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This article is about the punctuation mark. For other uses, seeFull stop (disambiguation).For other uses of the term "period", seePeriod (disambiguation).

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Full stop
Other namesPeriod
U+002E.FULL STOP
HTML.

Thefull stop(Commonwealth English),period(North American English), orfull point.is apunctuationmark used for several purposes, most often to mark the end of adeclarative sentence(as distinguished from aquestionor exclamation).[a]

A full stop is frequently used at the end of wordabbreviations—inBritish usage,primarily truncations likeRev.,but not aftercontractionslikeRevd;inAmerican English,it is used in both cases. It may be placed after an initial letter used to abbreviate a word. It is often placed after each individual letter inacronymsandinitialisms(e.g. "U.S.A." ). However, the use of full stops after letters in an initialism or acronym is declining, and many of these without punctuation have become accepted norms (e.g., "UK" and "NATO" ).[b]

The mark is also used to indicate omitted characters or, in a series as anellipsis(...or…), to indicate omitted words.

In theEnglish-speaking world,a punctuation mark identical to the full stop is used as thedecimal separatorand for other purposes, and may be called apoint.In computing, it is called adot.[2]It is sometimes called abaselinedotto distinguish it from theinterpunct(or middle dot).[2][3]

History

Ancient Greek origin

The full stop symbol derives from theGreek punctuationintroduced byAristophanes of Byzantiumin the 3rd centuryBCE.In his system, there were a series of dots whose placement determined their meaning.

stigmḕ teleía,stigmḕ mésēandhypostigmḕ

The full stop at the end of a completed thought or expression was marked by a high dot ⟨˙⟩, called thestigmḕ teleía(στιγμὴ τελεία) or "terminal dot". The "middle dot" ⟨·⟩, thestigmḕ mésē(στιγμὴ μέση), marked a division in a thought occasioning a longer breath (essentially asemicolon), while the low dot ⟨.⟩, called thehypostigmḕ(ὑποστιγμή) or "underdot", marked a division in a thought occasioning a shorter breath (essentially acomma).[4]

Medieval simplification

In practice, scribes mostly employed the terminal dot; the others fell out of use and were later replaced by other symbols. From the 9th century onwards, the full stop began appearing as a low mark (instead of a high one), and by the timeprintingbegan in Western Europe, the lower dot was regular and then universal.[4]

Medieval Latin to Modern English

The nameperiodis first attested (as theLatinloanwordperidos) inÆlfric of Eynsham'sOld Englishtreatment on grammar. There, it was distinguished from the full stop (thedistinctio), and continued the Greek underdot's earlier function as a comma between phrases.[5]It shifted its meaning, to a dot marking a full stop, in the works of the 16th-century grammarians.[5]

In 19th-century texts,British EnglishandAmerican Englishboth frequently used the termsperiodandfull stop.[6][1]The wordperiodwas used as a name for what printers often called the "full point", the punctuation mark that was a dot on the baseline and used in several situations. The phrasefull stopwas only used to refer to the punctuation mark when it was used to terminate a sentence.[1]This terminological distinction seems to be eroding. For example, the 1998 edition ofFowler's Modern English Usageusedfull pointfor the mark used after an abbreviation, butfull stoporfull pointwhen it was employed at the end of a sentence;[7]the 2015 edition, however, treats them as synonymous (and prefersfull stop),[8]andNew Hart's Rulesdoes likewise (but prefersfull point).[9]The last edition (1989) of the originalHart's Rules(before it becameThe Oxford Guide to Stylein 2002) exclusively usedfull point.[10]

Usage

Full stops are the most commonly used punctuation marks; analysis of texts indicate that approximately half of all punctuation marks used are full stops.[11][12]

Ending sentences

Full stops indicate the end of sentences that are not questions or exclamations.

Abbreviations

Initials

It is usual in North American English to use full stops after initials; e.g.A. A. Milne,[13]George W. Bush.[14]British usage is less strict.[15]A few style guides discourage full stops after initials.[16][17]However, there is a general trend and initiatives to spell out names in full instead of abbreviating them in order to avoid ambiguity.[18][19][20]

Abbreviations

A full stop is used after someabbreviations.[21]If the abbreviation ends a declaratory sentence there is no additional period immediately following the full stop that ends the abbreviation (e.g. "My name is Gabriel Gama Jr." ). Though two full stops (one for the abbreviation, one for the sentence ending) might be expected, conventionally only one is written. This is an intentional omission, and thus nothaplography,which is unintentional omission of a duplicate. In the case of an interrogative or exclamatory sentence ending with an abbreviation, a question or exclamation mark can still be added (e.g. "Are you Gabriel Gama Jr.?" ).[citation needed]

Further information:Abbreviation § Periods (full stops) and spaces

According to theOxford A–Z of Grammar and Punctuation,"If the abbreviation includes both the first and last letter of the abbreviated word, as in 'Mister' ['Mr'] and 'Doctor' ['Dr'], a full stop is not used."[22][better source needed][23]This does not include, for example, the standard abbreviations for titles such asProfessor( "Prof." ) orReverend( "Rev." ), because they do not end with the last letter of the word they are abbreviating.

InAmerican English,the common convention is to include the period after all such abbreviations.[23]

Acronyms and initialisms

Inacronymsandinitialisms,the modern style is generally to not use full points after each initial (e.g.:DNA,UK,USSR). The punctuation is somewhat more often used in American English, most commonly withU.S.andU.S.A.in particular. However, this depends much upon the house style of a particular writer or publisher.[24]As some examples from American style guides,The Chicago Manual of Style(primarily for book and academic-journal publishing) deprecates the use of full points in acronyms, includingU.S.,[25]whileThe Associated Press Stylebook(primarily for journalism) dispenses with full points in acronyms except for certain two-letter cases, includingU.S.,U.K.,andU.N.,but notEU.[26]

Decimal or thousands separator

The periodglyphis used in the presentation of numbers, either as adecimal separatoror as athousands separator.

In the more prevalent usage in English-speaking countries, as well as in South Asia and East Asia, the point represents a decimal separator, visually dividing whole numbers from fractional (decimal) parts. The comma is then used to separate the whole-number parts into groups of three digits each, when numbers are sufficiently large.

  • 1.007 (one and seven thousandths)
  • 1,002.007 (one thousand two and seven thousandths)
  • 1,002,003.007 (one million two thousand three and seven thousandths)
A point used as a thousands separator on a sign in Germany

The more prevalent usage in much of Europe, southern Africa, and Latin America (with the exception of Mexico due to the influence of the United States), reverses the roles of the comma and point, but sometimes substitutes a (thin-)space for a point.

  • 1,007 (one and seven thousandths)
  • 1.002,007 or 1 002,007 (one thousand two and seven thousandths)
  • 1.002.003,007 or 1 002 003,007 (one million two thousand three and seven thousandths)

(To avoid problems with spaces, another convention sometimes used is to useapostrophesigns (') instead of spaces.)

India,Bangladesh,Nepal,andPakistanfollow theIndian numbering system,which utilizes commas and decimals much like the aforementioned system popular in most English-speaking countries, but separates values of one hundred thousand and above differently, into divisions oflakhandcrore:

  • 1.007 (one and seven thousandths)
  • 1,002.007 (one thousand two and seven thousandths)
  • 10,02,003.007 (one million two thousand three and seven thousandths, or tenlakhtwo thousand three and seven thousandths)

Multiplication sign

In countries that use the comma as a decimal separator, the point is sometimes found as amultiplicationsign; for example, 5,2. 2 = 10,4; this usage is impractical in cases where the point is used as a decimal separator, hence the use of theinterpunct:5.2 · 2 = 10.4. The interpunct is also used when multiplying units in science – for example, 50 km/h could be written as 50 km·h−1– and to indicate adot product,i.e. the scalar product of two vectors.

Ordinal dot

In many languages, an ordinal dot is used as theordinal indicator.This apply mostly in Central and Northern Europe: inGerman,Hungarian,several Slavic languages (Czech,Slovak,Slovene,Serbo-Croatian),Faroese,Icelandic,Danish,Norwegian,Finnish,Estonian,Latvian,and also inBasqueandTurkish.

The Serbian standard of Serbo-Croatian (unlike the Croatian and Bosnian standards) uses the dot in role of the ordinal indicator only past Arabic numerals, while Roman numerals are used without a dot. InPolish,the period can be omitted if there is no ambiguity whether a given numeral is ordinal or cardinal.

Multilevel numbered headings

In modern texts, multilevel numbered headings are widely used. E.g. number 2.3.1.5 is a 4th level heading within the chapter 2.

Logic

In older literature onmathematical logic,the period glyph used to indicate how expressions should be bracketed (seeGlossary ofPrincipia Mathematica).

Computing

Incomputing,the full point, usually called adotin this context, is often used as adelimiter,such as inDNSlookups, Web addresses,filenames and software release versions:

  • www.wikipedia.org
  • document.txt
  • 192.168.0.1
  • Chrome 92.0.4515.130

It is used in manyprogramming languagesas an important part of the syntax.Cuses it as a means of accessing a member of astruct,and this syntax was inherited byC++as a means of accessing a member of aclassorobject.JavaandPythonalso follow this convention.Pascaluses it both as a means of accessing a member of a record set (the equivalent of struct in C), a member of an object, and after theendconstruct that defines the body of the program. InAPLit is also used for generalisedinner productandouter product.InErlang,Prolog,andSmalltalk,it marks the end of a statement ( "sentence" ). In aregular expression,it represents a match of any character. InPerlandPHP,the dot is thestring concatenationoperator. In theHaskellstandard library, it is thefunction compositionoperator. InCOBOLa full stop ends a statement.

Infile systems,the dot is commonly used to separate theextensionof a file name from the name of the file.RISC OSuses dots to separate levels of thehierarchical file systemwhen writing path names—similar to/(forward-slash) inUnix-based systems and\(back-slash) inMS-DOS-based systems and theWindows NTsystems that succeeded them.

InUnix-likeoperating systems, some applications treat files or directories that start with a dot ashidden.This means that they are not displayed or listed to the user by default.

In Unix-like systems andMicrosoft Windows,the dot character represents theworking directoryof the file system. Two dots (..) represent theparent directoryof the working directory.

Bourne shell-derived command-line interpreters, such assh,ksh,andbash,use the dot as a command toread a file and execute its content in the running interpreter.(Some of these also offersourceas a synonym, based on that usage in the C-shell.)

Versions of software are often denoted with the stylex.y.z(or more), wherexis a major release,yis a mid-cycle enhancement release andzis apatchlevel designation, but actual usage is entirely vendor specific.

Telegraphy

The termSTOPwas used intelegramsin the United States in place of the full stop. The end of a sentence would be marked bySTOP;its use "in telegraphic communications was greatly increased during the World War, when the Government employed it widely as a precaution against having messages garbled or misunderstood, as a result of the misplacement or emission [sic] of the tiny dot or period. "[27]

In conversation

In British English, the words "full stop" at the end of an utterance strengthen it; they indicate that it admits of no discussion: "I'm not going with you, full stop." In American English, the word "period" serves this function.

Another common use inAfrican-American Vernacular Englishis found in the phrase "And that's on period", which is used to express the strength of the speaker's previous statement, usually to emphasise an opinion.

Phonetic Alpha bet

TheInternational Phonetic Alphabetuses the full stop to signify a syllable break.

Time

In British English, whether for the12-hour clockor sometimes its24-hour counterpart,the dot is commonly used and some style guides recommend it when telling time, including those from non-BBCpublic broadcasters in the UK, the academic manual published byOxford University Pressunder various titles,[28]as well as the internalhouse stylebook for theUniversity of Oxford,[29]and that ofThe Economist,[30]The Guardian[31]andThe Timesnewspapers.[32]American and Canadian English mostly prefers and uses colons (:) (i.e., 11:15 PM/pm/p.m. or 23:15 for AmE/CanE and 11.15 pm or 23.15 for BrE),[33]so does the BBC, but only with 24-hour times, according to its news style guide as updated in August 2020.[34]The point as a time separator is also used in Irish English, particularly by theRaidió Teilifís Éireann(RTÉ), and to a lesser extent in Australian, Cypriot, Maltese, New Zealand, South African and other Commonwealth English varieties outside Canada.

Punctuation styles when quoting

Main article:Quotation marks in English § Order of punctuation

The practice in the United States and Canada is to place full stops and commas inside quotation marks in most styles.[35]In the British system, which is also called "logical quotation",[36]full stops and commas are placed according to grammatical sense:[35][37]This means that when they are part of the quoted material, they should be placed inside, and otherwise should be outside. For example, they are placed outside in the cases of words-as-words, titles of short-form works, and quoted sentence fragments.

  • Bruce Springsteen, nicknamed "the Boss," performed "American Skin." (closed or American style)
  • Bruce Springsteen, nicknamed "the Boss", performed "American Skin". (logical or British style)
  • He said, "I love music." (both)

There is some national crossover. The American style is common in British fiction writing.[38]The British style is sometimes used in American English. For example,The Chicago Manual of Stylerecommends it for fields where comma placement could affect the meaning of the quoted material, such as linguistics and textual criticism.[39][40]

The use of placement according to logical or grammatical sense, or "logical convention", now the more common practice in regions other than North America,[41]was advocated in the influential bookThe King's Englishby Fowler and Fowler, published in 1906. Prior to the influence of this work, the typesetter's or printer's style, or "closed convention", now also called American style, was common throughout the world.

Spacing after a full stop

Main article:Sentence spacing

There have been a number of practices relating to the spacing after a full stop. Some examples are listed below:

  • Oneword space( "French spacing"). This is the current convention in most countries that use theISO basic Latin Alpha betfor published and final written work, as well as digital media.[42][43]
  • Two word spaces ( "English spacing"). It is sometimes claimed that the two-space convention stems from the use of themonospaced fontontypewriters,but in fact that convention replicates much earlier typography—the intent was to provide a clear break between sentences.[44]This spacing method was gradually replaced by the single space convention in published print, where space is at a premium, and continues in much digital media.[43][45]
  • One widened space (such as anem space). This spacing was seen inhistoricaltypesetting practices (until the early 20th century).[46]It has also been used in other typesetting systems such as theLinotype machine[47]and theTeXsystem.[48]Modern computer-based digital fonts can adjust the spacing after terminal punctuation as well, creating a space slightly wider than a standard word space.[49]

Full stops in other scripts

Greek

ANew Testamentmanuscript with high dots as full stops

Although the present Greek full stop (τελεία,teleía) isromanizedas a Latin full stop[50]and encoded identically with the full stop inUnicode,[4]the historic full stop in Greek was ahighdot and thelowdot functioned as a kind ofcomma,as noted above.The low dot was increasingly but irregularly used to mark full stops after the 9th century and was fully adapted after the advent of print.[4]The teleia should also be distinguished from theano teleia,which is named "highstop "but looks like aninterpunct,and principally functions as the Greeksemicolon.

Armenian

TheArmenian scriptuses the ։ (վերջակետ,verdjaket). It looks similar to thecolon(:).

Chinese and Japanese

Punctuationused withChinese characters(and inJapanese) often includesU+3002.IDEOGRAPHIC FULL STOP,a small circle used as a full stop instead of a solid dot. When used withtraditional characters,the full stop is generally centered on themean line;when used withsimplified characters,it is usually aligned to the baseline. In writtenvertical text,the full stop is sometimes positioned to the top-right or in the top- to center-middle. In Unicode, it is theU+FE12︒PRESENTATION FORM FOR VERTICAL IDEOGRAPHIC FULL STOP.

Korean

Korean uses the Latin full stop along withits native script.

Brahmic scripts

Nagari

Indo-Aryan languagespredominantly useNagari-based scripts. In theDevanagari scriptused to write languages likeHindi,Maithili,Nepali,etc., a vertical line।(U+0964 "Devanagari Danda" ) is used to mark the end of a sentence. It is known aspoorna viraam(full stop). InSanskrit,an additional symbol॥(U+0965 "Devanagari Double Danda" ) is used to mark the end of a poetic verse. However, some languages that are written in Devanagari use the Latin full stop, such asMarathi.

In theEastern Nagariscript used to write languages likeBanglaandAssamese,the same vertical line ( "।" ) is used for full-stop, known asDaa`riin Bengali. Also, languages likeOdiaandPanjabi(which respectively useOriyaandGurmukhiscripts) use the same symbol.

Inspired fromIndic scripts,theSantali languagealso uses a similar symbol inOl Chiki script:᱾(U+1C7E "Ol Chiki Punctuation Mucaad" ) to mark the end of sentence. Similarly, it also uses᱿(U+1C7F "Ol Chiki Punctuation Double Mucaad" ) to indicate a major break, like end of section, although rarely used.

Sinhalese

InSinhala,a symbol calledkundaliya:"෴" (U+0DF4 "Sinhala Punctuation Kunddaliya" ) was used before the colonial era. Periods were later introduced intoSinhalese scriptafter the introduction of paper due to the influence of European languages.

Southeast Asian

InBurmese script,the symbol။(U+104B "Myanmar Sign Section" ) is used as full stop.

However, inThai,no symbol corresponding to the full stop is used asterminal punctuation.A sentence is written without spaces and a space is typically used to mark the end of a clause or sentence.[citation needed]

Tibetic

TheTibetan scriptuses two different full-stops:tshig-grub།(U+0F0D "Tibetan Mark Shad" ) marks end of a section of text;don-tshan༎(U+0F0E "Tibetan Mark Nyis Shad" ) marks end of a whole topic. The descendants of Tibetic script also use similar symbols: For example, theRóng scriptofLepcha languageuses᰻‎(U+1C3B "Lepcha Punctuation Ta-Rol" ) and᰼‎(U+1C3C "Lepcha Punctuation Nyet Thyoom Ta-Rol" ).

However, due to influence ofBurmese script,theMeitei scriptofManipuri languageuses꫰(U+AAF0 "Meetei Mayek Cheikhan" ) for comma and꯫(U+ABEB "Meetei Mayek Cheikhei" ) to mark the end of sentence.

Shahmukhi

ForIndo-Aryan languageswhich are written inNastaliq,likeKashmiri,Panjabi,SaraikiandUrdu,a symbol calledk͟hatma(U+06D4۔ARABIC FULL STOP) is used as a full stop at the end of sentences and in abbreviations. It (۔) looks similar to a lowereddash(–).

Ge'ez

In theGe'ez scriptused to writeAmharicand several other Ethiopian and Eritrean languages, the equivalent of the full stop following a sentence is theˈarat nettib"።" —which meansfour dots.The two dots on the right are slightly ascending from the two on the left, with space in between.

Unicode

Full stop Unicode code points:

  • U+002E.FULL STOP
  • U+0589։ARMENIAN FULL STOP
  • U+06D4۔ARABIC FULL STOP
  • U+0701܁SYRIAC SUPRALINEAR FULL STOP
  • U+0702܂SYRIAC SUBLINEAR FULL STOP
  • U+1362።ETHIOPIC FULL STOP
  • U+166E᙮CANADIAN SYLLABICS FULL STOP
  • U+1803᠃MONGOLIAN FULL STOP
  • U+1809᠉MONGOLIAN MANCHU FULL STOP
  • U+2CF9⳹COPTIC OLD NUBIAN FULL STOP
  • U+2CFE⳾COPTIC FULL STOP
  • U+2E3C⸼STENOGRAPHIC FULL STOP
  • U+3002.IDEOGRAPHIC FULL STOP
  • U+A4FF꓿LISU PUNCTUATION FULL STOP
  • U+A60E꘎VAI FULL STOP
  • U+A6F3꛳BAMUM FULL STOP
  • U+FE12︒PRESENTATION FORM FOR VERTICAL IDEOGRAPHIC FULL STOP
  • U+FE52﹒SMALL FULL STOP
  • U+FF0E．FULLWIDTH FULL STOP[51]
  • U+FF61｡HALFWIDTH IDEOGRAPHIC FULL STOP
  • U+16AF5𖫵BASSA VAH FULL STOP
  • U+16E98𖺘MEDEFAIDRIN FULL STOP
  • U+1BC9F𛲟DUPLOYAN PUNCTUATION CHINOOK FULL STOP
  • U+1DA88𝪈SIGNWRITING FULL STOP
  • U+E002ETAG FULL STOP

In text messages

Researchers fromBinghamton Universityperformed a small study, published in 2016, on young adults and found that text messages that included sentences ended with full stops—as opposed to those with no terminal punctuation—were perceived as insincere, though they stipulated that their results apply only to this particular medium of communication: "Our sense was, is that because [text messages] were informal and had a chatty kind of feeling to them, that a period may have seemed stuffy, too formal, in that context," said head researcher Cecelia Klin.[52]The study did not find handwritten notes to be affected.[53]

A 2016 story by Jeff Guo inThe Washington Poststated that the line break had become the default method of punctuation in texting, comparable to the use of line breaks in poetry, and that a period at the end of a sentence causes the tone of the message to be perceived as cold, angry orpassive-aggressive.[54]

According to Gretchen McCulloch, an internet linguist, using a full stop to end messages is seen as "rude" by more and more people. She said this can be attributed to the way we text and use instant messaging apps like WhatsApp and Facebook Messenger. She added that the default way to break up one's thoughts is to send each thought as an individual message.[55]

See also

Look upfull stopin Wiktionary, the free dictionary.


References

  1. ^This sentence-ending use, alone, defines the strictest sense offull stop.Althoughfull stoptechnically applies only when the mark is used to end a sentence, the distinction – drawn since at least 1897[1]– is not maintained by all modern style guides and dictionaries.
  2. ^This trend has progressed somewhat more slowly in the English dialect of the United States than in otherEnglish language dialects.
  1. ^abc"The Punctuation Points".American Printer and Lithographer.24(6): 278. August 1897.Retrieved2013-12-24.
  2. ^abWilliamson, Amelia A."Period or Comma? Decimal Styles over Time and Place"(PDF).Science Editor.31(2): 42–43. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 2013-02-28.Retrieved2013-09-21.
  3. ^Truss, Lynn (2004).Eats, Shoots & Leaves: The Zero Tolerance Approach to Punctuation.New York: Gotham Books. p. 25.ISBN1-59240-087-6.
  4. ^abcdNicolas, Nick (2005)."Greek Unicode Issues: Punctuation".TLG.UCI.edu.University of California, Irvine.Archived fromthe originalon 2012-08-06.
  5. ^ab""period,n.,adj.,andadv.".Oxford English Dictionary(CD-ROM ver. 3.1) (2nd ed.).Oxford University Press.2005 [1989].
  6. ^"The Workshop: Printing for Amateurs".The Bazaar, Exchange and Mart, and Journal of the Household.13:333. 1875-11-06.Retrieved2013-12-24.
  7. ^Burchfield, R. W. (2010) [1998]. "full stop".Fowler's Modern English Usage(Revised 3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 317–318.ISBN978-0-19-861021-2.
  8. ^Butterfield, Jeremy (2015). "full stop".Fowler's Dictionary of Modern English Usage(4th ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 331–332.ISBN978-0-19-966135-0.
  9. ^Waddingham, Anne (2014). "4.6: Full point".New Hart's Rules.Oxford University Press. p. 81.ISBN978-0-19-957002-7.Essentially the same text is found in the previous edition under various titles, includingNew Hart's Rules,Oxford Style Manual,andThe Oxford Guide to Style.
  10. ^Hart, Horace;et al. (1989) [1983].Hart's Rules for Compositors and Readers(Corrected 39th ed.). Oxford University Press. pp.2–5, 41, etc.ISBN0-19-212983-X.
  11. ^"A Comparison of the Frequency of Number/Punctuation and Number/Letter Combinations in Literary and Technical Materials"(PDF).Archived(PDF)from the original on 2013-11-02.
  12. ^Meyer, Charles F. (1987).A Linguistic Study of American Punctuation.Peter Lang Publishing, Incorporated.ISBN978-0-8204-0522-3.,referenced inFrequencies for English Punctuation MarksArchived2 November 2013 at theWayback Machine
  13. ^Barden, Cindy (2007).Grammar Grades.Vol. 4–5. p. 9.Use a period after a person's initials. Examples: A. A. Milne... L.B.Peep W157... Use Periods With Initials Name. Initials are abbreviations for parts of a person's name.... Date: Add periods at the ends of sentences, after abbreviations, and after initials
  14. ^Blakesley, David; Hoogeveen, Jeffrey Laurence (2007).The Brief Thomson Handbook.p. 477.Use periods with initials: George W. Bush... Carolyn B. Maloney
  15. ^"Full stop".School of critical studies,University of Glasgow.Archivedfrom the original on 2020-07-31.
  16. ^"Instructions for authors".Ecclesiastical Law Journal.2014-09-04.Archivedfrom the original on 2022-04-10.
  17. ^"Authors Guide-lines for Electronic Submission of MSS to Third Text".Third Text: Critical perspectives on contemporary art and culture.Archivedfrom the original on 2020-08-01.Retrieved2020-05-02.
  18. ^Knuth, Donald Ervin(2016)."Let's celebrate everybody's full names".Recent News.Archivedfrom the original on 2018-01-22.Retrieved2020-07-30.One of the delights ofWikipediais that its biographies generally reveal a person's full and complete name, including the correct way to spell it in different Alpha bets and scripts.... When I prepared the index... ofThe Art of Computer Programming,I wanted to make it as useful as possible, so I spent six weeks compiling all of the entries. In order to relieve the tedium of index preparation, and to underscore the fact that my index was trying to be complete, I decided to include the full name of every author who was cited, whenever possible.... Over the years, many people have told me how they've greatly appreciated this feature of my books. It has turned out to be a beautiful way to relish the fact that computer science is the result of thousands of individual contributions from people with a huge variety of cultural backgrounds.... TheAmerican Mathematical Societyhas just launched a great initiative by which all authors can now fully identify themselves... I strongly encourage everybody to document their full names
  19. ^Dunne, Edward "Ed" (2015-09-14)."Who wrote that?".AMS Blogs.American Mathematical Society.Archivedfrom the original on 2020-05-24.Retrieved2020-07-30.
  20. ^Dunne, Edward "Ed" (2015-11-16)."Personalizing your author profile".AMS Blogs.American Mathematical Society.Archivedfrom the original on 2020-05-04.Retrieved2020-07-30.
  21. ^New Hart's Rules: The Handbook of Style for Writers and Editors.Oxford University Press. 2005.ISBN0-19-861041-6.
  22. ^Oxford A–Z of Grammar and Punctuation by John Seely.
  23. ^ab"Punctuation in abbreviations".OxfordDictionaries.Oxford University Press. 2017. "Punctuation" section. Archived fromthe originalon 2012-12-17.Retrieved2017-10-11.
  24. ^"Initialisms".OxfordDictionaries.Oxford University Press. 2017. "Abbreviations" section. Archived fromthe originalon 2011-12-16.Retrieved2017-10-11.
  25. ^The Chicago Manual of Style,16th ed.
  26. ^"abbreviations and acronyms".The Associated Press Stylebook.2015. pp. 1–2.
  27. ^Ross, Nelson (1928)."How to Write Telegrams Properly".The Telegraph Office.Archived fromthe originalon 2013-01-31.Retrieved2018-06-11.
  28. ^Waddingham, Anne, ed. (2014). "11.3 Times of day".New Hart's Rules:The Oxford Style Guide(2nd ed.).Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-957002-7.
  29. ^"University of Oxford style guide".University of Oxford Public Affairs Directorate.2016.
  30. ^Economist Style Guide(12th ed.).The Economist.2018. p. 185.ISBN9781781258316.
  31. ^"times".Guardian and Observer style guide.Guardian Media Group.2017.Archivedfrom the original on 2017-07-09.Retrieved2021-07-24.
  32. ^Brunskill, Ian (2017).The Times Style Guide: A guide to English usage(2nd ed.). Glasgow:The Times/HarperCollins.ISBN9780008146184.OCLC991389792.Formerly available online:"The Times Online Style Guide".News UK.2011. Archived fromthe originalon 2011-08-04.
  33. ^Trask, Larry (1997)."The Colon".Guide to Punctuation.University of Sussex.Archivedfrom the original on 2013-08-05.Retrieved2013-08-21.
  34. ^"BBC News Style Guide".BBC.Archivedfrom the original on 2022-02-16.Retrieved2022-04-01.Numbers... time references... Hours: We use the 24-hour clock (with a colon) in all circumstances (including streaming), labelled GMT or BST as appropriate.
  35. ^abLee, Chelsea (2011)."Punctuating Around Quotation Marks".Style Guide of the American Psychological Association.Archivedfrom the original on 2017-03-22.
  36. ^"Style Guide"(PDF).Journal of Irish and Scottish Studies.Research Institute of Irish and Scottish Studies,University of Aberdeen.2008. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 2011-04-10.Retrieved2015-09-15.Punctuation marks are placed inside the quotation marks only if the sense of the punctuation is part of the quotation; this system is referred to as logical quotation.
  37. ^Scientific Style and Format: The CBE Manual for Authors, Editors and Publishers.Cambridge University Press. 2002.ISBN9780521471541.Retrieved2015-09-04.In the British style (OUP 1983), all signs of punctuation used with words and quotation marks must be placedaccording to the sense.
  38. ^Butcher, Judith; Drake, Caroline; Leach, Maureen (2006).Butcher's Copy-editing: The Cambridge Handbook for Editors, Copy-editors and Proofreaders.Cambridge University Press. p. 273.ISBN978-0-521-84713-1.
  39. ^Wilbers, Stephen."Frequently Asked Questions Concerning Punctuation".Archivedfrom the original on 2018-06-13.Retrieved2015-09-10.The British style is strongly advocated by some American language experts. In defense of nearly a century and a half of the American style, however, it may be said that it seems to have been working fairly well and has not resulted in serious miscommunication. Whereas there clearly is some risk with question marks and exclamation points, there seems little likelihood that readers will be misled concerning the period or comma. There may be some risk in such specialized material as textual criticism, but in that case author and editors may take care to avoid the danger by alternative phrasing or by employing, in this exacting field, the exacting British system. In linguistic and philosophical works, specialized terms are regularly punctuated the British way, along with the use of single quotation marks. [quote attributed to Chicago Manual of style, 14th ed.]
  40. ^Chicago Manual of Style(15th ed.). University of Chicago Press. 2003. pp.6.8 – 6.10.ISBN0-226-10403-6.According to what is sometimes called the British style (set forth in The Oxford Guide to Style [the successor to Hart's Rules]; see bibliog. 1.1.]), a style also followed in other English-speaking countries, only those punctuation points that appeared in the original material should be included within the quotation marks; all others follow the closing quotation marks.... In the kind of textual studies where retaining the original placement of a comma in relation to closing quotation marks is essential to the author's argument and scholarly integrity, the alternative system described in 6.10 ['the British style'] could be used, or rephrasing might avoid the problem.
  41. ^Weiss, Edmond H. (2015).The Elements of International English Style: A Guide to Writing Correspondence, Reports, Technical Documents Internet Pages For a Global Audience.M. E. Sharpe. p. 75.ISBN978-0-7656-2830-5.Retrieved2016-01-24.
  42. ^Einsohn, Amy (2006).The Copyeditor's Handbook: A Guide for Book Publishing and Corporate Communications(2nd ed.). Berkeley / Los Angeles: University of California Press. p. 113.ISBN978-0-520-24688-1.
  43. ^abManjoo, Farhad (2011-01-13)."Space Invaders".Slate.Archivedfrom the original on 2011-05-07.
  44. ^McKay, John Z. ( "Heraclitus" ) (2011-11-01)."Why two spaces after a period isn't wrong (or, the lies typographers tell about history)".Archived fromthe originalon 2017-12-17.Retrieved2013-08-08.
  45. ^Felici, James (2003).The Complete Manual of Typography: A Guide to Setting Perfect Type.Berkeley: Peachpit Press. p. 80.ISBN0-321-12730-7.;Bringhurst, Robert (2004).The Elements of Topographic Style(3.0 ed.). Washington / Vancouver: Hartley & Marks. p. 28.ISBN0-88179-206-3.
  46. ^See for example,Manual of Style: A Compilation of Typographical Rules Governing the Publications of The University of Chicago, with Specimens of Types Used at the University Press(3rd ed.).University of Chicago Press.1911. p. 101.ISBN1-145-26446-8.
  47. ^Mergenthaler Linotype Company (1940).Linotype Keyboard Operation: Methods of Study and Procedures for Setting Various Kinds of Composition on the Linotype.Mergenthaler Linotype Company.ASINB000J0N06M.Cited in:Simonson, Mark(2004-03-05)."Double-spacing after Periods".Typophile.Typophile. Archived fromthe originalon 2010-01-20.Retrieved2010-04-05.
  48. ^Eijkhout, Victor (2014) [1991].TeX by Topic, A TeXnician's Reference.Dante / Lehmans Media. pp. 185–188.ISBN978-3-86541-590-5.First published 1991 by Addison Wesley, Wokingham 978-0-201-56882-0
  49. ^Felici, James (2003).The Complete Manual of Typography: A Guide to Setting Perfect Type.Berkeley: Peachpit Press. p. 80.ISBN0-321-12730-7.;Fogarty, Mignon (2008).Grammar Girl's Quick and Dirty Tips for Better Writing (Quick and Dirty Tips).New York: Holt Paperbacks. p.85.ISBN978-0-8050-8831-1.;Straus, Jane (2009).The Blue Book of Grammar and Punctuation: An Easy-to-Use Guide with Clear Rules, Real-World Examples, and Reproducible Quizzes(10th ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. p. 52.ISBN978-0-470-22268-3.
  50. ^Ελληνικός Οργανισμός Τυποποίησης[Ellīnikós Organismós Typopoíīsīs,"Hellenic Organization for Standardization"].ΕΛΟΤ 743, 2η Έκδοση[ELOT 743, 2ī Ekdosī,"ELOT 743,2nd ed."]. ELOT (Athens), 2001.(in Greek).
  51. ^Lunde, Ken (2009).CJKV Information Processing.O'Reilly. pp. 502–505.ISBN9780596514471.
  52. ^"You Should Watch The Way You Punctuate Your Text Messages – Period".National Public Radio. 2015-12-20.Archivedfrom the original on 2015-12-21.
  53. ^Gunraj, Danielle; Drumm-Hewitt, April; Dashow, Erica; Upadhyay, Sri Siddhi; Klim, Celia (February 2016) [2015]. "Texting insincerely: The role of the period in text messaging".Computers in Human Behavior.55:1067–1075.doi:10.1016/j.chb.2015.11.003.
  54. ^Guo, Jeff (13 June 2016)."Stop. Using. Periods. Period."Archived14 June 2016 at theWayback Machine.The Washington Post.
  55. ^Morton, Becky (August 2019)."Is the full stop rude?".BBC News.Archivedfrom the original on 2019-08-06.Retrieved2019-08-19.
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