventry,Tokyo,Rotterdam,London,HamburgandDresden;in the latter two casesfirestormswere deliberately caused in which a ring of fire surrounding each city was drawn inward by an updraft caused by a central cluster of fires.[25]The United States Army Air Force also extensively used incendiaries against Japanese targets in the latter months of the war, devastating entire cities constructed primarily of wood and paper houses. The incendiary fluidnapalmwas used in July 1944, towards the end of theSecond World War,although its use did not gain public attention until theVietnam War.[26]

Fire management

Controlling a fire to optimize its size, shape, and intensity is generally calledfire management,and the more advanced forms of it, as traditionally (and sometimes still) practiced by skilled cooks,blacksmiths,ironmasters,and others, are highlyskilledactivities. They include knowledge of which fuel to burn; how to arrange the fuel; how to stoke the fire both in early phases and in maintenance phases; how to modulate the heat, flame, and smoke as suited to the desired application; how best to bank a fire to be revived later; how to choose, design, or modify stoves, fireplaces, bakery ovens, or industrialfurnaces;and so on. Detailed expositions of fire management are available in various books about blacksmithing, about skilledcampingormilitary scouting,and aboutdomestic arts.

Productive use for energy

Acoal-fired power stationin China

Burningfuelconverts chemical energy into heat energy;woodhas been used as fuel sinceprehistory.[27]TheInternational Energy Agencystates that nearly 80% of the world's power has consistently come fromfossil fuelssuch aspetroleum,natural gas,andcoalin the past decades.[28]The fire in apower stationis used to heat water, creating steam that drivesturbines.The turbines then spin anelectric generatorto produce electricity.[29]Fire is also used to providemechanical workdirectly bythermal expansion,in bothexternalandinternal combustion engines.

Theunburnablesolid remains of a combustible material left after a fire is calledclinkerif itsmelting pointis below the flame temperature, so that it fuses and then solidifies as it cools, andashif its melting point is above the flame temperature.

Physical properties

Chemistry

Main article:Combustion
The balanced chemical equation for thecombustionofmethane,ahydrocarbon

Fire is a chemical process in which afueland anoxidizing agentreact, yieldingcarbon dioxideandwater.[30]This process, known as acombustion reaction,does not proceed directly and involvesintermediates.[30]Although the oxidizing agent is typicallyoxygen,other compounds are able to fulfill the role. For instance,chlorine trifluorideis able to ignitesand.[31]

Fires start when aflammableor a combustible material, in combination with a sufficient quantity of anoxidizersuch as oxygen gas or another oxygen-rich compound (though non-oxygen oxidizers exist), is exposed to a source of heat or ambienttemperatureabove theflash pointfor thefuel/oxidizer mix, and is able to sustain a rate of rapid oxidation that produces achain reaction.This is commonly called thefire tetrahedron.Fire cannot exist without all of these elements in place and in the right proportions. For example, a flammable liquid will start burning only if the fuel and oxygen are in the right proportions. Some fuel-oxygen mixes may require acatalyst,a substance that is not consumed, when added, in anychemicalreaction during combustion, but which enables the reactants to combust more readily.

Once ignited, a chain reaction must take place whereby fires can sustain their own heat by the further release of heat energy in the process of combustion and may propagate, provided there is a continuous supply of an oxidizer and fuel.

If the oxidizer is oxygen from the surrounding air, the presence of a force ofgravity,or of some similar force caused by acceleration, is necessary to produceconvection,which removes combustion products and brings a supply of oxygen to the fire. Without gravity, a fire rapidly surrounds itself with its own combustion products and non-oxidizing gases from the air, which exclude oxygen andextinguishthe fire. Because of this, the risk of fire in aspacecraftis small when it iscoastingin inertial flight.[32][33]This does not apply if oxygen is supplied to the fire by some process other than thermal convection.

The firetetrahedron

Fire can beextinguishedby removing any one of the elements of the fire tetrahedron. Consider a natural gas flame, such as from a stove-top burner. The fire can be extinguished by any of the following:

  • turning off the gas supply, which removes the fuel source;
  • covering the flame completely, which smothers the flame as the combustion both uses the available oxidizer (the oxygen in the air) and displaces it from the area around the flame with CO2;
  • application of an inert gassuch ascarbon dioxide,smothering the flame by displacing the available oxidizer;
  • application of water, which removes heat from the fire faster than the fire can produce it (similarly, blowing hard on a flame will displace the heat of the currently burning gas from its fuel source, to the same end); or
  • application of a retardant chemical such asHalon(largely bannedin some countries as of 2023) to the flame, which retards the chemical reaction itself until the rate of combustion is too slow to maintain the chain reaction.

In contrast, fire is intensified by increasing the overall rate of combustion. Methods to do this include balancing the input of fuel and oxidizer tostoichiometricproportions, increasing fuel and oxidizer input in this balanced mix, increasing the ambient temperature so the fire's own heat is better able to sustain combustion, or providing a catalyst, a non-reactant medium in which the fuel and oxidizer can more readily react.

Flame

Main article:Flame
See also:Flame test
Acandle'sflame

A flame is a mixture of reacting gases and solids emitting visible,infrared,and sometimesultravioletlight, thefrequency spectrumof which depends on thechemical compositionof the burning material and intermediate reaction products. In many cases, such as the burning oforganic matter,for example wood, or the incompletecombustionof gas,incandescentsolid particles calledsootproduce the familiar red-orange glow of "fire". This light has acontinuous spectrum.Complete combustion of gas has a dim blue color due to the emission of single-wavelength radiation from various electron transitions in the excited molecules formed in the flame. Usually oxygen is involved, buthydrogenburning inchlorinealso produces a flame, producinghydrogen chloride(HCl). Other possible combinations producing flames, amongst many, arefluorineandhydrogen,andhydrazineandnitrogen tetroxide.Hydrogen and hydrazine/UDMHflames are similarly pale blue, while burningboronand its compounds, evaluated in mid-20th century as ahigh energy fuelforjetandrocket engines,emits intense green flame, leading to its informal nickname of "Green Dragon".

Acontrolled burnin theNorthwest Territories,showing variations in the flame color due to temperature. The hottest parts near the ground appear yellowish-white, while the cooler upper parts appear red.

The glow of a flame is complex.Black-body radiationis emitted from soot, gas, and fuel particles, though the soot particles are too small to behave like perfect blackbodies. There is alsophotonemission by de-excitedatomsandmoleculesin the gases. Much of the radiation is emitted in the visible and infrared bands. The color depends on temperature for the black-body radiation, and on chemical makeup for theemission spectra.

Fire is affected by gravity. Left: Flame on Earth; Right: Flame on theISS

The common distribution of a flame under normal gravity conditions depends onconvection,as soot tends to rise to the top of a general flame, as in acandlein normal gravity conditions, making it yellow. Inmicro gravity or zero gravity,[34]such as an environment inouter space,convection no longer occurs, and the flame becomes spherical, with a tendency to become more blue and more efficient (although it may go out if not moved steadily, as the CO2from combustion does not disperse as readily in micro gravity, and tends to smother the flame). There are several possible explanations for this difference, of which the most likely is that the temperature is sufficiently evenly distributed that soot is not formed and complete combustion occurs.[35]Experiments byNASAreveal thatdiffusion flamesin micro gravity allow more soot to be completely oxidized after they are produced than diffusion flames on Earth, because of a series of mechanisms that behave differently in micro gravity when compared to normal gravity conditions.[36]These discoveries have potential applications inapplied scienceandindustry,especially concerningfuel efficiency.

Typical adiabatic temperatures

Main article:Adiabatic flame temperature

The adiabatic flame temperature of a given fuel and oxidizer pair is that at which the gases achieve stable combustion.

Fire science

Fire science is a branch ofphysical sciencewhich includes fire behavior, dynamics, andcombustion.Applications of fire science includefire protection,fire investigation,andwildfiremanagement.

Fire ecology

Main article:Fire ecology

Every natural ecosystem on land has its ownfire regime,and the organisms in those ecosystems are adapted to or dependent upon that fire regime. Fire creates a mosaic of differenthabitatpatches, each at a different stage ofsuccession.[38]Different species of plants, animals, and microbes specialize in exploiting a particular stage, and by creating these different types of patches, fire allows a greater number of species to exist within a landscape.

Prevention and protection systems

Main articles:Wildfire § Prevention,Fire prevention,andFire protection
An abandoned convent on fire inQuebec

Wildfire prevention programs around the world may employ techniques such aswildland fire useandprescribed orcontrolled burns.[39][40]Wildland fire userefers to any fire of natural causes that is monitored but allowed to burn.Controlled burnsare fires ignited by government agencies under less dangerous weather conditions.[41]

Fire fightingservices are provided in most developed areas to extinguish or contain uncontrolled fires. Trainedfirefightersusefire apparatus,water supply resources such aswater mainsandfire hydrantsor they might use A and B class foam depending on what is feeding the fire.

Fire prevention is intended to reduce sources of ignition. Fire prevention also includes education to teach people how to avoid causing fires.[42]Buildings, especially schools and tall buildings, often conductfire drillsto inform and prepare citizens on how to react to a building fire. Purposely starting destructive fires constitutesarsonand is a crime in most jurisdictions.[43]

Modelbuilding codesrequirepassive fire protectionandactive fire protectionsystems to minimize damage resulting from a fire. The most common form of active fire protection isfire sprinklers.To maximize passive fire protection of buildings, building materials and furnishings in most developed countries are tested forfire-resistance,combustibility andflammability.Upholstery,carpetingandplasticsused in vehicles and vessels are also tested.

Where fire prevention and fire protection have failed to prevent damage,fire insurancecan mitigate the financial impact.[44]

See also

References

Notes

  1. ^Slower oxidative processes likerustingordigestionare not included by this definition.

Citations

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Sources

Further reading

  • Pyne, Stephen J.Fire: a brief history(University of Washington Press, 2001).
    • Pyne, Stephen J. ''World fire: the culture of fire on earth(1995)online
    • Pyne, Stephen J.Tending fire: coping with America's wildland fires(2004)online
    • Pyne, Stephen J.Awful splendour: a fire history of Canada(2007)online
    • Pyne, Stephen J.Burning bush: a fire history of Australia(1991)online
    • Pyne, Stephen J.Between Two Fires: A Fire History of Contemporary America(2015)
    • Pyne, Stephen J.California: A Fire Survey(2016)
  • Safford, Hugh D., et al. "Fire ecology of the North American Mediterranean-climate zone." inFire ecology and management: Past, present, and future of US forested ecosystems(2021): 337–392. re California and its neighborsonline

External links

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