First East Turkestan Republic

Turkic Islamic Republic of East Turkestan شەرقىي تۈركىستان تۈرك ئىسلام جۇمھۇرىيىتى‎(Uyghur)
1933–1934
Flag Emblem
Territorial extent of the first ETR
Status	Unrecognized state
Capital and largest city	Kashgar
Official languages	Uyghur
Religion	Sunni Islam
Government	Islamicrepublic
President
• 1933–1934	Khoja Niyaz
Prime Minister
• 1933–1934	Sabit Damolla
Historical era	Interwar period
• Established	12 November 1933
• Disestablished	16 April 1934
Currency	Chinese customs gold unit Copper (pūl), silver (tanga) and gold (tilla) coins minted inKashgarin 1933.
Preceded by Succeeded by Xin gian g Province, Republic of China Xin gian g Province, Republic of China
Today part of	China ∟Xin gian g Uyghur Autonomous Region

Turkic Islamic Republic of East Turkestan
Uyghur name
Uyghur	شەرقىي تۈركىستان تۈرك ئىسلام جۇمھۇرىيىتى‎
Transcriptions Latin Yëziqi Sherqiy Türkistan Turk-Islam Jumhuriyiti Siril Yëziqi Шәрқий Түркистан Түрк-Ислам Җумхурийити
Chinese name
Traditional Chinese	Đông Đột Quyết tư thản Islam nước cộng hoà
Simplified Chinese	Đông Đột Quyết tư thản Islam nước cộng hoà
Transcriptions Standard Mandarin Hanyu Pinyin Dōng Tūjuésītǎn Yīsīlán Gònghéguó Wade–Giles Tung1Tʻu1-chüeh2-si1-tʻan3I1-si1-lan2Kung4-he2-kuo2

TheTurkic Islamic Republic of East Turkestan(TIRET) was a breakawayIslamic republiccentered on the city ofKashgar,located in the far west ofChina'sXin gian g Province.It is often described as theFirst East Turkestan Republicto differentiate it from theSecond East Turkestan Republic(1944–1946).

It emerged from theKumul Rebellionfollowing the abolition of the semi-autonomousKumul Khanateby Xin gian g GovernorJin Shuren.Lasting from 12 November 1933 to 16 April 1934, it was primarily the product of apan-Turkicindependence movement in the region, which consisted ofTurkic,mostlyUyghur,intellectuals. With the sacking of Kashgar in 1934 byHuiwarlords nominally allied with theKuomintang-lednationalist governmentinNanjing,the TIRET was effectively eliminated. Its example, however, served to some extent as inspiration for the founding of the Second East Turkestan Republic a decade later in north of the Xin gian g and continues to influence modern Uyghurnationalistsupport for the creation of an independentEast Turkestan.

Background

See also:East Turkestan independence movementandHistory of Xin gian g

The stirrings of Uyghur separatism during the early 20th century were greatly influenced by the Turkishjadidistmovement, which spread as wealthier Uyghurs, inspired by notions ofPan-Turkism,traveled abroad to Turkey, Europe, and Russia, and returned home determined to modernize and develop the educational system inXin gian g.The first major school founded on the European model was located outside ofKashgarand, unlike the traditional curricula of themadrassah,focused on more technical areas of study such as science, mathematics, history, and language studies. Jadidism emphasized the power of education as a tool for personal and national self-advancement, a development sure to disturb the traditional status quo in Xin gian g. The ruler of Xin gian g, GovernorYang Zengxin,responded by closing down or interfering with the operations of several of the new schools.

The birth of the Soviet Union influenced the Uyghurs, increasing the popularity of nationalist separatist movements and the spread of the communist message. A local Communist revolutionary organization was established in Xin gian g in 1921 (Revolutionary Uyghur Union, member ofComintern), the area also served as a refuge for many intellectuals fleeing the advent of Soviet Communism in Central Asia, which formed a division within the Xin gian g Turkic nationalist movement.

The situation in Xin gian g deteriorated with the assassination of Yang Zengxin in 1928 and the rise to power of his deputy,Jin Shuren,who declared himself governor after arresting and executing Yang's assassin, a rival official namedFan Yaonan( phàn diệu nam ) who had planned to assume the position for himself. Autocratic, corrupt, and ineffective at managing the province's development, Jin further antagonized the populace by reinstitutingSinicizationpolicies, increasing taxes, prohibiting participation in thehajjand bringing inHan Chineseofficials to replace local leaders.

Rebellion

Main article:Kumul Rebellion

Uyghur rebels in the 1930s

The situation came to a head in March 1930, whenMaqsud Shah,theKhanofKumul Khanatein eastern Xin gian g, died, leading Jin to abolish its autonomy and permit waves of Han migration from the neighboring Gansu.Jin then proceeded to impose direct taxes on the Turkic population, expropriated their farmland, and distributed it among Han newcomers from Gansu, sometimes compensating Uyghurs on poorer-quality land. Additionally, Han were made exempt from taxation for two years, with one year's amount of tax being levied retroactively for the local Muslim population.

The new garrison stationed inHamiproved even more antagonizing, and by 1931, scattered revolts, mobs, and resistance movements were emerging throughout the area. According to British missionariesMildred CableandFrancesca French,who were resident in the Kumul area during and shortly after Jin's annexation of theKumul Khanate,a rising against Jin Shuren was being systematically planned by prominent Kumulliks. Camels and mules were requisitioned to transport weapons, ammunition and stocks of food over little-known tracks to two former summer Khan's palaces in Aratam on the foot of Karlik Tagh Mountains and one at the natural fortress of Bardash set high in Karlik Tagh.The final straw was in April 1931 when an ethnic Chinese officer and tax collector named Chang Muwished to marry a Uyghur girl from a village Hsiao-Pu outside Hami. Uyghur accounts usually claim that the girl was raped or the family coerced, but as Islamic law forbids Muslim girls to marry non-Muslim men it was clearly offensive to the Uyghur community.

Rebellion broke out on the night of 4 April 1931, with a massacre of Chang and his 32 soldiers at the wedding ceremony; 100 Han Chinese families of refugees from Gansu also were killed, altogether with Chinese garrisons in outposts at villages Tu-lu-Hu and Lao-mao-hu near Kumul.It was not confined to the ethnic Uyghur population alone;Kazakhs,Kyrgyz,Han andHuicommanders all joined in revolt against Jin's rule, though they would occasionally break to fight one another.

The Soviet government further complicated the situation by dispatching troops to come to the aid of Jin and his military commanderSheng Shicai,as didWhite Russianrefugees from the Soviet Union living in theIli rivervalley region.

The main fighting initially centered aroundÜrümqi,which Hui forces laid under siege until Sheng Shicai's troops were reinforced by White Russian andManchuriansoldiers who had previously fled the Japanese invasion of northeast China. In April 1933, Jin was deposed by a combination of these forces and succeeded by Sheng, who enjoyed Soviet support. Newly bolstered, Sheng split the opposing forces around Ürümqi by offering several Uyghur commanders (led byKhoja NiyazHajji,an advisor to the newly elected Kumul Khan Nazir ( Nhiếp tư ngươi ), the second son of recently deceased Kumul KhanMaqsud Shah,and to Nazir's eldest son and his designated heir Bashir ( bá tích ngươi ) with whom he studied together in religious school "Khanliq" in Kumul in their childhood) positions of power in Southern Xin gian g if they would agree to turn against the Hui armies in the north, led byMa Zhongying.

Another Hui faction in Southern Xin gian g under command ofMa Zhancang,meanwhile, had struck an alliance with Uyghur forces located aroundKuchaunder the leadership ofTimur Beg,occupied Kucha without hostilities and proceeded to march towardsAksu,capturing the small town ofBaichengen route.On 25 February 1933 rebel forces entered Aksu Old City, shot all the Chinese residents and seized their property; it seemed probable that this was the work of Temur's men, as the Hui ( Tungan ) forces of Ma Zhancang are reported to have peacefully occupied Aksu New City, where they took possession of both the Arsenal and the Treasury, their contents were reportedly sent to Tungan Headquarters atKara Shar.Later Ma Zhancang at the head of approximately 300 well-armed Tungan troops and Temur at the head of an estimated 4,700 ill-armed Uyghur irregulars resumed their advance onMaral Bashiand Kashgar.On 13 April 1933Ma Shaowu( mã Thiệu võ ), the Head of Chinese administration in Southern Xin gian g, ordered Chinese Brigadier Yang to leave Maral Bashi front and return to Kashgar with troops because of rapidly deteriorating of the situation in Southern Xin gian g, that was not improved by the refusal of the British Indian Government to send troops to the assistance of the Chinese at Kashgar despite an official request made to the British Consul-General at Kashgar N.Fitzmaurice ( was in office from May 1922 to July 1922 and again from September 1931 to November 1933) by Ma Shaowu on 25 February 1933. It was all too apparent that no help would be forthcoming from Ürümqi, after the cutting of telegraph links between Kashgar and Ürümqi at Aksu.Brigadier Yang troops were attacked by Hui and Uyghur rebels on march and of his original force, estimated well over 1,000 troops, a mere sixty five had straggled back to Kashgar by 27 April.Later the joint Uyghur and Hui force surrounding Kashgar split again, as Ma Zhancang allied with the local provincial authority representative, a fellow Hui namedMa Shaowu,and attacked the Uyghur forces, killing Timur Beg.

AKirghiz rebellionhad earlier broken out in Xin gian g in 1932, led by the Kirghiz leaderId Mirab.Ma Shaowu had crushed and defeated the Kirghiz rebels. The Soviet Union had been involved in also fighting against the rebels, who had spilled over to the Soviet side. In March 1932, large number of Kirghiz were driven across the Xin gian g frontier by pursuing Soviet forces. A series of guerrilla counter-attacks against the Soviets were mounted from Chinese territory and in raids on Koksu and two other Soviet posts a total of thirty seven Soviet troops were killed.

While this was transpiring, in the nearby southernTarim Basincity ofKhotan,three brothers of rich Bughra family,Muhammad Amin Bughra,Abdullah BughraandNur Ahmadjan Bughra,educated in the jadidist tradition, in February 1933 had led a rebellion of gold miners who worked in Surghak mines nearKeriyacity, also inYurunkashandKarakashmountain rivers, and established themselves asemirsof the city, having declared the KhotanEmirateand independence from China on 16 March 1933.

Establishment

Establishment of the Turkic Islamic Republic of East Turkestan on 12 November 1933, in Kashgar

Leader of Karakash gold miners Ismail Khan Khoja sent message to Governor Jin Shuren: "Foolish infidels like you are not fit to rule.... You infidels think that because you have rifles, guns... and money, you can depend on them, but we depend of God in whose hands are our lives."Local provincial authorities and troops were annihilated by the miners throughout Khotanvilayet,rare Chinese population in most cases saved their lives and property, but was forced to accept Islam under the threat of execution. Old City of Khotan fell to rebels on 28 February 1933 with minimal resistance, the same day when rebels entered the city, while Khotan New City came under siege before surrendering on 16 March 266 Han soldiers of its garrison were spared and reportedly converted to Islam, while both the Treasury and Arsenal were captured by rebels, delivering to their hands several thousands of rifles and almost a ton of gold.

The Khotan Emirate dispatched one of the three brothers, Shahmansur, known also as Emir Abdullah, and a former publisher namedSabit Damollato Kashgar, where they established theKashgar Affairs Office of the Khotan Government,led byMuhammad Amin Bughra,in July 1933. By the fall of that year, the office had shed many of its links to the Khotan government and reformed itself into the multi-ethnic, quasi-nationalistEast Turkestan Independence Association,which drew heavily on ideas of Islamic reformism, nationalism and jadidism.

On 12 November 1933, Sabit Damolla declared the establishment of the East Turkestan RepublicwithKhoja Niyazas its president — despite the fact that the respected commander was engaged in fighting in northern Xin gian g and had actually allied his forces with those of Sheng Shicai. Original proclamation was extremely anti-Tungan and anti-Han and contained such words:

The Tungans, more than Han, are the enemy of our people. Today our people are already free from the oppression of the Han, but still continue live under Tungan subjugation. We must still fear the Han, but cannot not fear the Tungans as well. The reason, we must be careful to guard against the Tungans, we must intensively oppose them, cannot afford to be polite, since the Tungans have compelled us to follow this way. Yellow Han people have not the slightest thing to do with Eastern Turkestan. Black Tungans also do not have this connection. Eastern Turkestan belongs to the people of Eastern Turkestan. There is no need for foreigners to come be our fathers and mothers.... From now on we do not need to use foreigner's language or their names, their customs, habits, attitudes, written languages, etc. We must also overthrow and drive foreigners from our boundaries forever. The colors yellow and black are foul.... They have dirtied our Land for too long. So now it's absolutely necessary to clean out this filth. Take down the yellow and black barbarians! Live long Eastern Turkestan!

On 12 November 1933, an independent republic, the Turkic Islamic Republic of Eastern Turkestan (TIRET; or Republic of Uyghurstan, both names were used at the same time) was proclaimed. This event was organized on Sunday morning in a mass rally on the shore ofTuman Riveroutside of Kashgar with the participation of about 7,000 troops and 13,000 civilians, including teachers and students of schools, who delivered speeches along with appointed "Ministers" of the independent republic. On noon cannon fired 41 times and crowd proceeded to the Old City of Kashgar, waving blue banners of Independence, where rally continued on the square in front ofId Gah Mosqueand more speeches were delivered from Mosque's front, where Sabit Damulla appeared as a main speaker.

Established distinct from theKhotan Emirate,the TIRET claimed authority over territory stretching fromAksualong the northern rim of the Tarim Basin toKhotanin the south. Actually, Khoja Niyaz didn't join Republic in November 1933 and kept a separate administration in Aksu, that was involved in negotiations with USSR. In fact, the government in Kashgar was strapped for resources, plagued by rapid inflation, and surrounded by hostile powers — including the Hui forces under Ma Zhancang.

Although established as a multiethnic republic, as reflected in the choice of the "East Turkestan" name used in its founding constitution, the first coins of the new government were initiallymintedunder the name "Republic of Uyghurstan" (Uyghurstan Jumhuriyiti). In some sources, it is known as the "East Turkestan Islamic Republic", suggesting a greater role for Islam in its founding character. The extent of Islam's influence in the foundation of the TIRET is disputed; while the constitution endorsesshariaas the guiding law, the jadidist modernizing tradition places much greater emphases on reform and development, which is reflected in subsequent passages of the constitution that focus on health, education, and economic reforms. TheTurkestan Declaration of Independenceput political platform of the self-proclaimed Republic based on nine main principles:

1. End the Chinese dictatorial rule in the Land of Eastern Turkestan.
2. Establish a free and independent Eastern Turkestan Republic, based on equality of all nationalities.
3. In order to fully develop the economy of Eastern Turkestan, promote industry, agriculture and animal husbandry as well as private businesses. Increase people's living standards.
4. Since the majority of people of Eastern Turkestan believe in Islam, so the Government particularly advocates this religion. At the same time it promotes religious freedom for other religions.
5. Develop education, culture and health standards in Eastern Turkestan.
6. Establish friendly relations with all democratic countries in the World and neighboring countries, especially with the United Kingdom,Soviet Russia,Turkey and China.
7. In order to protect peace in Eastern Turkestan, recruit people of all nationalities to establish a strong Army.
8. The Bank, Post Service, Telephone and Telegraph, Forestry and all underground wealth belong to the nation.
9. Eliminate individualism, bureaucracy idea, nationalism and corruption among Government officials.

TIRET leaders

The Republic included the participation ofMahmut Muhiti,Yunus Beg and Maqsud Muhiti, a Jadidist. Shams al-Din Damulla was the Waqf affairs Minister while Agriculture Minister was Abuhasan, and Sabit Damolla was Prime Minister.Muhammad Amin Bughra,Shemsiddin Damolla, Abdukerimhan Mehsum, Sabit Damolla, and Abdulqadir Damolla were all Jadists who took part in the First East Turkestan Republic.

Efforts to gain recognition

After declaring independence, TIRET tried to receive international recognition, dispatching of numerous envoys by Prime Minister Sabit Damolla to theSoviet Union(Tashkent,Moscow),Afghanistan,Iran,Turkey and theBritish Raj,though these efforts ultimately failed, with the countries refusing to recognize the envoys as representatives of an independent country.

British Consul-General in Kashgar J.W. Thomson-Glover was initially enthusiastic in his response to Sabit and Amirs and reported to New Delhi that "should any lasting unity between the Amirs and Khoja Niyas Hajji emerge, then with nominal allegiance to Nanking it might be possible for a friendly power to extend practical sympathy and help to the new and struggling Republic". However, the British Government in India replied to Thomson-Glover, reminding him that the British authorities recognized the Nanjing government as the sole authority inXin gian gand that all moves to counter the Soviet Union in the province should be based on a policy to support the Chinese authorities.The TIRET envoys who reachedNew Delhiin February 1934 were also rebuffed, withThe Timescommenting that Delhi recognized Xin gian g as a province of China.

In January 1934 inKabul,representatives met the newly proclaimed King of AfghanistanMohammad Zahir Shah,who viewed the rebellion with sympathy and had sent congratulations on the establishment of the TIRET in November 1933, and Prime MinisterMohammad Hashim Khan,asking for aid and a supply of arms.However, the Soviet Union, which viewed the TIRET with distaste due to its anti-communism, put pressure on Afghanistan to not send aid.In Turkey the reports of developments in Xin gian g were initially greeted by the press with support;however, no material support was ever announced.

Christians and Hindus

See also:Committee for National RevolutionandYoung Kashgar Party

Hostility to Christianity was espoused by theCommittee for National Revolution.The Bughras applied Shari'a while ejecting the Khotan-based Swedish missionaries.They demanded the withdrawal of the Swedish missionaries while enacting Shariah on 16 March 1933.In the name of Islam, the Uyghur leader AmirAbdullah Bughraviolently physically assaulted theYarkand-based Swedish missionariesand would have executed them all, but they ended up only being banished thanks to the British interceding in their favor.There were beheadings and executions of Christians who had converted from Islam to Christianity at the hands of the Amir's followers.The missionaries faced hostility from Muhammad Amin Bughra.

There were several hundred Uyghur Muslims converted to Christianity by the Swedes. The Swedish Mission Society ran a printing operation.Life of East Turkestanwas the state run media of the East Turkestan Republic. The Abdulbaqi lead government used the Swedish Mission Press to print and distribute the media.The Turkic Islamic Republic of East Turkestan's constitution mandated Islam as the official religion of the Republic, while guaranteeing religious freedom for all people.

The safety of the usurers and merchants of Hindu background from India were guaranteed by the British Consul-General.Russian refugees, missionaries, andIndian Hindu merchants and usurerswere potential targets of gangs of Kashgaris so the Consulate-General of Britain was a potential shelter.Killings of 2 Hindus at the hands of Uighurs took place in Shamba Bazaar.They broke their feet, hands, teeth, stabbed their eyes, cut their tongues and ears.Plundering of the valuables of slaughtered Indian Hindus happened in Posgam on 25 March and on the previous day in Karghalik at the hands of Uighurs.Killings of Hindus took place in Khotan at the hands of the Bughra Amirs.Antagonism against the Hindus ran high among the Muslim Turki Uyghur rebels in Xin gian g's southern area. Muslims plundered the possessions in Karghalik of Rai Sahib Dip Chand, who was the aksakal of Britain, and his fellow Hindus on 24 March 1933, and in Keryia they slaughtered Indian Hindus.Sind's Shikarpur district was the origin of the Hindu diaspora there. The slaughter of the Hindus from India was called the "Karghalik Outrage". The Muslims had killed 9 of them.The forced removal of the Swedes was accompanied by slaughter of the Hindus in Khotan by the Islamic Turkic rebels.The Emirs of Khotan slaughtered the Hindus as they forced the Swedes out and declared Shariah in Khotan on 16 March 1933.

National army

Army officers of the TIRET

The National Army of the Islamic Republic East Turkestan Republic was formed on 12 November 1933, and originally consisted of two divisions (around 22,000 troops), the Kashgar infantry division (stationed in the capital, Kashgar), and the Khotan Infantry Division (stationed in Khotan). The National Army was poorly armed and trained in the beginning of the Revolution, so a military academy was set up in Atush (Artush) to train cadets. All Turkic ethnic groups were called to take up arms and join the National Army. The military was headed by the Defense Minister Mahmut Muhiti (a Uyghur revolutionary from Turpan). Although the true size of the National Army is not known, it is estimated at 40,000 to 60,000 according to official Soviet sources.

1. Kashgar infantry division
2. Khotan infantry division
3. Aksu cavalry brigade
4. Kumul revolutionary regiment (later became a division)
5. Turpan revolutionary brigade (later became the Turpan Division)
6. Altay revolutionary cavalry brigade

During the war an estimated 300,000 to 500,000 Turki civilians were killed. Although it is not certain how many soldiers the IRET lost in the war, it is estimated that around 50,000 to 70,000 soldiers were killed. In some battles entire companies and brigades were wiped out. When IRET was dismantled in 1934 the army was dismantled also (except for 6th Uyghur Division personally commanded by Mahmut Muhiti).

Dissolution

Khoja Niyazserved as the president of the short-lived republic

GeneralMa Zhongying(1910–1937?), Commander of 36th KMT Division (1933–1934)

GeneralMa Hushan(1910–1954), Commander of 36th KMT Division (1934–1937)

GeneralYulbars Khan(1889–1971), Chancellor ofKumul Khanate(1922–1930), Chief of Procurement Department of 36th KMT Division (1933–1934), Commissioner for Reconstruction Affairs of Xin gian g Provincial Government (1934–1937)

GeneralMahmut Muhitiwas briefly the Minister of Defense of the TIRET

In the north, aid came to Sheng Shicai's forces on 24 January 1934, in the form of two Soviet brigades, theAltaiskayaandTarbaghataiskaya,disguised as "White RussianCossackAltaiVolunteer Army "and led byRed ArmyGeneralPavel Rybalkoin theSoviet invasion of Xin gian g.The Japanese annexation ofManchuriaand rumored support forMa Zhongying's Hui forces were one cause for concern troublingJoseph Stalin,another was the prospect that rebellion in Xin gian g might spread to the Soviet Republics in Central Asia and offer a haven to Turkic MuslimBasmachirebels. Trade ties between Xin gian g and the Soviet Union also gave the Soviets reason for supporting Sheng. Newly appointed Soviet Consul-General in ÜrümqiGaregin Apresovopenly said to Sheng Shicai in May 1933:You can develop the province and improve living conditions of the people of different nationalities, develop their culture. But if you let them ( muslim rebels ) to create an Independent State in the South of the province, converting it into the Second Manchuria at the back door of the USSR, we will not be just a side watchers, we will start to act.First request from Sheng Shicai of military support from USSR came in October 1933. In December 1933 Sheng Shicai arrested White Russian ColonelPavel Pappengut,who was staunchy anti-Soviet, and executed by demand of Apresov, replacing him by "neutral" General Bekteyev as Commander-in chief of three White Russian Regiments of Xin gian g Provincial Army, thus paving the way for a Soviet invasion.

Zhang Peiyuan, a Han Chinese General, who commanded Han Chinese troops inIli,conducted negotiations with Ma Zhongying and planned to join him on the attack on Ürümqi in January 1934. Initially Zhang seized the road between Tacheng and Ürümqi, but decided to return toGhuljaafter receiving of message of capturing the city by Russian "Altai Volunteer Army", actually Soviet troops entered the city. Upon approaching Ghulja he was surrounded on mountain road, his troops were partly annihilated, partly fled to Muzart Pass onTian ShanMountains and through it to Southern Xin gian g nearAksu.Zhang Peiyuan himself committed suicide. Ma Zhongying attacked Ürümqi as was planned, taking Sheng completely by surprise, hiddenly approaching the city from the hills on the west and first capturing the telegraph station and aerodrome, then started besieging the city, completely isolating it from suburbs. But the fact, that in the crucial moment of besieging of Ürümqi Ma Zhongying didn't receive the promised help from Zhang Peiyuan's Ili Army, was the reason of Ma's failure to capture the city in the first weeks of attack, nevertheless its fall was imminent and just a matter of time without intervention of Soviet troops. The battle for Ürümqi was decisive for the whole Ma Zhongying's campaign in Xin gian g and its taking by his forces would lead to recognision of himThe absolute ruler of Xin gian gby Nanjing Government of China, as was previously secretly promised to him. The Soviet brigades, with air support, scattered Ma Zhongying's troops surrounding Ürümqi and forced them to retreat southward. On 16 February 1934, the siege of Ürümqi was lifted, freeing Sheng, his Manchurian and theWhite GuardRussian Cossack troops, which had been trapped in the city by Ma forces since 13 January 1934.

Khoja Niyaz had by this time arrived at Kashgar with 1,500 troops on the same day of 13 January 1934, to assume the presidency of the TIRET, going against his previous deal with Sheng. With him arrived another prominent Uyghur leader Mahmut Muhiti from eastern Xin gian g (Turpan,Kumul) who had agreed to become Minister of Defense in the TIRET Government, accepting the offer of Prime Minister Sabit Damolla. Sabit Damolla freed for Khoja Niyaz his own Palace in the old city of Kashgar, that was established in the formerYamenor residence of the head of Chinese administration of Southern Xin gian g, and asked to form a new Government. In his letter to Nanjing government Government, Khoja Niyaz explained his decision by emphasizing the fact, that he accepted the decision made by the Congress of People of Eastern Turkestan in accordance with its free will and choice and that Constitution of Chinese Republic of 1912 reserves the "right of five races of China toself-determination".He listed five principles of the self-ruling of the Republic:

1. All of Xin gian g is part of the Eastern Turkestan Republic, while all, that do not belong, should go back to where they came from;
2. The Government and economics will be conducted by the local people;
3. All the oppressed people, now living in Eastern Turkestan, will have freedom to pursue education, commerce and to build a new nation;
4. The President of the Republic, Khoja Niyaz, will build a Government dedicated to the happiness of the people;
5. The Republic with its various departments will strive to catch up with other modernizing societies.

Khoja Niyaz introduced a new flag for the republic, theKök Bayraq,which resembled theTurkish flagbut with a blue background instead of red. The old flag, a white field with a blue crescent and star andShahada,became an alternate flag.

Nevertheless, the TIRET proved to be short-lived. The Hui forces retreating from the north linked up with Ma Zhancang's forces in Kashgar allied themselves with the Kuomintang in Nanjing, and attacked the TIRET, forcing Niyaz, Sabit Damolla, and the rest of the government to flee on 6 February 1934, toYengi Hissarsouth of the city. The conquering Hui army killed many of those who remained, and a rapid procession of betrayals among the survivors, following their expulsion from Kashgar, spelled the effective end of the TIRET. The Hui army crushed the Uyghur and Kirghiz armies of the East Turkestan Republic at thebattle of Kashgar,battle of Yarkand,andbattle of Yangi Hissar.Ma Zhongying effectively destroyed TIRET.

Following the Tungan capture of Kashgar, the remainders of the TIRET leadership including Prime Minister Sabit Damolla and Nur Ahmadjan retreated to Yengi Hissar to reorganize.Mahmut Muhiti retreated with remainder of Army toYarkandandHotan,while Khoja Niyaz fled throughArtushtoErkeshtamon the Soviet border,with Tungan troops on his heels, which chased him as far as the border. Niyaz took refuge in the Soviet Union, where he was blamed by the Soviets for accepting from Sabit Damolla the position of first leader of TIRET (President), but was promised a military aid and "great prospects for the future" if he would help Sheng Shicai and the Soviets "to dissolve TIRET". Reportedly. Niyaz signed an agreement with the Soviets to dissolve the TIRET and place its authorities under the disposal of the provincial authorities. Niyaz became the "Civil Governor for Life" of Xin gian g province in exchange.

In the city of Yengi Hissar on 1 March 1934, TIRET cabinet and Sabit Damolla received notice that Niyaz and the Soviets reached an agreement; on 2 March, the cabinet held a special meeting, rejecting the agreement and condemning the President as a "national traitor".Damolla said on the meeting that "Hoja Niyaz is not a Champion of Islam any more, he turned himself into a tool in the hands of Russians to subdue our country". Upon hearing this decision, Niyaz marched from Erkeshtam to Yarkand, where he arrived in mid-April. He proceeded to collect all the gold he could find and withdrew, taking Sabit as his prisoner, going through Merket and Maral Bashi towards Aksu. Despite attempts to capture him by Tungan forces, Niyaz safely arrived in Aksu, where he turned over Sabit to the provincial authorities.Other TIRET officials fled to India and Afghanistan.

Aftermath

The Kuomintang-allied Hui forces under Ma Zhongying were defeated, and Sheng consolidated his rule over northern Xin gian g with Soviet backing. The seat of Khoja Niyaz Southern Xin gian g Autonomous Government was initially located in Aksu, but later he was urged by Sheng Shicai to move to Ürümqi to assume the position of the Vice Chairman of the Xin gian g Government. His forces received 15,000 rifles and ammunitions from the Soviet Union, but each rifle, each bullet, and each bomb, that was dropped on Tungan troops from Soviet airplanes, had been bought in gold from the Soviet Union by Khoja Niyaz.

By the end of 1934, Sheng Shicai, with Soviet backing, was firmly in control of Xin gian g. With Soviet mediation, Khoja Niyaz agreed to serve as the vice chairman of the Xin gian g Government led by Sheng. Sheng appointed Mahmut Muhiti as the deputy military commander of the Kashgar region, and permittedYulbars Khan,one of the Hami rebel leaders, to serve as the head of Hami County. Ma Zhongying was persuaded to study in the Soviet Union, where he disappeared. His subordinate forces in southern Xin gian g were eventually absorbed by Sheng Shicai. Muhammad Amin Bughra fled to Afghanistan where he sought Japanese support for the TIRET.

Interviews with Turkestani veterans in exile suggest that Sheng Shicai and the Soviets collaborated to crush the Republic. Russia had a two-sided policy in relation to the region of East Turkestan; often promising aid (in 1933 and 1944) but placing its own political and economic interests above everything else. The Soviet Union did not offer any military equipment despite being paid for it by a delegation of the Republic.

Government

Cabinet

Ministers Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic

Portfolio	Minister
President	Khoja Niyaz
Prime Minister	Sabit Damolla
Minister of Foreign Affairs	Muhammad Qasim Jan
Minister of Justice	Sharif Qari
Minister of Interior	Yunus Beg
Minister of Health	Abdullah Khan
Minister of Defense	Mahmut Muhiti
Minister of Education	Abd al-Karim Khan Makhdum
Minister of Finance	Ali Akhund Bay
Minister of Religious Institutions	Shams al-Din Turdi
Minister of Trade and Commerce	Sadiq Beg
Emir of Khotan	Nur Ahmadjan Bughra
Minister of Communications	Abdullah Damullah
President of the National Assembly	Tahir Beg
Secretary of the National Assembly	Sufi Zada

Gallery

• 
  Ismail Beg before the Battle of Aksu
• 
  Uyghur reinforcements from Khotan marching to Kashgar
• 
  Muhammad Amin Bughra(1901–1965),Emirof the Khotan Emirate (1933–1934),Vice Chairman of KMT Xin gian g Government (1948-1949)
• 
  Khotan EmirNur Ahmadjan Bughra(1933–1934)
• 
  Khotan Amir Abdullah Bughra (1933–1934)
• 
  Khoja Niyazas the president
• 
  Sabit Damolla,Prime Minister

References

Sources

• James A. Millward and Nabijan Tursun, "Political History and Strategies of Control, 1884–1978" inXin gian g: China's Muslim Borderland(ISBN0-7656-1318-2).
• Michael Zrazhevsky, "Russian Cossacks in Sinkiang".Almanach "TheThird Rome",Russia, Moscow, 2001
• Sven Hedin, "The flight of Big Horse". New York, 1936.
• Burhan Shahidi( bao ngươi hãn ), 《 Tân Cương 50 năm 》 [Fifty Years in Xin gian g], (Beijing, Wenshi ziliao, 1984).
• Clubb, O. E., China and Russia: The "Great Game". (NY, Columbia, 1971).
• Forbes, Andrew D. W. (1986).Warlords and Muslims in Chinese Central Asia: A Political History of Republican Sinkiang 1911–1949.CUP Archive.ISBN978-0-521-25514-1.
• Hasiotis, A. C. Jr.Soviet Political, Economic and Military Involvement in Sinkiang from 1928 to 1949(NY, Garland, 1987).
• Hopkirk, Peter (2001).Setting the East Ablaze: On Secret Service in Bolshevik Asia.Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-280212-5.
• Khakimbaev A. A., "Nekotorye Osobennosti Natsional’no-Osvoboditel’nogo Dvizheniya Narodov Sin’tszyana v 30-kh i 40-kh godakh XX veka" [Some Characters of the National-Liberation Movement of the Xin gian g Peoples in 1930s and 1940s], inMaterialy Mezhdunarodnoi Konferentsii po Problemam Istorii Kitaya v Noveishchee Vremya,Aprel’ 1977, Problemy Kitaya (Moscow, 1978) pp. 113–118.
• Klimeš, Ondřej (2015).Struggle by the Pen: The Uyghur Discourse of Nation and National Interest, c.1900–1949.Brill Publishers.ISBN978-90-04-28809-6.
• Lattimore, O.,Pivot of Asia: Sinkiang and the Inner Asian Frontiers of China(Boston, Little, Brown & Co., 1950).
• Rakhimov, T. R. "Mesto Bostochno-Turkestanskoi Respubliki (VTR) v Natsional’no-Osvoboditel’noi Bor’be Narodov Kitaya" [Role of the Eastern Turkestan Republic (ETR) in the National Liberation Struggle of the Peoples in China], A paper presented at 2-ya Nauchnaya Konferentsiya po Problemam Istorii Kitaya v Noveishchee Vremya, (Moscow, 1977), pp. 68–70.
• Tyler, Christian (2004).Wild West China: The Taming of Xin gian g.Rutgers University Press.ISBN978-0-8135-3533-3.
• Wang, D., "The USSR and the Establishment of the Eastern Turkestan Republic in Xin gian g",Journal of Institute of Modern History,Academia Sinica, Taipei, vol. 25 (1996) pp. 337–378.
• Whiting, A. S., and Sheng Shih-ts’ai,Sinkiang: Pawn or Pivot?(Michigan, East Lansing, 1958).