Flavian dynasty

"Flavian Dynasty" redirects here. For the Roman imperial dynasty beginning with Constantine the Great, sometimes referred to as the "Neo-Flavian" Dynasty, seeConstantinian dynasty.

TheFlavian dynasty,lasting from AD 69 to 96, was the second dynastic line of emperors to rule theRoman Empirefollowing theJulio-Claudians,encompassing the reigns ofVespasianand his two sons,TitusandDomitian.The Flavians rose to power during thecivil warof AD 69, known as theYear of the Four Emperors;afterGalbaandOthodied in quick succession,Vitelliusbecame emperor in mid 69. His claim to the throne was quickly challenged bylegionsstationed in the eastern provinces, who declared their commander Vespasian emperor in his place. TheSecond Battle of Bedriacumtilted the balance decisively in favor of the Flavian forces, who entered Rome on 20 December, and the following day, theRoman Senateofficially declared Vespasian emperor, thus commencing the Flavian dynasty. Although the dynasty proved to be short-lived, several significant historic, economic and military events took place during their reign.

The reign of Titus was struck by multiple natural disasters, the most severe of which was the eruption ofMount Vesuviusin AD 79, which saw the surrounding cities ofPompeiiandHerculaneumbe completely buried underashandlava.One year later, Rome was struck byfireand aplague.On the military front, the Flavian dynasty witnessed thesiege and destruction of Jerusalemby Titus in AD 70, following the failedJewish rebellionof 66. Substantial conquests were made in Great Britain under the command ofGnaeus Julius Agricolabetween AD 77 and 83, while Domitian was unable to procure a decisive victory against KingDecebalusin the war against theDacians.In addition, the Empire strengthened its border defenses by expanding the fortifications along theLimes Germanicus.

The Flavians also initiated economic and cultural reforms. Under Vespasian, new taxes were devised to restore the Empire's finances, while Domitian revalued the Roman coinage by increasing its silver content. A massive building programme was enacted by Titus, to celebrate the ascent of the Flavian dynasty, leaving multiple enduring landmarks in the city of Rome, the most spectacular of which was the Flavian Amphitheatre, better known as theColosseum.

Flavian rule came to an end on 18 September 96, when Domitian wasassassinated.He was succeeded by the longtime Flavian supporter and advisorMarcus Cocceius Nerva,who founded the long-livedNerva–Antonine dynasty.

The Flavian dynasty was unique among the four dynasties of the Principate Era, in that it was only one man and his two sons, without any extended or adopted family.

History

Establishment

Family history

Bust of Vespasian,Vatican Museums,Vatican City

Decades of civil war during the 1st century BC had contributed greatly to the demise of the old aristocracy of Rome, which was gradually replaced in prominence by a new Italian nobility during the early part of the 1st century AD.One such family were theFlavians,orgens Flavia,which rose from relative obscurity to prominence in just four generations, acquiring wealth and status under the emperors of theJulio-Claudian dynasty.Vespasian's grandfather,Titus Flavius Petro,had served as acenturionunderPompeyduringCaesar's Civil War.His military career ended in disgrace when he fled the battlefield at theBattle of Pharsalusin 48 BC.Nevertheless, Petro managed to improve his status by marrying the extremely wealthy Tertulla, whose fortune guaranteed the upward mobility of Petro's sonTitus Flavius Sabinus I.Sabinus himself amassed further wealth and possibleequestrianstatus through his services astax collectorin Asia and banker inHelvetia(modern Switzerland). By marryingVespasia Pollahe allied himself to the more prestigiouspatriciangens Vespasia,ensuring the elevation of his sonsTitus Flavius Sabinus IIand Vespasian to thesenatorialrank.

Flavian family tree, indicating the descendants ofTitus Flavius Petroand Tertulla.

Around 38 AD, Vespasian marriedDomitilla the Elder,the daughter of an equestrian fromFerentium.They had two sons,Titus Flavius Vespasianus(born in 39) andTitus Flavius Domitianus(born in 51), and a daughter,Domitilla(born in 45).Domitilla the Elder died before Vespasian became emperor. Thereafter his mistressCaeniswas his wife in all but name until she died in 74.Thepolitical careerof Vespasian included the offices ofquaestor,aedileandpraetor,and culminated with aconsulshipin 51, the year Domitian was born. As a military commander, he gained early renown by participating in theRoman invasion of Britainin 43.Nevertheless, ancient sources allege poverty for the Flavian family at the time of Domitian's upbringing,even claiming Vespasian had fallen into disrepute under the emperorsCaligula(37–41) andNero(54–68).Modern history has refuted these claims, suggesting these stories were later circulated under Flavian rule as part of apropagandacampaign to diminish success under the less reputable Emperors of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, and maximize achievements under EmperorClaudius(41–54) and his sonBritannicus.By all appearances, imperial favour for the Flavians was high throughout the 40s and 60s. While Titus received a court education in the company of Britannicus, Vespasian pursued a successful political and military career. Following a prolonged period of retirement during the 50s, he returned to public office under Nero, serving asproconsulof theAfrica provincein 63, and accompanying the emperor during an official tour ofGreecein 66.

Fromc. 57to 59, Titus was a militarytribuneinGermania,and later served inBritannia.His first wife, Arrecina Tertulla, died two years after their marriage, in 65.Titus then took a new wife of a more distinguished family, Marcia Furnilla. However, Marcia's family was closely linked to the opposition to Emperor Nero. Her uncleBarea Soranusand his daughterServiliawere among those who were killed after the failedPisonian conspiracyof 65.Some modern historians theorize that Titus divorced his wife because of her family's connection to the conspiracy.He never remarried. Titus appears to have had multiple daughters, at least one of them by Marcia Furnilla.The only one known to have survived to adulthood wasJulia Flavia,perhaps Titus's child by Arrecina, whose mother was also named Julia.During this period Titus also practiced law and attained the rank of quaestor.

In 66, the Jews of theJudaea Provincerevolted against the Roman Empire.Cestius Gallus,thelegateofSyria,was forced to retreat fromJerusalemand defeated atthe battle ofBeth-Horon.The pro-Roman kingAgrippa IIand his sisterBerenicefled the city toGalileewhere they later gave themselves up to the Romans. Nero appointed Vespasian to put down the rebellion, and dispatched him to the region at once with thefifthandtenth legions.He was later joined by Titus atPtolemais,bringing with him thefifteenth legion.With a strength of 60,000 professional soldiers, the Romans quickly swept across Galilee, and by 68 marched on Jerusalem.

Rise to power

Main articles:Year of the Four Emperors,Galba,Otho,andVitellius

The Roman Empire during theYear of the Four Emperors(69 CE). Blue areas indicate provinces loyal to Vespasian andGaius Licinius Mucianus.Green areas indicate provinces loyal toVitellius.

On 9 June 68, amidst the growing opposition of theSenateand the army,Nerocommittedsuicide,and with him theJulio-Claudian dynastycame to an end. Chaos ensued, leading to a year of brutal civil war known as theYear of the Four Emperors,during which the four most influential generals in theRoman Empire—Galba,Otho,VitelliusandVespasian—successively vied for the imperial power. News of Nero's death reached Vespasian as he was preparing to besiege the city ofJerusalem.Almost simultaneously the Senate had declared Galba, then governor ofHispania Tarraconensis(modern Spain), as Emperor of Rome. Rather than continue his campaign, Vespasian decided to await further orders and send Titus to greet the new Emperor.Before reaching Italy, however, Titus learnt that Galba had been murdered and replaced by Otho, the governor ofLusitania(modern Portugal). At the same time, Vitellius and his armies inGermaniahad risen in revolt, and prepared to march on Rome, intent on overthrowing Otho. Not wanting to risk being taken hostage by one side or the other, Titus abandoned the journey to Rome and rejoined his father in Judaea.

Otho and Vitellius realised the potential threat posed by the Flavian faction. With four legions at his disposal, Vespasian commanded a strength of nearly 80,000 soldiers. His position in Judaea further granted him the advantage of being nearest to the vitalprovince of Egypt,which controlled thegrain supply to Rome.His brother, Titus Flavius Sabinus II, as city prefect, commanded the entirecity garrisonof Rome.Tensions among the Flavian troops ran high, but as long as Galba and Otho remained in power, Vespasian refused to take action.When Otho was defeated by Vitellius at theFirst Battle of Bedriacum,however, the armies in Judaea and Egypt took matters into their own hands and declared Vespasian emperor on 1 July 69.Vespasian accepted, and entered an alliance withGaius Licinius Mucianus,the governor of Syria, against Vitellius.A strong force drawn from the Judaean and Syrian legions marched on Rome under the command of Mucianus, while Vespasian himself traveled toAlexandria,leaving Titus in charge of ending the Jewish rebellion.

EmperorVitellius(Louvre)

In Rome, meanwhile, Domitian was placed underhouse arrestby Vitellius, as a safeguard against future Flavian aggression.Support for the old emperor was waning, however, as more legions throughout the empire pledged their allegiance to Vespasian. On 24 October 69 the forces of Vitellius and Vespasian clashed at theSecond Battle of Bedriacum,which ended in a crushing defeat for the armies of Vitellius.In despair, he attempted to negotiate a surrender. Terms of peace, including a voluntary abdication, were agreed upon with Titus Flavius Sabinus II,but the soldiers of thePraetorian Guard—the imperialbodyguard—considered such a resignation disgraceful, and prevented Vitellius from carrying out the treaty.On the morning of 18 December, the emperor appeared to deposit the imperial insignia at theTemple of Concord,but at the last minute retraced his steps to the imperial palace. In the confusion, the leading men of the state gathered at Sabinus' house, proclaiming Vespasian Emperor, but the multitude dispersed when Vitellian cohorts clashed with the armed escort of Sabinus, who was forced to retreat to theCapitoline Hill.During the night, he was joined by his relatives, including Domitian. The armies of Mucianus were nearing Rome, but the besieged Flavian party did not hold out for longer than a day. On 19 December, Vitellianists burst onto the Capitol, and in the resulting skirmish, Sabinus was captured and executed. Domitian himself managed to escape by disguising himself as a worshipper ofIsis,and spent the night in safety with one of his father's supporters.By the afternoon of 20 December, Vitellius was dead, his armies having been defeated by the Flavian legions. With nothing more to be feared from the enemy, Domitian came forward to meet the invading forces; he was universally saluted by the title ofCaesar,and the mass of troops conducted him to his father's house.The following day, 21 December, the Senate proclaimed Vespasian emperor of the Roman Empire.

Although the war had officially ended, a state ofanarchyand lawlessness pervaded in the first days following the demise of Vitellius. Order was properly restored by Mucianus in early 70, who headed an interim government with Domitian as the representative of the Flavian family in the Senate.Upon receiving the tidings of his rival's defeat and death atAlexandria,the new Emperor at once forwarded supplies of urgently needed grain to Rome, along with an edict or a declaration of policy, in which he gave assurance of an entire reversal of the laws of Nero, especially those relating totreason.In early 70, Vespasian was still in Egypt, however, continuing to consolidate support from the Egyptians before departing.By the end of 70, he finally returned to Rome, and was properly installed as Emperor.

The Flavian dynasty

Vespasian (69–79)

Main article:Vespasian

Set of threeaureidepicting the rulers of the Flavian dynasty. Top to bottom: Vespasian, Titus and Domitian.

Little factual information survives about Vespasian's government during the ten years he was Emperor. Vespasian spent his first year as a ruler in Egypt, during which the administration of the empire was given toMucianus,aided by Vespasian's son Domitian. Modern historians believe that Vespasian remained there in order to consolidate support from the Egyptians.In mid-70, Vespasian first came to Rome and immediately embarked on a widespread propaganda campaign to consolidate his power and promote the new dynasty. His reign is best known for financial reforms following the demise of theJulio-Claudian dynasty,such as the institution of the tax on urinals, and the numerous military campaigns fought during the 70s. The most significant of these was theFirst Jewish-Roman War,which ended in the destruction of the city ofJerusalemby Titus. In addition, Vespasian faced several uprisings in Egypt,Gauland Germania, and reportedly survived several conspiracies against him.Vespasian helped rebuild Rome after the civil war, adding a temple to peace and beginning construction of the Flavian Amphitheatre, better known as theColosseum.Vespasian died of natural causes on 23 June 79, and was immediately succeeded by his eldest son Titus.The ancient historians that lived through the period such asTacitus,Suetonius,JosephusandPliny the Elderspeak well of Vespasian while condemning the emperors that came before him.

Titus (79–81)

Main article:Titus

Despite initial concerns over his character,Titusruled to great acclaim following the death of Vespasian on 23 June 79, and was considered a good emperor bySuetoniusand other contemporary historians.In this role he is best known for his public building program in Rome, and completing the construction of the Colosseum in 80,but also for his generosity in relieving the suffering caused by two disasters, theMount Vesuvius eruption of 79,and the fire of Rome of 80.Titus continued his father's efforts to promote the Flavian dynasty. He revived practice of theimperial cult,deified his father, and laid foundations for what would later become theTemple of Vespasian and Titus,which was finished by Domitian.After barely two years in office, Titus unexpectedly died of afeveron 13 September 81, and wasdeifiedby theRoman Senate.

Domitian (81–96)

Main article:Domitian

Domitian was declared emperor by thePraetorian Guardthe day after Titus' death, commencing a reign which lasted more than fifteen years—longer than any man who had governed Rome sinceTiberius.Domitian strengthened the economy by revaluing theRoman coinage,expanded the border defenses of the Empire,and initiated a massive building programme to restore the damaged city of Rome.In Britain,Gnaeus Julius Agricolaexpanded the Roman Empire as far as modern dayScotland,but inDacia,Domitian was unable to procure a decisive victory in the war against theDacians.On 18 September 96, Domitian wasassassinatedby court officials, and with him the Flavian dynasty came to an end. The same day, he was succeeded by his friend and advisorNerva,who founded the long-lastingNervan-Antonian dynasty.Domitian's memory wascondemned to oblivionby the Roman Senate, with which he had a notoriously difficult relationship throughout his reign. Senatorial authors such as Tacitus, Pliny the Younger and Suetonius published histories after his death, propagating the view of Domitian as a cruel and paranoid tyrant. Modern history has rejected these views, instead characterising Domitian as a ruthless but efficient autocrat, whose cultural, economic and political programme provided the foundation for thePrincipateof the peaceful 2nd century. His successors Nerva andTrajanwere less restrictive, but in reality their policies differed little from Domitian's.

Administration

Government

Since the fall of theRepublic,the authority of theRoman Senatehad largely eroded under the quasi-monarchical system of government established byAugustus,known as thePrincipate.The Principate allowed the existence of ade factodictatorial regime, while maintaining the formal framework of the Roman Republic.Most Emperors upheld the public facade of democracy, and in return the Senate implicitly acknowledged the Emperor's status as ade factomonarch.The civil war of 69 had made it abundantly clear that real power in the Empire lay with control over the army. By the time Vespasian was proclaimed emperor in Rome, any hope of restoring the Republic had long dissipated.

The Flavian approach to government was one of both implicit and explicit exclusion. When Vespasian returned to Rome in mid-70, he immediately embarked on a series of efforts to consolidate his power and prevent future revolts. He offered gifts to the military and dismissed or punished those soldiers loyal to Vitellius.He also restructured the Senatorial and Equestrian orders, removing his enemies and adding his allies. Executive control was largely distributed among members of his family. Non-Flavians were virtually excluded from important public offices, even those who had been among Vespasian's earliest supporters during the civil war. Mucianus slowly disappears from the historical records during this time, and it is believed he died sometime between 75 and 77.That it was Vespasian's intention to found a long-lasting dynasty to govern the Roman Empire was most evident in the powers he conferred upon his eldest son Titus. Titus sharedtribunician powerwith his father, received sevenconsulships,thecensorship,and perhaps most remarkably, was givencommandof thePraetorian Guard.Because Titus effectively acted as co-emperor with his father, no abrupt change in Flavian policy occurred during his brief reign from 79 until 81.

Domitian's approach to government was less subtle than his father and brother. Once Emperor, he quickly dispensed with the Republican facadeand transformed his government more or less formally into thedivine monarchyhe believed it to be. By moving the centre of power to the imperialcourt,Domitian openly rendered the Senate's powers obsolete. He became personally involved in all branches of the administration:edictswere issued governing the smallest details of everyday life and law, while taxation and public morals were rigidly enforced.Nevertheless, Domitian did make concessions toward senatorial opinion. Whereas his father and brother had virtually excluded non-Flavians from public office, Domitian rarely favoured his own family members in the distribution of strategic posts, admitting a surprisingly large number of provincials and potential opponents to the consulship,and assigning men of theequestrianorder to run the imperial bureaucracy.

Financial reforms

One of Vespasian's first acts as Emperor was to enforce a tax reform to restore the Empire's depleted treasury. After Vespasian arrived in Rome in mid-70, Mucianus continued to press Vespasian to collect as many taxes as possible,renewing old ones and instituting new ones. Mucianus and Vespasian increased the tribute of the provinces, and kept a watchful eye upon the treasury officials. The Latinproverb"Pecunia non olet"(" Money does not smell ") may have been created when he had introduced aurine taxon public toilets.

Upon his accession, Domitian revalued theRoman coinageto the standard of Augustus, increasing the silver content of thedenariusby 12%. An imminent crisis in 85, however, forced adevaluationto the Neronian standard of 65,but this was still higher than the level which Vespasian and Titus had maintained during their reign, and Domitian's rigorous taxation policy ensured that this standard was sustained for the following eleven years.Coin types from this era display a highly consistent degree of quality, including meticulous attention to Domitian's titulature, and exceptionally refined artwork on the reverse portraits.

Jones estimates Domitian's annual income at more than 1,200 millionsestertii,of which over one-third would presumably have been spent on maintaining the Roman army.The other major area of expenditure encompassed the vast reconstruction programme carried out on the city of Rome itself.

Challenges

Military activity

Main articles:First Jewish-Roman War,Siege of Jerusalem (70),Roman conquest of Britain,andTrajan's Dacian Wars

This relief from theArch of Titusdepicts Roman soldiers carrying treasures from the Temple ofJerusalem,including theMenorah.The city was besieged and destroyed by Titus in 70.

The most significant military campaign undertaken during the Flavian period was the siege and destruction of Jerusalem in 70 by Titus. The destruction of the city was the culmination of the Roman campaign in Judaea following the Jewish uprising of 66. TheSecond Templewas completely demolished, after which Titus's soldiers proclaimed himimperatorin honor of the victory.Jerusalem was sackedand much of the population killed or dispersed. Josephus claims that 1,100,000 people were killed during the siege, of which a majority were Jewish.97,000 were captured and enslaved, includingSimon Bar GioraandJohn of Giscala.Many fled to areas around theMediterranean.Titus reportedly refused to accept awreathof victory, and instead "disclaimed any such honor to himself, saying that it was not himself that had accomplished this exploit, but that he had merely lent his arms to God."Upon his return to Rome in 71, Titus was awarded atriumph.Accompanied by Vespasian and Domitian, he rode into the city, enthusiastically saluted by the Roman populace and preceded by a lavish parade containing treasures and captives from the war.Josephusdescribes a procession with large amounts of gold and silver carried along the route, followed by elaborate re-enactments of the war, Jewish prisoners, and finally the treasures taken from the Temple of Jerusalem, including theMenorahand theTorah.Leaders of the resistance were executed in theForum,after which the procession closed with religious sacrifices at theTemple of Jupiter.ThetriumphalArch of Titus,which stands at one entrance to the Forum, memorializes the victory of Titus.

The conquest of Britain continued under command ofGnaeus Julius Agricola,who expanded the Roman Empire as far asCaledonia,or modern dayScotland,between 77 and 84. In 82 Agricola crossed an unidentified body of water and defeated peoples unknown to the Romans until then.He fortified the coast facing Ireland, and Tacitus recalls that his father-in-law often claimed the island could be conquered with a singlelegionand a fewauxiliaries.He had given refuge to an exiled Irish king whom he hoped he might use as the excuse for conquest. This conquest never happened, but some historians believe that the crossing referred to was in fact a small-scale exploratory or punitive expedition to Ireland.The following year Agricola raised a fleet and pushed beyond theForthinto Caledonia. To aid the advance, an expansive legionary fortress was constructed atInchtuthil.In the summer of 84, Agricola faced the armies of the Caledonians, led byCalgacus,at theBattle of Mons Graupius.Although the Romans inflicted heavy losses on the Caledonians, two-thirds of their army managed to escape and hide in the ScottishmarshesandHighlands,ultimately preventing Agricola from bringing the entire British island under his control.

Limes Germanicusin 70

The military campaigns undertaken during Domitian's reign were usually defensive in nature, as the Emperor rejected the idea of expansionist warfare.His most significant military contribution was the development of theLimes Germanicus,which encompassed a vast network of roads, forts and watchtowers constructed along theRhineriver to defend the Empire.Nevertheless, several important wars were fought inGaul,against theChatti,and across theDanubefrontier against theSuebi,theSarmatians,and theDacians.Led by KingDecebalus,the Dacians invaded the province ofMoesiaaround 84 or 85, wreaking considerable havoc and killing the Moesian governor,Oppius Sabinus.Domitian immediately launched acounteroffensive,which resulted in the destruction of a legion during an ill-fated expedition into Dacia. Their commander,Cornelius Fuscus,was killed, and thebattle standardof the Praetorian Guard lost.In 87, the Romans invaded Dacia once more, this time under command ofTettius Julianus,and finally managed to defeat Decebalus late in 88, at the same site where Fuscus had previously been killed.An attack on Dacia's capital was abandoned, however, when a crisis arose on the German frontier, forcing Domitian to sign a peace treaty with Decebalus which was severely criticized by contemporary authors.For the remainder of Domitian's reign Dacia remained a relatively peacefulclient kingdom,but Decebalus used the Roman money to fortify his defenses, and continued to defy Rome. It was not until the reign ofTrajan,in 106, that a decisive victory against Decebalus was procured. Again, the Roman army sustained heavy losses, but Trajan succeeded in capturing Sarmizegetusa and, importantly, annexed thegoldandsilver minesof Dacia.

Natural disasters

Main articles:Eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD,Pompeii,andHerculaneum

Although his administration was marked by a relative absence of major military or political conflicts, Titus faced a number of major disasters during his brief reign. On 24 August 79, barely two months after his accession,Mount Vesuvius erupted,resulting in the almost complete destruction of life and property in the cities and resort communities around theBay of Naples.The cities ofPompeiiandHerculaneumwere buried under metres of stone andlava,killing thousands of citizens.Titus appointed two ex-consuls to organise and coordinate therelief effort,while personally donating large amounts of money from the imperial treasury to aid the victims of the volcano.Additionally, he visited Pompeii once after the eruption and again the following year.The city was lost for nearly 1700 years before its accidental rediscovery in 1748. Since then, its excavation has provided an extraordinarily detailed insight into the life of a city at the height of the Roman Empire, frozen at the moment it was buried. TheForum,thebaths,many houses, and some out-of-town villas like theVilla of the Mysteriesremain surprisingly well preserved. Today, it is one of the most popular tourist attractions of Italy and aUNESCO World Heritage Site.On-going excavations reveal new insights into Roman history and culture.

During Titus' second visit to the disaster area, a fire struck Rome which lasted for three days.Although the extent of the damage was not as disastrous as during theGreat Fire of 64,crucially sparing the many districts ofinsulae,Cassius Diorecords a long list of important public buildings that were destroyed, including Agrippa'sPantheon,theTemple of Jupiter,theDiribitorium,parts ofPompey's Theatreand theSaepta Juliaamong others.Once again, Titus personally compensated for the damaged regions.According to Suetonius, aplaguesimilarly struck during the fire.The nature of the disease, however, as well as the death toll, are unknown.

Conspiracies

Suetonius claims that Vespasian was continuously met with conspiracies against him.Only one conspiracy is known specifically. In 78 or 79, Eprius Marcellus andAulus Caecina Alienusattempted to incite the Praetorian Guard to mutiny against Vespasian, but the conspiracy was thwarted by Titus.According to the historian John Crook, however, the alleged conspiracy was in fact a calculated plot by the Flavian faction to remove members of the opposition tied to Mucianus, with the mutinous address found on Caecina's body a forgery by Titus.When faced with real conspiracies however, Vespasian and Titus treated their enemies with lenience. "I will not kill a dog that barks at me," were words expressing the temper of Vespasian, while Titus once demonstrated his generosity as Emperor by inviting men who were suspected of aspiring to the throne to dinner, rewarding them with gifts and allowing them to be seated next to him at the games.

Domitian appears to have met with several conspiracies during his reign, one of which led to his eventualassassinationin 96. The first significant revolt arose on 1 January 89, when the governor ofGermania Superior,Lucius Antonius Saturninus,and his two legions atMainz,Legio XIV GeminaandLegio XXI Rapax,rebelled against the Roman Empire with the aid of the Chatti.The precise cause for the rebellion is uncertain, although it appears to have been planned well in advance. The senatorial officers may have disapproved of Domitian's military strategies, such as his decision to fortify the German frontier rather than attack, his recent retreat from Britain, and finally the disgraceful policy ofappeasementtowards Decebalus.At any rate, the uprising was strictly confined to Saturninus' province, and quickly detected once the rumour spread across the neighbouring provinces. The governor ofGermania Inferior,Lappius Maximus,moved to the region at once, assisted by the procurator ofRhaetia,Titus Flavius Norbanus.From Spain, Trajan was summoned, whilst Domitian himself came from Rome with the Praetorian Guard. By a stroke of luck, a thaw prevented the Chatti from crossing the Rhine and coming to Saturninus' aid.Within twenty-four days the rebellion was crushed, and its leaders at Mainz savagely punished. The mutinous legions were sent to the front inIllyricum,while those who had assisted in their defeat were duly rewarded.

Both Tacitus and Suetonius speak of escalating persecutions toward the end of Domitian's reign, identifying a point of sharp increase around 93, or sometime after the failed revolt of Saturninus in 89.At least twenty senatorial opponents were executed,including Domitia Longina's former husbandLucius Aelius Lamia Plautius Aelianusand three of Domitian's own family members,Titus Flavius Sabinus IV,Titus Flavius ClemensandMarcus Arrecinus Clemens.Some of these men were executed as early as 83 or 85, however, lending little credit to Tacitus' notion of a "reign of terror" late in Domitian's reign. According to Suetonius, some were convicted for corruption or treason, others on trivial charges, which Domitian justified through his suspicion.

Flavian culture

Propaganda

Since the reign of Tiberius, the rulers of the Julio-Claudian dynasty had legitimized their power through adopted-line descent from Augustus and Julius Caesar. Vespasian could no longer claim such a relation, however. Therefore, a massive propaganda campaign was initiated to justify Flavian rule as having been predetermined through divine providence.At the same time, Flavian propaganda emphasised Vespasian's role as a bringer of peace following the crisis of 69. Nearly one-third of all coins minted in Rome under Vespasian celebrated military victory or peace,while the wordvindexwas removed from coins as to not remind the public of rebelliousVindex.Construction projects bore inscriptions praising Vespasian and condemning previous emperors,and aTemple of Peacewas constructed in the forum.

The Flavians also controlled public opinion through literature. Vespasian approved histories written under his reign, assuring biases against him were removed,while also giving financial rewards to contemporary writers.The ancient historians that lived through the period such asTacitus,Suetonius,JosephusandPliny the Elderspeak suspiciously well of Vespasian while condemning the emperors that came before him.Tacitus admits that his status was elevated by Vespasian, Josephus identifies Vespasian as a patron and savior, and Pliny dedicated hisNatural Historyto Vespasian's son, Titus.Those that spoke against Vespasian were punished. A number of Stoic philosophers were accused of corrupting students with inappropriate teachings and were expelled from Rome.Helvidius Priscus,a pro-Republic philosopher, was executed for his teachings.

Titus and Domitian also revived the practice of theimperial cult,which had fallen somewhat out of use under Vespasian. Significantly, Domitian's first act as Emperor was thedeificationof his brother Titus. Upon their deaths, his infant son, and nieceJulia Flavia,were likewise enrolled among the gods. To foster the worship of the imperial family, Domitian erected a dynasticmausoleumon the site of Vespasian's former house on theQuirinal,and completed theTemple of Vespasian and Titus,a shrine dedicated to the worship of his deified father and brother.To memorialize the military triumphs of the Flavian family, he ordered the construction of theTemplum Divorumand theTemple of Fortuna Redux,and completed theArch of Titus.In order to further justify the divine nature of Flavian rule, Domitian also emphasized connections with the chief deityJupiter,most significantly through the restoration of theTemple of Jupiteron theCapitoline Hill.

Construction

Further information:ColosseumandRabirius (architect)

The most enduring landmark of the Flavian dynasty was the Flavian Amphitheatre, better known as theColosseum(in Italian Colosseo). Its construction was begun by Vespasian, and ultimately finished by Titus and Domitian.

The Flavian dynasty is perhaps best known for its vast construction programme in the city of Rome, intended to restore the capital from the damage it had suffered during the Great Fire of 64, and the civil war of 69. Vespasian added the Temple of Peace and the Temple to the Deified Claudius.In 75 a colossal statue ofApollo,begun underNeroas astatue of himself,was finished on Vespasian's orders, and he also dedicated a stage of the theater of Marcellus. Construction of the Flavian Amphitheatre, presently better known as theColosseum(probably after the nearby statue), was begun in 70 under Vespasian and finally completed in 80 under Titus.In addition to providing spectacular entertainments to the Roman populace, the building was conceived as a gigantic triumphal monument to commemorate the military achievements of the Flavians during theJewish wars.Adjacent to the amphitheatre, within the precinct of Nero'sGolden House,Titus also ordered the construction of a new publicbath-house,which was tobear his name.Construction of this building was hastily finished to coincide with the completion of the Flavian Amphitheatre.

The bulk of the Flavian construction projects were carried out during the reign of Domitian, who spent lavishly to restore and embellish the city of Rome. Much more than a renovation project, however, Domitian's building programme was intended to be the crowning achievement of an Empire-wide cultural renaissance. Around fifty structures were erected, restored or completed, a number second only to the amount erected under Augustus.Among the most important new structures were anOdeum,aStadium,and an expansive palace on thePalatine Hill,known as theFlavian Palace,which was designed by Domitian's master architectRabirius.The most important building Domitian restored was theTemple of Jupiteron theCapitoline Hill,which was said to have been covered with agildedroof. Among those he completed were theTemple of Vespasian and Titus,theArch of Titus,and the Colosseum, to which he added a fourth level and finished the interior seating area.

Entertainment

Main articles:Inaugural games of the Flavian AmphitheatreandCapitoline Games

Both Titus and Domitian were fond of gladiatorial games, and realised its importance to appease the citizens of Rome. In the newly constructed Colosseum, the Flavians provided for spectacular entertainments. TheInaugural games of the Flavian Amphitheatrelasted for a hundred days and were said to be extremely elaborate, includinggladiatorial combat,fights between wild animals (elephantsandcranes), mocknaval battlesfor which the theatre was flooded,horse racesandchariot races.During the games, wooden balls were dropped into the audience, inscribed with various prizes (clothing,gold,or evenslaves), which could then be traded for the designated item.

An estimated 135 million sestertii was spent ondonativa,orcongiaria,throughout Domitian's reign.He also revived the practice of publicbanquets,which had been reduced to a simple distribution of food under Nero, while he invested large sums on entertainment and games. In 86, he founded theCapitoline Games,a quadrennial contest comprisingathletic displays,chariot races,and competitions fororatory,music and acting.Domitian himself supported the travels of competitors from the whole empire and attributed the prizes. Innovations were also introduced into the regulargladiatorialgames, such as naval contests, night-time battles, and female anddwarfgladiator fights.Finally, he added two new factions, Gold and Purple, to chariot races, besides the regular White, Red, Green and Blue teams.

Legacy

The Flavians, although a relatively short-lived dynasty, helped restore stability to an empire on its knees. Although all three have been criticised, especially based on their more centralised style of rule, they issued reforms that created a stable enough empire to last well into the 3rd century. However, their background as a military dynasty led to further marginalisation of the Senate, and a conclusive move away fromprinceps,or first citizen, and towardimperator,or emperor.

Little factual information survives about Vespasian's government during the ten years he was emperor; his reign is best known for financial reforms following the demise of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. Vespasian was noted for his mildness and for loyalty to the people. For example, much money was spent on public works and the restoration and beautification of Rome: a new forum, the Temple of Peace, the public baths and the Colosseum.

Titus's record among ancient historians stands as one of the most exemplary of any emperor. All the surviving accounts from this period, many of them written by his own contemporaries such asSuetonius Tranquillus,Cassius Dio,andPliny the Elder,present a highly favourable view towards Titus. His character has especially prospered in comparison with that of his brother Domitian. In contrast to the ideal portrayal of Titus in Roman histories, in Jewish memory "Titus the Wicked" is remembered as an evil oppressor and destroyer of the Temple. For example, one legend in the Babylonian Talmud describes Titus as having had sex with a whore on a Torah scroll inside the Temple during its destruction.

Although contemporary historians vilified Domitian after his death, his administration provided the foundation for the peaceful empire of the 2nd century, and the culmination of thePax Romana.His successorsNervaandTrajanwere less restrictive, but, in reality, their policies differed little from Domitian's. Much more than a gloomy coda to the 1st century, the Roman Empire prospered between 81 and 96, in a reign whichTheodor Mommsendescribed as the sombre but intelligent despotism of Domitian.

Flavian family tree

FLAVIAN DYNASTY detailed family tree
Titus Flavius Petro Tertulla Vespasius Pollio Julia the Younger Titus Flavius Sabinus Vespasia Polla Vespasius (praetor) Aemilia Lepida Agrippina the Elder Germanicus Titus Flavius Sabinus Vespasian (69–79) Domitilla the Elder Flavia (died young) Junia Lepida Vistilia Titus Flavius Sabinus Domitilla the Younger Titus (79–81) Arrecina Tertulla Cassia Longina Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo Caesonia Caligula (37–41) Titus Flavius Sabinus Titus Flavius Clemens Flavia Domitilla Julia Flavia Domitian (81–96) Domitia Longina Domitia Flavius Caesar

Dynastic timeline

See also

• Flavian art

References

• Grainger, John D. (2003).Nerva and the Roman Succession Crisis of 96 CE–99.London: Routledge.ISBN0-415-28917-3.
• Jones, Brian W. (1992).The Emperor Domitian.London: Routledge.ISBN0-415-10195-6.
• Jones, Brian W.; Milns, Robert (2002).Suetonius: The Flavian Emperors: A Historical Commentary.London: Bristol Classical Press.ISBN1-85399-613-0.
• Murison, Charles Leslie (2003)."M. Cocceius Nerva and the Flavians"(subscription required).Transactions of the American Philological Association.133(1). University of Western Ontario: 147–157.doi:10.1353/apa.2003.0008.S2CID162211747.
• Sullivan, Philip B. (1953). "A Note on the Flavian Accession".The Classical Journal.49(2). The Classical Association of the Middle West and South, Inc.: 67–70.JSTOR3293160.
• Syme, Ronald(1930). "The Imperial Finances under Domitian, Nerva and Trajan".The Journal of Roman Studies.20:55–70.doi:10.2307/297385.JSTOR297385.S2CID163980436.
• Townend, Gavin (1961). "Some Flavian Connections".The Journal of Roman Studies.51(1 & 2). Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies: 54–62.doi:10.2307/298836.JSTOR298836.S2CID163868319.
• Waters, K. H. (1964). "The Character of Domitian".Phoenix.18(1). Classical Association of Canada: 49–77.doi:10.2307/1086912.JSTOR1086912.
• Wellesley, Kenneth (1956). "Three Historical Puzzles in Histories 3".The Classical Quarterly.6(3/4). Cambridge University Press: 207–214.doi:10.1017/S0009838800020188.JSTOR636914.S2CID170747190.
• Wellesley, Kenneth (2000) [1975].The Year of the Four Emperors.Roman Imperial Biographies. London: Routledge. p. 272.ISBN978-0-415-23620-1.

Further reading

• Jones, Brian W. (1984).The Emperor Titus.London: Palgrave Macmillan.ISBN0-312-24443-6.
• Levick, Barbara (1999).Vespasian (Roman Imperial Biographies.London: Routledge.ISBN0-415-16618-7.

External links

Primary sources

• Cassius Dio,Roman History
  • Book 64,English translation
  • Book 65,English translation
  • Book 66,English translation
  • Book 67,English translation
• Josephus,The War of the Jews,English translation
• Suetonius,On the Life of the Caesars
  • Life of Vespasian,Latin text with English translation
  • Life of Titus,Latin text with English translation
  • Life of Domitian,Latin text with English translation
• Tacitus
  • Agricola,English translation
  • Histories,English translation

Secondary material

• Donahue, John (2004-09-23)."Titus Flavius Vespasianus (A.D. 69–79)".De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and their Families.Retrieved2008-06-30.
• Donahue, John (2004-10-23)."Titus Flavius Vespasianus (A.D. 79–81)".De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and their Families.Retrieved2008-06-30.
• Donahue, John (1997-10-10)."Titus Flavius Domitianus (A.D. 81–96)".De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and their Families.Retrieved2007-02-10.
• "A Gallery of Flavian Coins".