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Furiiru people

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Fuliru people
Fuliru grandmother and her granddaughter,Lemera,Bafuliiru Chiefdom,Uvira Territory,South Kivu
Total population
615,000[1]
Languages
Kifuliiru,Kiswahili,French,andEnglish
Religion
Christianity,Fuliiru Religion,Islam,andIrreligious
Related ethnic groups
Vira,Nyindu,Bashi,Lega,Bembe,Holoholo,Nyanga,andAmba
PersonMufuliru
PeopleBafuliru
LanguageKifuliru
CountryBufuliru

TheFuliru peopleare aBantuethnic group predominantly inhabiting the east-central highlands of theDemocratic Republic of the Congo(DRC).[2][3][4]They reside in theSouth Kivu Province,situated south ofLake Kivuand to the north and northwest ofUvira Territory,along theRuzizi Plainnear the border withRwandaandBurundi,where a contingent of Fuliru also resides.[5][4][6]According to the 2009 census, their population estimate exceeded 250,000,[2]while a 1999 estimate ofKifuliru-language speakers placed the number at 300,000.[4]The Fuliru are renowned for their skilledcraftsmanship,particularly in the production ofpotteryandbasketry.Theirhandcraftedbasketsare highly coveted for their intricate designs and exceptional quality, and are frequently employed for storage, decoration, and even asmusical instruments.[7]

The Fuliru, like manyother communities in the eastern part of the DRC,face ongoing challenges related to access to basic needs such as clean water, healthcare, and education. Parenthetically, they face issues related toland disputes,political marginalization,and human rights abuses. The Fuliru women and girls are particularly vulnerable tosexualandgender-based violenceamplified by the region's persistent armed conflicts, which have resulted in the prevalence of a pervasive culture of impunity.[8][9][10][11]

Bafuliiru Chiefdom

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Main article:Bafuliiru Chiefdom

At the onset ofBelgian colonization,the establishment of chieftaincies was the primary method ofgovernance,reflecting the decentralized nature of the colonial policy. These chieftaincies were established with due respect to the customs and traditions of each area, particularly based on three principal criteria defined and established by the Belgian colonial administration as essential conditions for the establishment of anychieftaincy.This was done to prevent lawlessness and to avoid violating the ancestral realities that had existed for millennia. Belgian colonial administration's criteria for establishing chieftaincies varied based on the region and the ethnic group in question. The establishment of chieftaincies was often accompanied by the appointment of a local chief (chefs de groupement) or atraditional rulerwho was then tasked with maintaining law and order in the area, as well as ensuring the well-being of the local population. However, the establishment of chieftains was controversial, particularly in areas where multiple ethnic groups co-exist. There were instances where the colonial administration had to navigate complex power dynamics and determine which ethnic group or faction should hold the position of chief. This led to tensions between different ethnic groups and, in some cases, even armed conflict. Eachethnic group,however small, was assigned achiefdomor asector,if not, agrouping (groupement).The administrative territories were thus constituted within the limits of the chiefdom. The aim was to regroup "ethnic units" in their own geographical entities, but this led to such fragmentation thatOrientale Province,which included the present-dayHaut-Congo Provinceand the formerKivu,comprised up to 2,500 chiefdoms and groups. This approach by the Belgian colonial administration was based on the principle ofindirect rule,which aimed to maintain control over the local population through traditional rulers. This system was viewed as a means of preserving the existing social and political structures of the colonized societies while ensuring their loyalty to the colonial authorities. However, this approach had some negative consequences. The proliferation of chiefdoms and groups created administrative difficulties for the colonial administration, making it challenging to maintain control over such a vast and diverse territory. Additionally, the creation of numerous chiefdoms and groups resulted in the fragmentation of ethnic groups, further exacerbating existing inter-ethnic tensions and conflicts.[12][13][14]

Fuliru traditionalmasks,November 2019

TheBembeand Buyu were both grouped in theFizi Territory,which was further subdivided into five sectors, includingItombwe,Lulenge,Mutambala,Ndandja, andTangani'a.Conversely, theBafuliru ChiefdombordersRwandaandBurundithrough theRuzizi Plainin theUvira Territory.The sandy soil of the plain is suitable for growing crops such asgroundnutsandcotton,withLuvungi,Lubarika,andLuberizibeing particularly noteworthy areas for suchcultivation. The Fuliru collectivity is situated in two distinct types ofplateaus:theMiddle Plateauand theHigh Plateau.The Middle Plateau spans betweenLuvungiandMulenge,with the altitude gradually increasing from 100 m to 1800 meters. This plateau comprises severalgroupementsand villages, including Namutiri, Ndolera, Bulaga, Langala, Bushokw, Bushuju, Butole,Lemera,Bwesho, Katala, Mulenge, and others. It is also a favorable environment for growingcassava,coffee,banana,beansandmaize.The High Plateau, on the other hand, form a watershed between the tributaries of theUlindiand theElila rivers,as well as the torrents that flow into theRuzizi RiverandLake Tanganyika.The High Plateaus are characterized by a rugged landscape with steep slopes and elevations ranging from 1800 to 2700 meters. The main villages located on the High Plateaus include Kagongo, Kishusha, Mulobela, and Kashekezi. These villages are known for their cool climate and are suitable for the cultivation ofcropssuch asIrish potatoesandbeans.This plateau is mostly used forgrazing cattleand is less populated compared to the Middle Plateau.[15][16]

Bafuliirugroupements(groupings)

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Bafuliru Chiefdomis subdivided ingroupements(groupings) governed by customary chiefs (chefs de groupement) who are appointed by the paramount chief.Groupementsare subdivided inlocalités(villages) which are also ruled by customary chiefs. The "chefferie "(chiefdom) of Bafuliru, the second and last chefferie in the Uvira Territory, is composed of fivegroupements:Runingu,Itara-Luvungi,Lemera,Muhungu and Kigoma. Eachgroupementsare composed of a certain number of villages.[17]

TheMuhungugroupementconsists of the following villages:

  • Kabondola
  • Kagunga
  • Kaholwa
  • Kalemba
  • Kasheke
  • Kaluzi
  • Kazimwe
  • Kibumbu
  • Kasanga
  • Kihanda
  • Mukololo
  • Lugwaja
  • Masango
  • Muzinda
  • Muhungu
  • Namukanga
  • Kiriba
  • Butaho
  • Kahwizi

TheKigomagroupementconsists of the following villages:

  • Bibangwa
  • Bikenge
  • Kukanga
  • Bushajaga
  • Kahungwe
  • Butumba
  • Kabere
  • Karava
  • Kalengera
  • Kahololo
  • Kalimba
  • Karaguza
  • Kahungwe
  • Kasheke
  • Kiryama
  • Kanga
  • Kashagala
  • Kasenya
  • Kishugwe
  • Kigoma
  • Lubembe
  • Kihinga
  • Mangwa
  • Miduga
  • Kitembe
  • Mibere
  • Kitija
  • Muhanga
  • Kabamba
  • Mulenge
  • Kaduma
  • Mushojo
  • Masango
  • Kitoga
  • Mashuba
  • Mulama
  • Kagaragara
  • Ndegu,
  • Rurambira
  • Rugeje
  • Rubuga
  • Rusako
  • Sogoti
  • Taba
  • Sange
  • Kabunambo

TheRuningugroupementconsists of the following villages:

  • Katembo
  • Kashatu
  • Ruhito
  • Ruhuha
  • Namuziba
  • Kasambura
  • Katwenge
  • Bulindwe
  • Narumoka
  • Kalindwe

TheItara-Luvungigroupementconsists of the following villages:

TheLemeragroupementconsists of the following villages:

  • Kiringye
  • Kidote
  • Langala
  • Bwesho
  • Mahungu or Mahungubwe
  • Narunanga
  • Namutiri
  • Lungutu
  • Kahanda
  • Kigurwe
  • Ndunda

Clans

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Alternatively, Bafuliru are not ahomogeneouspeople; it is an amalgamation of people with diverse backgrounds, a kind of multicultural state, each with distinct origins. To be consideredMufuliruone must be born into one of the thirty-seven progenitor families (clans) of the ethnic group.

The Fuliru people are made up of about 37 clans:[18]

  • Badaka:The Badaka clan is a smaller clan within the Bafuliru Chiefdom, and is known for their expertise inmetalworkingandblacksmithing.They have played a significant role in the production of tools and weapons for use by other clans in the region.
  • Balabwe
  • Bahatu
  • Bahamba:The Bahamba clan are one of the significant clans within the chiefdom and played a key role in itspoliticalandsocial history.The Bahambas are well-known for their lineage from theroyal familyand have held leadership positions over the Batumba clan at some point in history. Many clan members hold authoritative positions inlocal governmentandcommunity organizations.While they had a historical relation to theroyal court,they also had an occupancy inagriculture,trade,and other economic activities.
  • Bahange
  • Bahembwe
  • Bahofwa
  • Bahundja
  • Bahungu
  • Bazige:The Bazige clan are believed to be descendants ofHutusfrom Burundi who were assimilated throughexogamy.
  • Baiga
  • Bajojo
  • Bakame
  • Bakukulugu
  • Bakuvi
  • Balambo:The Balambo clan takes charge of thediademdetention ceremonies, which involve the safeguarding and presentation ofroyal headpieces.They are entrusted with the responsibility of preserving the diadems, which symbolize the authority and prestige of the Bafuliru chiefs.
  • Balemera:The Balemera clan is one of the prominent royal clans within the chiefdom. Along with the Batumba clan, they have been recognized as one of the leading clans within the chiefdom and are known for their workmanship in trade and commerce.
  • Balizi:The Balizi clan are believed to have migrated to the area from present-dayBunyoroinUgandaseveral centuries ago. They are primarily farmers, and they are known for their cultivation of beans, maize, and cassava.
  • Bamioni
  • Banakatanda:The Banakatanda clan is amatriarchalclan, with women traditionally holding positions of power and influence within the clan. They are known for their expertise inmidwiferyand for their role in selecting the next king or queen of the Bafuliru Chiefdom. Each powerful clan in the Chiefdom was assigned a role on the royal court, and the Banyakatanda women were appointed askingmakers.Since a king could be born to any of the king's wives, these women served asmidwivesto the queens, tasked with determining whether a newborn was fit to succeed to the throne. Moreover, upon the death of the reigning monarch, only members of these clans could confirm and announce the passing and ensure the rightful successor ascended to the throne.
  • Banakyoyo
  • Banamubamba
  • Banamuganga
  • Basamba
  • Bashagakibone:The Bashagakibone clan plays a key role in the solemn process ofmummification.Drawing upon ancient knowledge passed down through generations, they possess the sacred expertise required to preserve the bodies of deceased chiefs and noble figures. They ensure that the rituals of mummification are carried out according to ancient traditions, honoring the legacy of those who have passed.
  • Bashimbi:The Bashimbi clan is a group of skilled farmers, rainmakers, and high-level "premiers"within the chiefdom. They are known for their expertise in producing honey, cereals, coffee, and raising livestock, includingsheep,cattle,andpoultry.The Bashimbi are centered around their traditional village of Kalundu, located near the Mizulo hamlet in Uvira Territory. The clan's founding father, Kashambi, was renowned as the master-maker of the "bimole" or torch used for fisheries in Lake Tanganyika. The Bashimbi made a pact with the Bafuliru clan, who shared a sonorous resemblance in the names of their clans. According to severaloral accountsandethnological studiesof the Fuliru people, these clans recognized each other as real brothers at a particular time in history. The Bafuliru eventually absorbed the more cunning members of the Bashimbi clan. The name "Kashambi"is given to the progeny of the Bashimbi's founding father, who arrived with his adherents and plundered other people's belongings, establishing his dominance through his velocity and colossal throng.
  • Bashamwa
  • Bashashu
  • Basizi:The Basizi clan is believed to be a subgroup of theBahavuethnic group and plays a significant role in the chiefdom's religious and spiritual practices. They have helped preserve local customs and traditions
  • Basozo:The Basozo clan originally came fromBugaramain Rwanda and intermarried with the wider Fuliru population to the point where their distinct identity was practically extinguished. Their cultural roots and customs were largely assimilated into the surrounding Fuliru communities.
  • Bashago
  • Batere
  • Batoké
  • Batumba:The Batumba clan is a prominent royal lineage clan among theBaviraand Bafuliru. The Batumbas have been instrumental in shaping the chiefdom's cultural, political, and social landscape. TheMutumbaare the traditional rulers of the Batumba and are considered the most respected members of the clan. TheMutumbais responsible for overseeing Batumba's affairs and maintaining the clan's customs and traditions. In some regions, theMutumbamay also hold authority or influence beyond the Batumbas and be recognized as a regional leader.
  • Bavunye
  • Bavurati
  • Bazilangwe

History

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Origin

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The origin of the Fuliru people, like that of many ethnic groups in theGreat Lakes region of Africa,is complex and multifaceted, shaped bymigration,colonization,andconflict.The Fuliru are believed to have originated from theBantu-speaking peoplewho migrated fromWest-Central Africaas part of theBantu migrationtoCentral,EasternandSouthern Africa.Most, however, are descended from Bantu groups that had settled inSoutheast Africaafter the initial expansion fromNigeria/Cameroonand settled in the eastern region of theDemocratic Republic of Congo(DRC) in the 16th century. By the mid-1700s, the Bafuliru people had established a significant presence in the region surroundingLake Tanganyika,specifically in the mountainous hinterland ofSouth Kivualong theUlindi River.[19][20]

Mwami Nyamugira Mukogabwe II ofBafuliru ChiefdominLemera,Belgian Congo,circa 1925

The Fuliru have a unique history as one of the only highland Bantu groups to have formed a single, relatively small state that was highly centralized,[21][5]founded by Kahambalingishi.[19][22]According tooral tradition,the epicenter of the Fuliru people's migratory dispersion in the middle Lwalaba Basin is located at the mouth of theUlindi River.Bishikwabo Chubaka, aShihistorian, has written that after migrating from Lwindi around the Ulindi River in the mountainous hinterland, the Fuliru andVira peopleoccupiedUvira.[20]

Eponym and controversies on chiefdom

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The preeminent genesis of theBafuliru Chiefdom,prior to its transformation into a political entity in theBelgian Congo,remains a subject of debate. Various hypotheses and conjectures have been proposed to explain its emergence.

According toAlfred Moeller de Laddersous,a colonial administrator who conducted extensive research on theBantucommunities residing in the eastern parts of theBelgian Congo,noted that the Bahamba dynasty embarked on a journey from theLwindidirections, ultimately settling in the present-dayUvira Territory.Over time, the Bahamba dynasty changes their eponym from Bahamba (Wahamba) to Bafuliru as a badge of their new identity. Moeller de Laddersous presents the Bahamba as a clan to which the founder of the customary "Bafuliro" Chiefdom belongs.[23]René Loons, a Belgian colonial administrator, classified the "Bafulero" as a region rather than an ethnic group and identified main factions within it: Bahamba, Batumba, Banakatanda,Balemera, among others. Loons further notes that these factions were organized into distinct traditional chiefdoms, but that the Bahamba faction dominated the others and held the management of the extended "Bafulero" customary chiefdom. According to Loons, the Bahamba clan was led by their chief Kikanwe to the present-day Uvira Territory.[19][24]Kingwengwe Mupe, a Fuliru historian andpolitical analyst,argues that the Bahamba clan drove out (and possibly dethroned) theBalemera clan to occupy Uvira. According to Mupe's account, the Balemera clan can be traced back as the indigenous people who first inhabited the region. It is believed that the Bafuliru Chiefdom, which had its stronghold inLemera,a town situated in close proximity to the towns ofKashekeand Nyambasha, was the very heartland of their ancestral domain. Mupe's assertion thus hints at a deep-rooted history of the land, which speaks of the clan's enduring presence and cultural heritage. Despite this, there is some inconsistency in historical accounts, while some sources uphold the claim that the Bahamba clan played an instrumental role in founding the chiefdom, other narratives indicate that they supplanted the Balemera clan to establish their hegemony and royal lineage in the Bafuliru Chiefdom. The latter account alludes to a process of usurpation and consolidation of power by the Bahamba clan. The co-existence of these contradictory accounts presents a complex picture of the historical evolution of the Bafuliru Chiefdom, which demands a careful evaluation of the available sources to arrive at a plausible understanding of its past.[25][26][27]

While Loons attributes the chiefdom's founding to Kahambalingishi, a purported descendant of either Kikanwe or Namboko, other historians, such as Bishikwabo Chubaka, offer dissenting opinions. Chubaka postulates that Mulemera, the father and progenitor of the Bahamba dynasty, was the true architect of the chiefdom's rise to power. Chubaka believes that the Bafuliiru Chiefdom owes its inception to Mulemera, the progenitor of the Bahamba dynasty, who Chubaka contends was the true architect of the chiefdom's establishment. Chubaka's account posits that Mulemera played an instrumental role in the region's political development and was responsible for the consolidation of power. Chubaka also challenges the prevailing narratives that ascribe the chiefdom's founding to Kahambalingishi, whose lineage may have been less directly linked to the Bahamba dynasty. According to Chubaka, Kahambalingishi may have been a later ruler who inherited the chiefdom from Mulemera. This perspective is supported by Kingwengwe-Mupe, whose scholarship bolsters Chubaka's theory. Both historians draw on local accounts that lend credence to the idea that the Balemera clan were the original founders of the Bafuliiru Chiefdom.[19][20][28][29]

Barundi and Banyarwanda migration to Bafuliiru territories

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Barundi

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In the late 1800s, various groups established themselves in Bafuliru's lands in search of more arable soil. Led by Chief Ngabwe, theBarundiarrived from Burundi and assertively requested land from the Bavira, which they acquired between theKilibaand Kawezi Rivers in exchange for ivory. As the tides of colonialism encroached across the region, it sparked wars of expansion on both sides. TheMwamiof the Bafuliiru tenaciously claimed jurisdiction over certain villages in the Ruzizi Plain, while theMwamiof the Plain sought to establish his own authority. In the absence of a resolution, both chiefdoms resorted to warfare to vie for dominance.[30][31]

After Chief Ngabwe consolidated his authority, Chief Kinyoni, a sub-chief under BurundianKing Mwezi Gisabofrom the Banyakarama Dynasty, established his own presence along the Ruzizi River's right bank. With swift prowess, he conquered southern villages like Kigoma, Mulenge, Kihanga, and Kalengera, expanding his dominion. He then launched a northward offensive, seizing Kiringye, Kabwiba, and Kigwena, nearly half of theBafuliru Chiefdom.[32][30][33]Facing significant territorial setbacks, the Bafuliru Chiefdom rebuffed to capitulate and shoved forward to defendBwesho.Led by the renowned leader Katangaza—a respected and influential figure from Bwesho—they rallied their forces and readied themselves to face the ineluctable advance of Chief Kinyoni and his dexterous warrior, Rubisha. Following their advent in Bwesho, Rubisha and his army encountered fierce resistance from Bafuliru's army, resulting in Kinyoni being callously wounded and succumbed to a spear attack, including his son Rubwatara. His troops were subsequently expelled from every village they had captured. However, Kinyoni's troops managed to retreat toLuvungi,where they received support fromBelgian colonists,who provided them with much-needed resources and supplies. This assistance allowed Kinyoni's troops to regroup and prepare for another attempt to conquer the Bafuliru Chiefdom under the guidance of Katangaza. Despite the setback, the Bafuliiru troops pursued the retreating army and eventually expelled them from Kiringye.[34][35][30]

Banyarwanda

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During the period ofEuropean penetration,theBanyarwanda,now commonly referred to as "Banyamulenge",emerged as a significant group in the region. The term" Banyarwanda "includesHutus,Tutsis,andTwapeople from Rwanda, who share the samecommon languageandcultural heritage.In traditional Rwandan society, a feudal system existed in which Hutus were expected to leave their land available for Tutsis to graze their cows. This arrangement was enforced through a system ofclientelism,where Tutsis loaned their cows to Hutus, who in turn were required to lend their land. Wealth was measured by the number of cows one possessed, and the richest Tutsis had the largest herds. At the top of this social hierarchy was the king, known as the "Mwami",who was believed to possess divine powers and symbolized national unity. The king surrounded himself with Tutsi warlords and Hutu advisers who oversaw the distribution of land. Over time, the Tutsis established a system of serfdom that further marginalized the Hutu people. TheBelgian colonial administrationformalized and solidified thissocial system,ultimately leading to its being perceived as an ethnic divide between Hutus and Tutsis.[36][37]

Between 1935 and 1955, the colonial power of Belgium in the Belgian Congo, which had guardianship overRuanda-Urundi,officially encouraged and facilitated the immigration of Rwandans to Kivu. The Rwandans who migrated toItombweandUviraduring this time were predominantly Tutsis, and were favored by Belgian colonists due to their perceivedsuperiorityover the Hutus.[38][39][40]

Unusually in contacts with the Tutsi pastoralists from Banyarwanda group, the Fuliru were neither conquered nor assimilated by them, but instead engaged in trade and occasionalcattle raiding,leading to a deep and long-lastingsocial interactionthat particularly impacted the Fuliru people. The Banyarwanda later acquiredMulengeandUpper Sangefrom the Bafuliru, and many of them settled in remote areas, including Kalamba, theRuzizi Plain,and the Mulenge hills, before spreading to other parts of southern Kivu. The Belgian colonial administration, through theMission d'immigration des Banyarwanda(MIB), facilitated the immigration of Rwandans to other parts of the Belgian Congo. Between 10,000 of Rwandan families were established in various regions of Belgian Congo, including the currentMasisi Territory,theBwito Chiefdomin theRutshuru Territory,the Buzi-Ziralo grouping (groupement) in theKalehe Territory,and Moba inKatanga.Other eastern regions such asBarakaandMarunguwere also prepared to welcome the immigrants. This immigration policy was officially supported by the Belgian colonial government, which aimed to promoteeconomic developmentand expand its control over the region. However, the influx of Rwandans led to tensions and conflicts with the local population, contributing to the ongoingethnic tensionsin the region.[41][42][43][44]

Mining by theUnion Minière du Haut Katanga,1922

Another factor that fostered this immigration of Rwandans was the recruitment oflabor.Between the 1920s and 1950s, the colonial authorities in Belgian Congo actively recruited labor for largeminingcompanies such as theUnion Minière du Haut-KatangaandKivu,particularly inKalimaandKamituga.Many of theseworkerswere Rwandan and were hired under contract, but they did not renounce theirnationalityorproperty,which remained in Rwanda. This immigration of Rwandans was also facilitated by the establishment of a chiefdom for the Banyarwanda after the arrival of numerouslaborersbrought bymissionariesfrom neighboring Rwanda.[45][46][47]

Monsignor Faustin Ngabu,who was the president of the Episcopate of Congo and the bishop of theDiocese of Goma,acknowledged this historical event in his Easter pastoral letter of April 11, 1998 (French:Lettre Pastorale du 11 avril 1998).

In the letter, he stated:[48]

"With us, the main tribes or socio-political communities are called, I quote in Alpha betical order: Bahavu, Bahunde, Banande, Banyanga, Barega, Bashi, Batembo. The Banyarwanda (Hutus and Tutsis), at least those who were, those who no longer want this title and those who still identify with this term, will want to understand that, in their case, the notion of" tribe "that they give themselves when they declare themselves Hutu and Tutsi cannot be understood in the same sense as that of the other communities mentioned above. Indeed, unlike that of the Hutus and Tutsis, the Havu, Hunde, Nande, Nyanga and Tembo communities each have their" Mwami "and their" Balu "or" Vakama ", who are respectively their heads of state and leading executives in the precolonial context. These communities have their traditional values which are based on their languages, their territories, their customs and their own family, matrimonial, cultural, economic, political and religious organizations. For the case of Hutus and Tutsis, after 23 years already spent in this diocese, I am not able to say the same; how does each of these two Hutu and Tutsi groups constitute a tribe? It is up to them to understand it and convince others of it."

The marginalization of Fuliiru communities

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Since the 1960s, thecohabitationbetween the Banyarwanda and their Congolese neighbors has been plagued by problems, resulting in serious social tensions and violence. The escalation of these tensions and violence has led to lethal conflict of a social, cultural, economic, and security nature. Human rights organizations estimate that as of May 1996, the total number of deaths from the conflict stands around 70,000.[49]

The tension within Bafuliru communities originates from the circumstance where Rwandan refugees, placed by the Belgian colonial administration and the United Nations in the eastern region of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, failed to uphold their designated status upon their arrival. Instead, they profess to be a newly established ethnic group known as "Banyamulenge"(literally 'those who live inMulenge') through an entirely fabricatedethnogenesis.This emerging identity allowed them to lay claim to land and resources in the area, setting off conflicts with Fuliru, who consider Mulenge as theirancestral homeland.[50] Following the nation's independence, the Banyarwanda, both Tutsi and Hutu, striven to establish recognition of their rights as "indigenous",vouching they possessed two"chefferies"(traditional chiefdoms) unrecognized by other ethnic groups. The Tutsi contended that their migration to theCongo Basincoincided with that of their Fuliru, Vira, Bembe, and Lega counterparts, antedating the establishment of theCongo Free State,and consequently, should be entitled to equivalent ethnic rights as other communities.[51]In 1976, Faustin Tabazi Rugama, a Munyamulenge writer, attempted to legitimize the notion of a tribe called "Banyamulenge" that presumably held sway in Mulenge prior to theBerlin Conference.This "historical and scientific" apologia was unlikely intended to equate the "Banyamulenge"pseudo-tribewith the indigenous Congolese ethnic groups. Under the pressure of Gisaro Muhoza, a Rwandan university administrator and revered as the creator of the term "Banyamulenge", Rugama used the term in his thesis.[52]According toRené Lemarchand,Banyamulenge constitute a "Rwandan-origin" community that established themselves in the Kivu region and were not known by this name during the colonial period. Using "Banyamulenge" as an ethnic identify, they campaigned for Congolese citizenship along with land possessed by indigenous Fuliru populace.[39][50]

First and Second Congo Wars

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Monumentof the Katogota massacre

In the early stages of theFirstandSecond Congo Wars,a large contingent of Banyamulenge traversed into Bafuliru communities to provide support to theTutsimembers of theAlliance of Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Congo(AFDLC). This influx of Banyamulenge played a pivotal role in enabling the AFDLC to seize control of the region from local chiefs and civilians who were uprooted from theirancestral landsagainst their will. The conflict was marked by brutal violence against the civilian population. On October 6, 1996, Banyamulenge rebels launched an assault onLemera,a town situated in the north-western region of theUvira TerritoryinSouth Kivu Province,resulting in the loss of several dozen lives. A total of 37 individuals, including twomedical personnel,lost their lives in ahospital massacre.The armed assailants also pillaged theLemera Hospital,the largest hospital in the region, located approximately 85 kilometers north ofUvira.[53][54][55]

In October 1998, a large number of people were brutally killed and displaced in Uvira, including the formerMulengepost chief, Ladislas Matalambu, who met his demise on October 1, 1998, at 7:30 p.m. Additionally, Alexis Deyidedi, the former administrative secretary of the Bafuliiru Chiefdom, was assassinated on October 2, 1998, at 11 p.m. The AFDL troops forced many Bafuliru,Babembe,Warega,andBaviraindividuals to flee and take refuge in neighboring countries such asBurundi,Tanzania,Uganda,Kenya,Zambia,andMozambique.The displacement caused a ripple effect of thehumanitarian crisis,with many facing severe challenges, includinginadequate foodandwater supplies,inadequatemedical facilities,and substandard living conditions.[56][57][58]

On May 14, 2000, theRassemblement Congolais pour la Démocratie(RCD), a rebel group comprising mainly Banyamulengechild soldiers,perpetrated amassacrein the village ofKatogota.The victims, numbering 375 in total, were primarily from the Bafuliru community and were brutally murdered in cold blood. Some were mercilessly gunned down, while others suffered the grisly fate of having theirthroats slashed,and their bodies were thrown into theRuzizi Riverto dispose of the evidence. The rebels also set fire to their homes, leaving many others toburn to death.The horrors of the Katogota massacre caused many to flee their homes, including up to 3,500 Congolese, mainly from the Bafuliru andBabembecommunities, who sought refuge inBurundion June 10, 2004, to escape ongoingethnic persecution.[59][60][61][62]

Ongoing violence

[edit]

The ongoing violence in the Bafuliru communities has been exacerbated bypolitical instability,resource scarcity,and deep-seated mistrust between the various groups. The situation is further complicated by the involvement of different armed groups, includingmilitiasandrebelfactions, who compete for control over the region's resources and strategic locations. The proliferation of weapons and the absence of effective governance has allowed these groups to act with impunity, perpetrating horrific acts of violence against civilians and engaging in illicit activities, including the illegal exploitation ofmineralresources. The impact of the conflict on the local population has been devastating, with many familiesdisplacedfrom their homes, and theirlivelihoodsdestroyed. The absence of adequate humanitarian assistance has only exacerbated the already dire situation, with many facing severe challenges, including food and water insecurity, inadequate medical care, and substandard living conditions.[63][64][65][66]

In June 2014, 35 Fuliru were killed inan attackon the town ofMutarule.The attack was believed to beethnically motivated.The massacres were carried out mainly by Barundi and Banyamulenge rebel groups in a determined, planned, systematic and methodical manner, and were inspired byethnic hatred.[67]In January 2019, Twigwaneho and Ngumino, a Banyamulenge rebel groups, reportedly torched homes and property belonging to the Bafuliru in the village of Babengwa.[68]

Between February 2019 and 2020, a large number of Bafuliru were killed and displaced, leading them to the Bijombo camp in the South Kivu Province. Despite efforts to prioritize and act on serious cases in the immediate aftermath of theethnic violence,there have been few prosecutions and fewer convictions, as well as a near total lack of investigations of those who organized and financed the violence.[69][70]

Culture

[edit]

Language

[edit]

The Fuliru speak theFuliru language,aBantu language.The Fuliru are connected to theVirain aFuliru-Viraculture cluster.[71]Both groups areinterlacustrine,living between theAfrican Great Lakes.Kifuliru is the most widely spoken language in Uvira. It is estimated that Fuliru has 60%lexicalsimilarity with Kinyarwanda; 63% withKirundi,and 80% withShilanguage. More than half of the Uvira population are able to understand it. Many Fuliru people also speakFrench,English,Lingala,Portuguese,Tshiluba,andSwahili.[72]

Music

[edit]
Fuliru traditional dance inSange,2004

Music is part and parcel of the Bafuliru culture. Bafuliru music is characterized by a variety oftraditional instrumentssuch as thengoma(drum),xylophone,andflute,which are used to create complexrhythmsandmelodies.The melodic strains of traditional instrument permeate the air, accompanied by the hypnotic rhythm of indigenous dance, which envelops the senses with its entrancing cadence.[73]Thengoma,in particular, is an essential instrument in Bafuliru music, and it is often played during various social and religious events. Bafuliru music also incorporates a form ofcall-and-responsesinging, where one group ofsingerswill lead with a phrase, and another group will respond with aharmonized phrase.This technique creates a rich andlayered soundthat is both engaging and captivating. Thethemesof Bafuliru music often center arounddaily life,social issues,andcultural practices,such asmarriageandinitiation ceremonies.They also havesongsthat praise their leaders andancestors,and these are often performed during political rallies and other communal events.[74][75][76][77][78][79]

Economy

[edit]
Fuliruherdsmanin the Mitamba market of Bijombo in the High Plateau, South Kivu Province, Democratic Republic of the Congo

The Bafuliru economy is almost exclusively agriculturally based, although they also own and raisecattlefor milk and meat;[80]their homelands in the South Kivu Province are some of the most intensively farmed areas of the country. More than 90% of the population makes its livelihood by producingfood cropsor throughindustrial workinvolving the processing of crops. Agriculture contributes more than 19.04% of the nation's GDP.[81]The most fertile agricultural areas in the country are the mountain regions forming theCongo-Nile watershedand the central plateau, where two crops can normally be harvested each year. Principal food crops include cassava, corn, rice, plantains, and, to a lesser extent, bananas, beans, and peanuts. Principal export crops include coffee, cocoa, and palm oil. Many Bafuliru people have ventured intobusinessandpolitics.One of the notable figures in theCongolese government,Justin Bitakwira,is a member of the Bafuliru community, having served as a formergovernment Minister.

Manioc

[edit]

As per the oral tradition of Bafuliru,cassavaoriginated fromLwindi Chiefdomand was brought by the community during their exodus. Today, cassava remains a vital food source for the Bafuliru population, particularly those residing in the Ruzizi Plain and the Bafuliru Chiefdom as a whole. For Bafuliru, owning a cassava field is considered a treasure trove, and it holds immense value for the community. Apart from its roots, cassava leaves are also edible, and its stems are used for wood. Cassava's significance goes beyond its nutritional value and practical applications. It plays a critical role in the administration of the community, serving as a source of tax revenue. 80% of all taxes collected come from cassava alone. This tax collection system enables tax collectors to fill the state coffers at both the community and zone levels, which, in turn, are used to support the local markets of the Bafuliru Chiefdom.[82][83]

Banana

[edit]

Thebananatree is a versatile crop that thrives in almost all areas of the Bafuliru Chiefdom. It holds a significant role in the community's customs and traditions, particularly in marriage ceremonies. In Fuliru lore, it is believed that one cannot undertake any strenuous activities without a banana. Specifically, during a wedding ceremony or at the end of mourning, a person intending to marry must present a pitcher of banana juice, known as "I mbindi ya mavuyoKudeterakwo "in Kifuliru, which means"the jug of juice that enables you to speak."The jug of banana juice must be presented to the assembly, or the speaker cannot deliver a valuable message. Bafuliru also makeKasigisi,analcoholic drinkmade from bananas andsorghum,which is preserved for special occasions, as it can be used for both practical and cultural purposes.[84][85][86][87]

The banana tree also holds ritual significance in the Bafuliru Chiefdom duringchildbirth.It is believed that theumbilical cordof certain children is buried near the banana plantation, marking its importance as a symbol offertilityandgrowth.[87]

Rice

[edit]

Rice grown in the Bufuliru Chiefdom belongs to thegenusOryzaand Ozyresatira species. Its different varieties are IR5, L9, and IRON 282. Rice is more of an income source than food for the Bafuliru at the CEP Kabwe, Kaliri, and at the Community Development Center (CDC) base inKiringye.For the Bafuliru, rice is a cultural export. Consequently, it is not consumed much, although it is produced adequately.[88][89][90]

Bean

[edit]

Beansare a prominent crop in the Bafuliru Chiefdom, cultivated in the central region ofLemera,[91]stretching fromRubanga[91]toMulenge.[92]The crop thrives in thetemperate climateofhigh altitudes.Although beans are also exported like rice, they are sold at a lower price because Bafuliru are not accustomed to consuming them as a staple food. To accompany a bean meal, it is customary to havecassava mbunduon the side.[93]The beans produced in the Bafuliru Chiefdom are marketed in Bukavu and Uvira, while a significant quantity is exported to neighboring countries such asBurundiandRwanda.[94][95]

Despite being a major crop, both beans and rice are not consumed widely among the Bafuliru Chiefdom. They serve as secondary food, with cassava being the staple food. This is due to the fact that cassava is more versatile, with its leaves and stems also beingedibleand useful for other purposes, such aswood.[94]

Corn

[edit]

Cornis a extensively cultivated crop throughout the Bafuliru Chiefdom. It is primarily grown in the Ruzizi Plain, particularly inLuvungi,and in theHauts Plateaux,where it serves as the staple food.[96][97][98]Although many inhabitants of theHauts Plateauxconsume it, some Bafuliru agriculturalists don't prefer corn. This could be because it is less versatile compared to other crops like cassava, which has multiple uses beyond consumption. Corn has a long history in the Bafuliru Chiefdom, dating back to their migration from Lwindi Chiefdom. The crop has since become a fundamental component of their traditional cuisine and customs. For instance, roasted corn is often served during important community gatherings and celebrations. Incidentally, corn is also used as an offering in traditional rituals to the ancestors.[94][98]

Peanut

[edit]

Peanuts are predominantly cultivated in the Bafuliru Chiefdom'sLuvungiandLubarikaregions, but they can also be found inLemeraandRubanga.Groundnuts from Bafuliru arelocal delicacyand also exported to neighboring countries such asRwandaandBurundi,providing a valuable source ofincomeforlocal farmers.In addition, peanuts are also used in various traditional dishes, such as a sauce forcassava mbunduor as an ingredient in astew.[94]Peanut farming in the Bafuliru Chiefdom is often alabor-intensiveprocess that involves a considerable amount ofmanual labor,such asdiggingandweeding.Parenthetically, Bafuliru also incorporated peanuts into their cultural practices, using them as offerings duringtraditionalceremoniesandrituals.[94]

Coffee

[edit]

Two species of coffee exist in the Bafuliru Chiefdom areCoffea arabicaandCoffea canephora.Thearabicaspecies is the most common in the chiefdom. It is a culture of exporting coffee to Burundi.[94]

Housing

[edit]

Traditional Fuliru houses arehutsmade from wood, reeds, and straw and are shaped like beehives. High hedges serve as fences. In recent years, modern houses have been built with modern materials.[94]

Commercial trade

[edit]

Fulirucraftsincludepottery,woodwork,jewelry,metal work,andbasket weaving.[99][100]

Sexual division of production

[edit]

The main priorities of women arechildbearing,childcare,andhousework.However, in many rural areas, women also work in agriculture through planting because theirfertilityis believed to be transferred to the seeds. Women are never seen holding high, respected positions, and men handle most of the production of goods.

Religious belief

[edit]
Fuliru couples,Uvira,South Kivu.The wife adorns herself with a traditional dress, a purse hanging on her shoulder, a headdress, earrings, and a wedding ring. The husband wears a white shirt paired with gray pants, along with a wristwatch, a bracelet, a phone, and a wedding ring.

Today, the preponderance of Bafuliru living in the Democratic Republic of the Congo practice Christianity.[101]Nonetheless, manytraditional beliefsand customs continue to be an important part of theircultural identity.[101]In their traditional beliefs, the Bafuliru believe in a Supreme Being and a distant Creator God known asRurema,who is considered to be the creator of everything on Earth.Ruremais seen as an invisible and elusive presence in the sky, and on earth, he is represented by priests who are considered to be mediators between the people and the divine. Among the Bafuliru, the most important priests who representRuremaare Mushabo, Budisi, and Mugajalugulu. These priests play a crucial role in the community, as they are believed to have the ability to communicate withRuremaand provide guidance to the people. They are consulted on various matters, including spiritual, social, and cultural issues, and their opinions are highly honoured. The Bafuliru people also present offerings and sacrifices to the priests, which are believed to help them connect withRuremaand receive his blessings.[94][102]

Clothing

[edit]

In the past, Fuliru woreskirtsof cloth made fromtree bark,andcloaksmade of animal hides. These have long been replaced byWestern-style clothing.However, handmade beadednecklacesandbraceletsare still worn. Thewoven fabrics,adorned with intricate patterns of vivid hues have honed their craft over generations.

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[edit]
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