Freedman

Afreedmanorfreedwomanis a person who has been released fromslavery,usually by legal means. Historically, slaves were freed bymanumission(granted freedom by their owners),emancipation(granted freedom as part of a larger group), or self-purchase. Afugitive slaveis a person who escaped enslavement by fleeing.

Ancient Rome

Rome differed fromGreek city-statesin allowing freed slaves to becomeplebeian citizens.^[1]The act of freeing a slave was calledmanumissio,frommanus,"hand" (in the sense of holding or possessing something), andmissio,the act of releasing. Aftermanumission,a slave who had belonged to aRoman citizenenjoyed not only passive freedom from ownership, but active political freedom(libertas),including the right to vote.^[2]A slave who had acquiredlibertaswas known as alibertus( "freed person",feminineliberta) in relation to his former master, who was called his or her patron(patronus).

As a social class, freed slaves wereliberti,though later Latin texts used the termslibertusandlibertiniinterchangeably.^[3]Libertiniwere not entitled to holdpublic officeorstate priesthoods,nor could they achieve legitimatesenatorial rank.During the early Empire, however, freedmen held key positions in the government bureaucracy, so much so thatHadrianlimited their participation by law.^[4]Any future children of a freedman would be born free, with full rights of citizenship.

TheClaudian Civil Serviceset a precedent whereby freedmen could be used ascivil servantsin the Romanbureaucracy.In addition, Claudius passed legislation concerning slaves, including a law stating that sick slaves abandoned by their owners became freedmen if they recovered. The emperor was criticized for using freedmen in the Imperial Courts.

Some freedmen enjoyed enormous success and became quite wealthy. The brothers who ownedHouse of the Vettii,one of the biggest and most magnificent houses inPompeii,are thought to have been freedmen. A freedman who became rich and influential might still be looked down on by the traditional aristocracy as a vulgarnouveau riche.Trimalchio,a character in theSatyriconofPetronius,is a caricature of such a freedman.

Scandinavia

Arab-Muslim and North African slavery

Arab-Muslim slave traders and their African captives in theSahara,19th century.

The term "Eastern slave trade" refers to theArab slave tradethat supplied theearly Muslim conqueststhroughout theArab-Muslim worldfrom the 7th to the 20th centuries,^[5]^[6]^[7]peaking in the 18th and 19th centuries. This term, which covers the Arab-Muslim slave trade, is symmetrical with the term "Western slave trade", which refers to thetriangular tradeon theWestern coasts of Africathat supplied theEuropean colonization of the Americas,and which includes theAtlantic slave trade.^[8]

The slaves of the Eastern slave trade came mainly fromSub-Saharan Africa,Northwestern Africa,Southern Europe,Slavic countries,theCaucasus,and theIndian subcontinent,and were imported by the Arab-Muslim slave traders into theMiddle East and North Africa,theHorn of Africa,and the islands of theIndian Ocean.^[5]For centuries, Arab-Muslim slave traders took and transported an estimated 10 to 15 million nativeAfricansto slavery throughout theArab-Muslim world.They alsoenslaved Europeans(known asSaqaliba), as well asCaucasianandTurkicpeoples, from coastal areas of theMediterranean Region,theBalkans,Central Asia,and theEurasian steppes.^[7]^[9]^[10]

The offspring ofMamlukswere regarded as Muslim freedmen, and hence excluded from the Arab-Muslim slave trade; they were known as theawlād al-nās( "sons of respectable people" ), who either fulfilled scribal and administrative functions or served as commanders of the non-Mamlukḥalqatroops, serving the ruling Arab andOttomandynasties in theMuslim world.^[7]

United States

In theUnited States,the terms "freedmen" and "freedwomen" refer chiefly to former Africanslavesemancipated during and after theAmerican Civil Warby the Emancipation Proclamation and the 13th Amendment. African slaves freed before the war (usually by individualmanumissions,often inwills) were generally referred to as "free Negroes" or "free Blacks". In addition, there was a population of African Americans born free.

The great majority of families of freeAfricanpeople recorded in the U.S. census in the Upper South in the first two decades after the Revolutionary War have been found to have descended from unions between European American women (indentured servants or free) and African men (whether indentured servants, slave or free) in colonial Virginia. According to the legal principle ofpartus sequitur ventrem,in the slave colonies (later states) children were born into the social status of their mothers; thus,mixed-racechildren of white women were born free.^[11]Such free families of color tended to migrate to the frontier of Virginia and otherUpper Southcolonies, and then west into Kentucky, the future West Virginia, and Tennessee.^[11]In addition, during the first two decades after the Revolution, slaveholders freed thousands of slaves in the Upper South, inspired by revolutionary ideals. Most Northern states abolished slavery, some on a gradual basis.

InLouisianaand other areas of the formerNew France,free African people were classified inFrenchasgens de couleur libres.They were generally born to African or mixed-race mothers and European American fathers of ethnic French or other European ancestry. The fathers sometimes freed their children and sexual partners, leading to the growth of the community ofCreoles of color,or free people of color. New Orleans had the largest community of free people of color, well-established before the U.S. acquired Louisiana. The French and Spanish colonial rulers had given the free people of color more rights than most free Black people had in the American South.

In addition, there were sizable communities of freeAfricanpeople in French Caribbean colonies, such asSaint-Domingue(now Haiti) andGuadeloupe.Due to the violence of theHaitian Revolution,many free people of color, who were originally part of the revolution, fled the island as refugees after being attacked by slave rebels, particularly in the north of the island. Some went first to Cuba, from where they immigrated to New Orleans in 1808 and 1809 after being expelled when Napoleon invaded Spanish territory in Europe. Many brought slaves with them. Their numbers strengthened the French-speaking community of enslaved African peoples, as well as the free people of color. Other refugees from Saint-Domingue settled in Charleston, Savannah, and New York.

Emancipation

TheEmancipation Proclamationof 1863 declared all enslaved persons inthe Confederacy—states in rebellion and not under the control of theUnion—to be permanently free. It did not end slavery in the fourborder statesthat had stayed in the Union. African slavery elsewhere was abolished bystateaction or with the ratification of theThirteenth Amendmentto theUnited States Constitutionin December 1865. TheCivil Rights Act of 1866,passed over the veto ofPresident Andrew Johnson,the formerly enslaved fullcitizenshipin the United States, though this did not guarantee them voting rights. TheFourteenth Amendmentmade "All persons born or naturalized in the United States" citizens of the United States. TheFifteenth Amendmentgave voting rights to all adult males; only adult males had the franchise among European Americans. The 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments are known as the "Civil War Amendments"^[12]or the "Reconstruction Amendments".

To help freedmen transition from slavery to freedom, including a free labor market, PresidentAbraham Lincolncreated theFreedmen's Bureau,which assigned agents throughout the former Confederate states. The Bureau also founded schools to educate freedmen, both adults and children; helped freedmen negotiate labor contracts; and tried to minimize violence against freedmen. The era ofReconstructionwas an attempt to establish new governments in the former Confederacy and to bring freedmen into society as voting citizens. Northern church bodies, such as theAmerican Missionary Associationand theFree Will Baptists,sent teachers to the South to assist in educating freedmen and their children, and eventually established several colleges for higher education.U.S. Armyoccupation soldiers were stationed throughout the South via military districts enacted by theReconstruction Acts;they protected freedmen in voting polls and public facilities from violence and intimidation by white Southerners, which were common throughout the region.

Native American Freedmen

TheCherokee Nation,Choctaw Nation,Chickasaw Nation,Seminole Nation of Oklahoma,andCreek Nationwere among those Native American tribes that held enslaved Africans before and during theAmerican Civil War.^[13]They supported the Confederacy during the war, supplying some warriors in the West, as they were promised their own state if the Confederacy won. After the end of the war, the U.S. required these tribes to make new peace treaties, and to emancipate their African slaves. They were required to offer full citizenship in their tribes to those freedmen who wanted to stay with the tribes. Numerous families had intermarried by that time or had other personal ties. If freedmen left the tribes, they would become U.S. citizens.

Cherokee Freedmen

In the late 20th century, the Cherokee Nation voted for restrictions on membership to only those descendants of people listed as "Cherokee by blood" on theDawes Rollsof the early 20th century, a decision that excluded mostCherokee Freedmen(by that time this term referred to descendants of the original group). In addition to arguing that the post-Civil War treaties gave them citizenship, the freedmen have argued that the Dawes Rolls were often inaccurate, recording as freedmen even those individuals who had partial Cherokee ancestry and were considered Cherokee by blood. TheChoctaw freedmenandCreek freedmenhave similarly struggled with their respective tribes over the terms of citizenship in contemporary times. The tribes have wanted to limit those who can benefit from tribal citizenship, in an era in which gaming casinos are yielding considerable revenues for members. The majority of members of the tribes have voted to limit membership. Descendants of freedmen, however, maintain that their rights to citizenship granted under the post-Civil War treaties should be restored. In 2017, the Cherokee freedmen were granted citizenship again in the tribe.^[14]^[15]^[16]

Australia

Many convicted people from the United Kingdom were sentenced to betransported to Australiabetween 1788 and 1868. Also, many came from the United Kingdom and Europe voluntarily, planning to settle in Australia, some as pastors and missionaries, others seeking to make a living by trade or farming. When convicts finished their sentence, they were freed and referred to as "freedmen" or "freed men". However, many of these who were freed wanted to claim the label "free men". But those who had come freely to Australia wanted to reserve the label "free men" exclusively for themselves, distinguishing themselves above those who had been "freed".^[17]

References

^"Slaves & Freemen".PBS.
^Millar, Fergus (1998–2002).The Crowd in Rome in the Late Republic.University of Michigan. pp. 23 & 209.
^Mouritsen, Henrik (2011).The Freedman in the Roman World.Cambridge University Press.p. 36.
^Berger, Adolf (1953).libertinus,Encyclopedic Dictionary of Roman Law.American Philological Society. p. 564.
^^a ^bLa Rue, George M. (17 August 2023)."Indian Ocean and Middle Eastern Slave Trades".Oxford Bibliographies Online.OxfordandNew York:Oxford University Press.doi:10.1093/OBO/9780199846733-0051.Retrieved6 February2024.
^Freamon, Bernard K. (2019). "The" Mamluk/Ghulam Phenomenon "– Slave Sultans, Soldiers, Eunuchs, and Concubines". In Freamon, Bernard K. (ed.).Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures.Studies in Global Slavery. Vol. 8.Leiden:Brill Publishers.pp. 219–244.doi:10.1163/9789004398795_006.ISBN 978-90-04-36481-3.S2CID 191690007.Ibn Khaldunargued that in the midst of the decadence that became the hallmark of the laterAbbasid Caliphate,providence restored the "glory and the unity" of the Islamic faith by sending the Mamluks: "loyal helpers, who were brought from the House of War to the House of Islam under the rule of slavery, which hides in itself a divine blessing." His expression of the idea that slavery, considered to be a degrading social condition to be avoided at all costs, might contain "a divine blessing", was the most articulate expression ofMuslim thinking on slaverysince theearly days of Islam.Ibn Khaldun's general observation about the paradoxical nature of slavery brings to mindHegel's reflections on the subject some five hundred years later. The great philosopher observed that, in many instances, it is the slave who ultimately gains the independent consciousness and power to become the actual master of his or her owner. The Mamluk/Ghulam Phenomenon is a good historical example of this paradox.
^^a ^b ^cStowasser, Karl (1984). "Manners and Customs at the Mamluk Court".Muqarnas.2(The Art of the Mamluks).Leiden:Brill Publishers:13–20.doi:10.2307/1523052.ISSN 0732-2992.JSTOR 1523052.S2CID 191377149.The Mamluk slave warriors, with an empire extending fromLibyato theEuphrates,fromCiliciato theArabian Seaand theSudan,remained for the next two hundred years the most formidable power of theEastern Mediterraneanand theIndian Ocean– champions ofSunni orthodoxy,guardians ofIslam's holy places,their capital, Cairo, the seat of the Sunni caliph and a magnet for scholars, artists, and craftsmen uprooted by theMongol upheaval in the Eastor drawn to it from all parts of the Muslim world by its wealth and prestige. Under their rule, Egypt passed through a period of prosperity and brilliance unparalleled since the days of thePtolemies.[...] They ruled as amilitary aristocracy,aloof and almost totally isolated from the native population, Muslim and non-Muslim alike, and their ranks had to be replenished in each generation through fresh imports of slaves from abroad. Only those who had grown up outside Muslim territory and who entered as slaves in the service either of thesultanhimself or of one of the Mamlukemirswere eligible for membership and careers within their closed military caste. The offspring of Mamluks were free-born Muslims and hence excluded from the system: they became theawlād al-nās,the "sons of respectable people", who either fulfilled scribal and administrative functions or served as commanders of the non-Mamlukḥalqatroops. Some two thousand slaves were imported annually:Qipchaq,Azeris,Uzbec Turks,Mongols,Avars,Circassians,Georgians,Armenians,Greeks,Bulgars,Albanians,Serbs,Hungarians.
^Green, Toby (2012)."Part Two: Creolisation and Slavery – The Early Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade from Western Africa".The Rise of the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade in Western Africa, 1300–1589.CambridgeandNew York:Cambridge University Press.pp. 177–207.doi:10.1017/CBO9781139016407.011.ISBN 978-1-107-01436-7.LCCN 2011015312.
^Levanoni, Amalia (2010). "PART II: EGYPT AND SYRIA (ELEVENTH CENTURY UNTIL THE OTTOMAN CONQUEST) – The Mamlūks in Egypt and Syria: the Turkish Mamlūk sultanate (648–784/1250–1382) and the Circassian Mamlūk sultanate (784–923/1382–1517)". In Fierro, Maribel (ed.).The New Cambridge History of Islam, Volume 2: The Western Islamic World, Eleventh to Eighteenth Centuries.CambridgeandNew York:Cambridge University Press.pp. 237–284.doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521839570.010.ISBN 978-1-139-05615-1.The Arabic termmamlūkliterally means 'owned' or 'slave', and was used for theWhite Turkish slavesofPagan origins,purchased fromCentral Asiaand theEurasian steppesbyMuslim rulersto serve as soldiers in their armies. Mamlūk units formed an integral part of Muslim armies from the third/ninth century, and Mamlūk involvement in government became an increasingly familiar occurrence in themedieval Middle East.The road to absolute rule lay open before themin Egyptwhen the Mamlūk establishment gained military and political domination during the reign of theAyyūbid ruler of Egypt,al-Ṣāliḥ Ayyūb (r. 637–47/1240–9).
^"Warrior kings: A look at the history of the Mamluks".The Report – Egypt 2012: The Guide.Oxford Business Group. 2012. pp. 332–334.Archivedfrom the original on 25 September 2020.Retrieved1 March2021.The Mamluks, who descended from non-Arabslaveswho were naturalised to serve and fight for ruling Arab dynasties, are revered as some of the greatest warriors the world has ever known. Although the wordmamluktranslates as "one who is owned", the Mamluk soldiers proved otherwise, gaining a powerful military standing invarious Muslim societies,particularlyin Egypt.They would also go on to hold political power for several centuries during a period known as theMamluk Sultanate of Egypt.[...] Before the Mamluks rose to power, there was along history of slave soldiers in the Middle East,with many recruited into Arab armies by theAbbasid rulersofBaghdadin the ninth century. The tradition was continued by the dynasties that followed them, including theFatimidsandAyyubids(it was the Fatimids who built the foundations of what is now IslamicCairo). For centuries, the rulers of the Arab world recruited men from the lands of theCaucasusandCentral Asia.It is hard to discern the precise ethnic background of the Mamluks, given that they came from a number of ethnically mixed regions, but most are thought to have beenTurkic(mainlyKipchakandCuman) orfrom the Caucasus(predominantlyCircassian,but alsoArmenianandGeorgian). The Mamlukswere recruited forcibly to reinforce the armiesof Arab rulers. As outsiders, they had no local loyalties, and would thus fight for whoever owned them, not unlikemercenaries.Furthermore, the Turks and Circassians had a ferocious reputation as warriors. The slaves were either purchased or abducted as boys, around the age of 13, and brought to the cities, most notably to Cairo and itsCitadel.Herethey would be converted to Islamand would be put through a rigorous military training regime that focused particularly onhorsemanship.A code of behaviour not too dissimilar to that of theEuropean knights'Code of Chivalrywas also inculcated and was known asFurusiyya.As in many military establishments to this day the authorities sought to instil an esprit de corps and a sense of duty among the young men. The Mamluks would have to live separately from the local populations in their garrisons, which included the Citadel andRhoda Island,also in Cairo.
^^a ^bHeinegg, Paul (1995–2005).Free African Americans of Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Maryland and Delaware.
^Constitution Annotated.
^Walker, Mark; Cameron, Chris (October 8, 2021)."After Denying Care to African Natives, Indian Health Service Reverses Policy".The New York Times.
^"Cherokee Nation v. Raymond Nash, et al. and Marilyn Vann, et al. and Ryan Zinke, Secretary of the Interiorruling, August 30, 2017 ".
^"Judge Rules That Cherokee Freedmen Have Right To Tribal Citizenship".npr. 2017-08-31.Retrieved2017-09-01.
^"Cherokee Nation Attorney General Todd Hembree issues statement on Freedmen ruling, August 31, 2017 (Accessible in PDF format as of September 8, 2017"(PDF).Archived fromthe original(PDF)on November 16, 2018.RetrievedMarch 26,2019.
^pp. 89-95. Laugesen, Amanda.Convict words: Language in early colonial Australia.Oxford University Press, USA, 2002.

[pbs-roman-freemen-1] "Slaves & Freemen".PBS.

[millar-crowd-rome-laterepublic-2] Millar, Fergus (1998–2002).The Crowd in Rome in the Late Republic.University of Michigan. pp. 23 & 209.

[mouritsen-freemen-romanworld-3] Mouritsen, Henrik (2011).The Freedman in the Roman World.Cambridge University Press.p. 36.

[berger-libertinus-4] Berger, Adolf (1953).libertinus,Encyclopedic Dictionary of Roman Law.American Philological Society. p. 564.

[LaRue_2023-5] La Rue, George M. (17 August 2023)."Indian Ocean and Middle Eastern Slave Trades".Oxford Bibliographies Online.OxfordandNew York:Oxford University Press.doi:10.1093/OBO/9780199846733-0051.Retrieved6 February2024.

[Freamon_2019-6] Freamon, Bernard K. (2019). "The" Mamluk/Ghulam Phenomenon "– Slave Sultans, Soldiers, Eunuchs, and Concubines". In Freamon, Bernard K. (ed.).Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures.Studies in Global Slavery. Vol. 8.Leiden:Brill Publishers.pp. 219–244.doi:10.1163/9789004398795_006.ISBN 978-90-04-36481-3.S2CID 191690007.Ibn Khaldunargued that in the midst of the decadence that became the hallmark of the laterAbbasid Caliphate,providence restored the "glory and the unity" of the Islamic faith by sending the Mamluks: "loyal helpers, who were brought from the House of War to the House of Islam under the rule of slavery, which hides in itself a divine blessing." His expression of the idea that slavery, considered to be a degrading social condition to be avoided at all costs, might contain "a divine blessing", was the most articulate expression ofMuslim thinking on slaverysince theearly days of Islam.Ibn Khaldun's general observation about the paradoxical nature of slavery brings to mindHegel's reflections on the subject some five hundred years later. The great philosopher observed that, in many instances, it is the slave who ultimately gains the independent consciousness and power to become the actual master of his or her owner. The Mamluk/Ghulam Phenomenon is a good historical example of this paradox.

[Stowasser_1984-7] Stowasser, Karl (1984). "Manners and Customs at the Mamluk Court".Muqarnas.2(The Art of the Mamluks).Leiden:Brill Publishers:13–20.doi:10.2307/1523052.ISSN 0732-2992.JSTOR 1523052.S2CID 191377149.The Mamluk slave warriors, with an empire extending fromLibyato theEuphrates,fromCiliciato theArabian Seaand theSudan,remained for the next two hundred years the most formidable power of theEastern Mediterraneanand theIndian Ocean– champions ofSunni orthodoxy,guardians ofIslam's holy places,their capital, Cairo, the seat of the Sunni caliph and a magnet for scholars, artists, and craftsmen uprooted by theMongol upheaval in the Eastor drawn to it from all parts of the Muslim world by its wealth and prestige. Under their rule, Egypt passed through a period of prosperity and brilliance unparalleled since the days of thePtolemies.[...] They ruled as amilitary aristocracy,aloof and almost totally isolated from the native population, Muslim and non-Muslim alike, and their ranks had to be replenished in each generation through fresh imports of slaves from abroad. Only those who had grown up outside Muslim territory and who entered as slaves in the service either of thesultanhimself or of one of the Mamlukemirswere eligible for membership and careers within their closed military caste. The offspring of Mamluks were free-born Muslims and hence excluded from the system: they became theawlād al-nās,the "sons of respectable people", who either fulfilled scribal and administrative functions or served as commanders of the non-Mamlukḥalqatroops. Some two thousand slaves were imported annually:Qipchaq,Azeris,Uzbec Turks,Mongols,Avars,Circassians,Georgians,Armenians,Greeks,Bulgars,Albanians,Serbs,Hungarians.

[8] Green, Toby (2012)."Part Two: Creolisation and Slavery – The Early Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade from Western Africa".The Rise of the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade in Western Africa, 1300–1589.CambridgeandNew York:Cambridge University Press.pp. 177–207.doi:10.1017/CBO9781139016407.011.ISBN 978-1-107-01436-7.LCCN 2011015312.

[Levanoni_2010-9] Levanoni, Amalia (2010). "PART II: EGYPT AND SYRIA (ELEVENTH CENTURY UNTIL THE OTTOMAN CONQUEST) – The Mamlūks in Egypt and Syria: the Turkish Mamlūk sultanate (648–784/1250–1382) and the Circassian Mamlūk sultanate (784–923/1382–1517)". In Fierro, Maribel (ed.).The New Cambridge History of Islam, Volume 2: The Western Islamic World, Eleventh to Eighteenth Centuries.CambridgeandNew York:Cambridge University Press.pp. 237–284.doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521839570.010.ISBN 978-1-139-05615-1.The Arabic termmamlūkliterally means 'owned' or 'slave', and was used for theWhite Turkish slavesofPagan origins,purchased fromCentral Asiaand theEurasian steppesbyMuslim rulersto serve as soldiers in their armies. Mamlūk units formed an integral part of Muslim armies from the third/ninth century, and Mamlūk involvement in government became an increasingly familiar occurrence in themedieval Middle East.The road to absolute rule lay open before themin Egyptwhen the Mamlūk establishment gained military and political domination during the reign of theAyyūbid ruler of Egypt,al-Ṣāliḥ Ayyūb (r. 637–47/1240–9).

[OxfordBusinessGroup-10] "Warrior kings: A look at the history of the Mamluks".The Report – Egypt 2012: The Guide.Oxford Business Group. 2012. pp. 332–334.Archivedfrom the original on 25 September 2020.Retrieved1 March2021.The Mamluks, who descended from non-Arabslaveswho were naturalised to serve and fight for ruling Arab dynasties, are revered as some of the greatest warriors the world has ever known. Although the wordmamluktranslates as "one who is owned", the Mamluk soldiers proved otherwise, gaining a powerful military standing invarious Muslim societies,particularlyin Egypt.They would also go on to hold political power for several centuries during a period known as theMamluk Sultanate of Egypt.[...] Before the Mamluks rose to power, there was along history of slave soldiers in the Middle East,with many recruited into Arab armies by theAbbasid rulersofBaghdadin the ninth century. The tradition was continued by the dynasties that followed them, including theFatimidsandAyyubids(it was the Fatimids who built the foundations of what is now IslamicCairo). For centuries, the rulers of the Arab world recruited men from the lands of theCaucasusandCentral Asia.It is hard to discern the precise ethnic background of the Mamluks, given that they came from a number of ethnically mixed regions, but most are thought to have beenTurkic(mainlyKipchakandCuman) orfrom the Caucasus(predominantlyCircassian,but alsoArmenianandGeorgian). The Mamlukswere recruited forcibly to reinforce the armiesof Arab rulers. As outsiders, they had no local loyalties, and would thus fight for whoever owned them, not unlikemercenaries.Furthermore, the Turks and Circassians had a ferocious reputation as warriors. The slaves were either purchased or abducted as boys, around the age of 13, and brought to the cities, most notably to Cairo and itsCitadel.Herethey would be converted to Islamand would be put through a rigorous military training regime that focused particularly onhorsemanship.A code of behaviour not too dissimilar to that of theEuropean knights'Code of Chivalrywas also inculcated and was known asFurusiyya.As in many military establishments to this day the authorities sought to instil an esprit de corps and a sense of duty among the young men. The Mamluks would have to live separately from the local populations in their garrisons, which included the Citadel andRhoda Island,also in Cairo.

[heinegg-freeafricanamericans-11] Heinegg, Paul (1995–2005).Free African Americans of Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Maryland and Delaware.

[12] Constitution Annotated.

[13] Walker, Mark; Cameron, Chris (October 8, 2021)."After Denying Care to African Natives, Indian Health Service Reverses Policy".The New York Times.

[14] "Cherokee Nation v. Raymond Nash, et al. and Marilyn Vann, et al. and Ryan Zinke, Secretary of the Interiorruling, August 30, 2017 ".

[15] "Judge Rules That Cherokee Freedmen Have Right To Tribal Citizenship".npr. 2017-08-31.Retrieved2017-09-01.

[16] "Cherokee Nation Attorney General Todd Hembree issues statement on Freedmen ruling, August 31, 2017 (Accessible in PDF format as of September 8, 2017"(PDF).Archived fromthe original(PDF)on November 16, 2018.RetrievedMarch 26,2019.

[17] . 89-95. Laugesen, Amanda.Convict words: Language in early colonial Australia.Oxford University Press, USA, 2002.

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