Galicians

Not to be confused with the people of the eastern European region ofGalicia.

Galicians
Galegos

Galician bagpipers
Total population
c.3.2 million
Regions with significant populations
Spain 2,752,676
Galicia2,397,613	2,397,613
Province of A Coruña	991,588
Province of Pontevedra	833,205
Province of Lugo	300,419
Province of Ourense	272,401
Spain(excluding Galicia)	355,063
Argentina	147,062
Venezuela	38,440–46,882
Brazil	38,554
Uruguay	35,369
Cuba	31,077
Switzerland	30,737
France	16,075
United States	14,172
Germany	13,305
United Kingdom	10,755
Mexico	9,895
Galicians inscribed in the electoral census and living abroad combined (2013)	414,650
Languages
Galician,Spanish
Religion
Roman Catholicism
Related ethnic groups
Portuguese(particularlyNorte),Asturians,Leonese people,otherSpaniards,modernCelts

Galicians(Galician:galegos[ɡaˈleɣʊs];Spanish:gallegos[ɡaˈʎeɣos]) are aRomance-speakingEuropean ethnic groupfrom northwestern Spain; they are closely related to the northernPortuguese peopleand has its historic homeland inGalicia,in the north-west of theIberian Peninsula.TwoRomance languagesare widely spoken and official in Galicia: the nativeGalicianandSpanish.

Etymology

Castro culturecarved stones

Theethnonymof the Galicians (galegos) derives directly from the LatinGallaeciorCallaeci,itself an adaptation of the name of a local Celtic tribeknown to the Greeks as Καλλαϊκoί (Kallaikoí). They lived in what is now Galicia and northernPortugaland were defeated by the Roman GeneralDecimus Junius Brutus Callaicusin the 2nd century BCE and later conquered byAugustus.The Romans later applied that name to all the people who shared the samecultureandlanguagein the north-west, from theDouro Rivervalley in the south to theCantabrian Seain the north and west to theNavia River.That encompassed such tribes as theCeltici,theArtabri,theLemaviand theAlbiones.

The oldest known inscription referring to the Gallaeci (readingἜθνο[υς] Καλλαικῶ[ν],"people of the Gallaeci" ) was found in 1981 in theSebasteionof Aphrodisias, Turkey; a triumphal monument to Roman Emperor Augustus mentions them among other 15 nations that he conquered.

The etymology of the name has been studied since the 7th century by authors such asIsidore of Seville,who wrote, "Galicians are called so because of their fair skin, as the Gauls" and related the name to the Greek word for "milk," γάλα (gála). However, modern scholars like J.J. Moralejoand Carlos Búahave derived the name of the ancientCallaecieither fromProto-Indo-European*kl̥(H)‑n‑ 'hill', through a local relationalsuffix-aik-,also attested inCeltiberian languageand so meaning 'the highlanders'; or either fromProto-Celtic*kallī- 'forest' and so means 'the forest (people)'.

Another recent proposal comes from the linguistFrancesco Benozzo,who is not specialized in Celtic languages and identified the rootgall-/kall-in a number of Celtic words with the meaning "stone" or "rock", as follows:gall(old Irish),gal(Middle Welsh),gailleichan(Scottish Gaelic),galagh(Manx) andgall(Gaulish). Hence, Benozzo explains the nameCallaeciaand its ethnonymCallaecias being "the stone people" or "the people of the stone" ( "those who work with stones" ), in reference to the ancientmegalithsand stone formations that are so common in Galicia and Portugal.Specialists of the Celtic languages do not consider there is a hypothetical Gaulish root*gallmeaning "stone" or "rock", but*galiā"strength" (> Frenchgaill-ard"strong" ), related to Old Irishgal"berserk rage, war fury", Welshgalluand Bretongalloud"power".It is distinct from Gaulish*cal(l)io-"hoof" or "testicle",related to Welshcaill,Bretonkell"testicle" (> Gaulish*caliavo> Old Frenchchaillou,Frenchcaillou),all from theProto-Indo-Europeanroot*kal-"hard hardness" (perhaps via suffixed zero-grade *kl̥H-no-(m)). For instance, in Latincallum"hard or thick substance" is also found and so both E. Rivas and Juan J. Moralejo relate the toponymGallaecia/Callaeciawith the Latin wordcallus.

Languages

Galician

Main article:Galician language

A comparative map of Galicia showing speakers of Galician as first language in 2001 and 2011, Galician Institute of Statistics.

La Romería(the pilgrimage), Sorolla, 1915

Galician is aRomance languagebelonging to the Western Ibero-Romance branch; as such, it derives fromLatin.It has official status inGalicia.Galician is also spoken in the neighbouring autonomous communities ofAsturiasandCastile and León,near their borders with Galicia.

Medieval or Old Galician, also known by linguists asGalician-Portuguese,developed locally in the Northwest of the Iberian Peninsula fromVulgar Latin,becoming the language spoken and written in the medieval kingdoms ofGalicia(from 1230 united with the kingdoms ofLeónandCastilleunder the same sovereign) andPortugal.The Galician-Portuguese language developed a richliterary traditionfrom the last years of the 12th century. During the 13th century it gradually replaced Latin as the language used in public and private charters, deeds, and legal documents, in Galicia, Portugal, and in the neighbouring regions in Asturias and Leon.

Galician-Portuguese diverged into two linguistic varieties – Galician and Portuguese – from the 15th century on. Galician became a regional spoken language under the influence ofCastilian Spanish,while Portuguese became the international one, as language of thePortuguese Empire.The two varieties are still close together, and in particular northern Portuguese dialects share an important number of similarities with Galician ones.

The official institution regulating the Galician language, backed by the Galician government and universities, the Royal Galician Academy, claims that modern Galician must be considered an independent Romance language belonging to the group of Ibero-Romance languages and having strong ties with Portuguese and its northern dialects.

However, theAssociaçom Galega da Língua(Galician Language Association) andAcademia Galega da Língua Portuguesa(Galician Academy of the Portuguese Language), belonging to theReintegrationistmovement, support the idea that differences between Galician and Portuguese speech are not enough to justify considering them as separate languages: Galician is simply one variety of Galician-Portuguese, along with European Portuguese, Brazilian Portuguese, African Portuguese, the Galician-Portuguese still spoken in Spanish Extremadura, (Fala), and other variations.

Nowadays, despite the positive effects of official recognition of the Galician language, Galicia's socio-linguistic development has experienced the growing influence of Spanish and persistent linguistic erosion of Galician due to the media as well as legal imposition of Spanish in learning.

Galicia also boasts a rich oral tradition, in the form of songs, tales, and sayings, which has made a vital contribution to the spread and development of the Galician language. Still flourishing today, this tradition shares much with that of Portugal.

Surnames

See also:CastilianizationandSurname

Galician surnames,as is the case in most European cultures, can be divided intopatronymic(originally based on one's father's name),occupational,toponymicorcognominal.The first group,patronymicincludes many of the most frequent surnames and became fixed during theLow Middle Ages;it includes surnames derived from etyma formed with or without the additions of the patronymical suffixes -az, -ez, -iz:Alberte(Albert);Afonso(Alfons);Anes,Oanes,Yanes(Iohannes);Arias;Bernárdez(Bernard);Bermúdez(Medieval GalicianUermues,cf.Wermuth);Cristobo(Christopher);Diz(fromDidaci);Estévez(Stephan);Fernández;Fiz(fromFelici);Froiz,Frois(FromFroilaci,from theGothicpersonal nameFroila,"lord" );Giance(LatinIulianici);González;Henríquez(Henry);Martís(Martin);Méndez(Menendici);Miguéns,Miguez(fromMichaelici,equivalent toMichaels);Páez,Pais,Paz(fromPelagici,Pelagio);Ramírez;Reimúndez(Raymond);Rodríguez;Sánchez;Sueiro(fromSuarius);Tomé(fromThomas);Viéitez,Vieites(Benedictici,Benedict), among many others.

Because of the settlement of Galiciancolonistsin southern Spain during theReconquista,some of the more frequent and distinctively Galician surnames also became popular in Spanish (which had its own related forms) and were taken later into theAmericas,as a consequence of the expansion of theSpanish empire:

Some Galician patronymical surnames

English name	Old Galician (13-15th c.)	Modern Galician	Spanish
John	Eanes	Anes, Oanes, Yanes	Yáñez, Ibáñez
Stephen	Esteuaes, Esteuaez, Esteueez	Estévez	Estévanez
-	Froes, Froez	Fróiz, Frois	Flores, Flórez
Julian	Giançe, Gianz, Gians	Giance	Juliánez
Ermengild	Meendez, Meendes	Méndez	Menéndez, Meléndez
Martin	Martiiz	Martíns, Martís	Martínez
Michael	Migueez	Miguéns, Míguez	Miguélez
Pelagius	Paaez, Paaz	Páes, Paiz, Paz	Peláez
-	Veasques, Vaasquez	Vázquez	Velázquez, Blázquez
Benedict	Beeytez, Beeytes	Viéitez, Vieites	Benítez

Mediaeval Galician inscription in a 14th-century house, inNoia:"ESTAS CASAS MANDOU FAZER VASCO DACOSTA, ERA DE MCCCLXXVII"These houses were ordered by Vasco Dacosta,era1377 (1339 CE)

The largest surname group is the one derived from toponyms, which usually referred to the place of origin or residence of the bearer. These places can be European countries (as is the case in the surnamesBretaña,Franza,España,Portugal) or nations (Franco,"Frenchman"); Galician regions (Bergantiños,Carnota,Cavarcos,Sanlés); or cities, towns or villages, which gave origin to a few thousand surnames. Another related group is formed with theprepositionde,usually contracted with the definite article asdaordo,and a commonappellative:Dacosta(orDa Costa), "of the slope",DopazoorDo Pazo( "of the palace/manor house" );Doval,"of the valley" (cfr. FrenchDuval),Daponte( "of the bridge" ),Davila( "of the town", not to be confused with SpanishDávila),Daporta( "of the gate" );Dasilva( "of the forest" ),Dorrío( "of the river" ),Datorre( "of the Tower" ). Throughrebracketing,some of these surnames gave origin to others such asAcostaorAcuña.

Aqui jazFernan Perez d'Andrade(here lies Fernán Pérez de Andrade), 1397 CE

A few of these toponymic surnames can be considerednobiliary,as they first appear as the name of some Galician noble houses,later expanding when these nobles began to serve as officials of theSpanish Empire,in Spain or elsewhere, as a way of maintaining them both far from Galicia and useful to the Empire:Andrade(from the house of Andrade, itself from the name of a village),MejíaorMexía(from the house ofMesía),Saavedra,Soutomaior(HispanicizedSotomayor),Ulloa,Moscoso,Mariñas,Figueroaamong others. Some of these families also served in Portugal, as the Andrade, Soutomaior orLemos(who originated inMonforte de Lemos). As a result, these surnames are by now distributed all around the world.

Emilio Estévezand his fatherMartin Sheen(Ramón Estévez)

French-Spanish actorJosé Garcia,born Xosé García Doval of Galician parents

The third group of surnames are the occupational ones, derived from thejoborlegal statusof the bearer:Ferreiro( "Smith" ),Carpinteiro( "Carpenter" ),Besteiro( "Crossbow bearer" ),Crego( "Priest" ),Freire( "Friar" ),Faraldo( "Herald" ),Pintor( "Painter" ),Pedreiro( "Stonemason" ),Gaiteiro( "Bagpiper" ); and alsoCabaleiro( "Knight" ),Escudeiro( "Esquire" ),Fidalgo( "Nobleman" ),Juiz( "Judge" ).

The fourth group includes the surnames derived from nicknames, which can have very diverse motivations:

a) External appearance, as eye colour (Ruso,from Latin roscidus,grey-eyed;Garzo,blue-eyed), hair colour (Dourado,"Blonde";Bermello,"Red";Cerviño,literally "deer-like", "Tawny, Auburn";Cao,"white" ), complexion (Branco,"White";Pardo,"Swarth";Delgado,"Slender" ) or other characteristics:Formoso( "Handsome" ),Tato( "Stutterer" ),Forte( "Strong" ),Calviño( "Bald" ),Esquerdeiro( "Left-handed" ).

b) Temperament and personality:Bonome,Bonhome( "Goodman" ),Fiúza( "Who can be trusted" ),Guerreiro( "Warlike" ),Cordo( "Judicious" ).

c) Tree names:Carballo( "Oak" );Amieiro,Ameneiro( "Alder" );Freijo( "Ash tree" ).

d) Animal names:Gerpe(fromSerpe,"Serpent" );Falcón( "Falcon" );Baleato( "Young Whale" );Gato( "Cat" );Coello( "Rabbit" );Aguia( "Eagle" )

e) Deeds:Romeu(a person who pilgrimaged toRomeorthe Holy Land)

Many Galician surnames have becomeCastilianizedover the centuries, most notably after the forced submission of the Galician nobility obtained by theCatholic Monarchsin the last years of the 15th century.This reflected the gradual spread of theSpanish languagethrough the cities, inSantiago de Compostela,Lugo,A Coruña,VigoandFerrol,in the last case due to the establishment of an important base of theSpanish navythere in the 18th century.For example, surnames likeOrxás,Veiga,Outeiro,becameOrjales,Vega,Otero.Toponyms likeOurense,A Coruña,FisterrabecameOrense,La Coruña,Finisterre.In many cases this linguistic assimilation created confusion, for exampleNiño da Aguia(Galician:Eagle's Nest) was translated into Spanish asNiño de la Guía(Spanish: the Guide's child) andMesón do Bento(Galician:Benedict's house) was translated asMesón del Viento(Spanish: House of Wind).

History

Prehistory

See also:Castro Culture,Gallaeci,andList of Celtic place names in Galicia

Neolithic dolmen of Dombate, roughly contemporary withStonehenge.Originally it was under a tumulus covered by stones rich inmica

The oldest human occupation of Galicia dates to thePalaeolithic,when Galicia was covered by a dense oaktemperate rain forest.The oldest human remains found, atChan do Lindeiro,are from a woman who lived some 9,300 years ago and died because of a landslide, apparently while leading a pack of threeaurochs;the genetic study of her remains revealed a woman that was an admixture ofWestern Hunter-GathererandMagdalenianpeople.This type of admixture has been observed in France, also.

Later on, some 6,500 years ago, anew populationarrived from theMediterranean,bringingagricultureandhusbandrywith them. Half of the woodland was razed to pasture and farmland, almost replacing all of the woodland some 5,000 years ago.This new population also changed the landscape with the first permanent human structures, megaliths such asmenhirs,barrowsandcromlechs.During the Neolithic Galicia was one of the foci ofAtlantic EuropeanMegalithic Culture,putting in contact the Mediterranean and southIberiawith the rest of Atlantic Europe.

Some 4,500 years ago a new culture and population arrived and presumingly admixed with the local farmers, theBell beakerpeople, coming ultimately from thePontic steppe,who introducedcopper metallurgyandweaponry,and probably also newcultivarsandbreeds.Some scholars consider that they were the first people to bringIndo-European languagesinto Western Europe.They lived in openvillages,only protected by fences or ditches; local archaeologists consider that they caused a very large culture impact, replacingcollectivismwithindividualism,as exemplified by their burial in individualcists,along with the reuse of old Neolithic tombs.From this period and later dates a rich tradition ofpetroglyphs,which find close similarities in the British Isles, Scandinavia ornorthern Italy.Motives includecup and ring marks,labyrinths,Bronze Age weaponry,deerand deer hunting, warriors, riders andships.

• Early Bronze Age
• 
  Outeiro do cribo('sieve's hill') labyrinth
• 
  Castriño de Conxo,Bronze Age weaponry
• 
  Laxe dos Carballos,deer hunting with leaf-shaped spears andcup and ring marks
• 
  Casota de Freáns,Vimianzo,aBronze Agemegalith with no corridor or tumulus
• 
  Caldas de Reishoard, one of the largest in Western Europe, circa 1,800 BCE
• 
  Interior of a Bronze Age cabin (recreation),Campo Lameiro

During the Late Bronze Age and until 800-600 BCE the contacts with both southern Spain to the south, andArmoricaand theAtlantic Islesto the north, intensified, probably fuelled by the abundance of local gold and metals such astin,which allowed the production of high qualitybronze.It is at this moment that began the deposition or hoarding of prestige items, frequently in aquatic context. Also, during the Late Bronze Age a new type of ceremonialhenge-like ring structures, of some 50 metres in diameter, are built all along Galicia.

This period and interchange network, usually known asAtlantic Bronze Age,which appears to have had its centre in modern-dayBrittany,was proposed byJohn T. KochandSir Barry Cunliffeas the one that originatedCeltic languages—as a product of pre-existing and closely related Indo-European languages— which could have expanded along with the elite ideology associated with this cultural complex (Celtic from the westtheory). Alleged difficulties with this theory and with pre-existing theories ( "Celtic from the east" ) have led Patrick Simms-Williams to propose an intermediate "Celtic from the centre" theory, with an expansion of Celtic languages from the Alps during the Bronze Age.A recent study shows the large scale admixture of an earlier population from Britain with people arriving probably from France during the late Bronze Age. These people, in the opinion of the authors, constitute a plausible vector for the expansion of Celtic languages into Britain, as no further Iron Age people movement of relevant scale is shown in their data.

• Late Bronze Age
• 
  Late Bronze Age hoard of Samieira, unearthed in 1948 at some 50 metres from the seashore, and initially consisting of 152palstaves
• 
  Bronze Age Galician swords, Museo de Pontevedra
• 
  Casco de Leiro
• 
  Pedra Altawarrior stelle, Castrelo do Val
• 
  1. sword and girdle. 3. v-notch shield. 4. cart with horses
• 
  Horned-helmet figures
• 
  A rider

The Bronze Age - Iron Age transition (locally 1000-600 BCE) coincides with the hoarding of large quantity of bronze axes, unused, both in Galicia,Brittany,and southernBritain.During this same transitional period, some communities began to protect their villages, settling in very protected areas where they builthill-forts.Among the oldest of these areChandebritoinNigrán,Penas do CasteloinA Pobra do BrollónandO CociñadoiroinArteixo,on a sea cliff and protected by a 3-metre-tall wall, it was also a metal factory, perhapsdedicated to the Atlantic commerce,all of them founded some 2,900-2,700 years ago. These earlier fortified settlements seem to be placed to control metallurgical resources and commerce. This transitional period is also characterized by the apparition oflonghousesof ultimately north European traditionwhich were replaced later in much of Galicia byroundhouses.By the 4th century BCE hill-forts have expanded all along Galicia, also on lowlands, soon becoming the only type of settlements.

These hill-forts were delimited usually by one or more walls; the defences also include ditches, ramparts and towers, and could define several habitable spaces. The gates were also heavily fortified. Inside, houses were originally built with perishable materials, with or without a stonefooting;later on they were entirely made with stone walls, having up to two storeys. Specially in the south, houses or public spaces were adorned with carved stones and warrior sculptures. Stone heads, mimicking severed heads, are found at several locations and were perhaps placed near the gates of the forts. A number of public installations are known, for examplesaunasof probable ritual use.Of ritual use and great value were also items such as bronze cauldrons, richly figured sacrificial hatchetsand gold torcs, of which more than a hundred exemplars are known.

This culture is now known asCastro Culture;another characteristic of this culture is the absence of known burials: just exceptionallyurnswith ashes have been found buried at foundational sites, acting probably as protectors.

• Iron Age
• 
  Castromaior,Portomarín,Lugo
• 
  Castromaior'srelief
• 
  Sauna of Punta dos Prados,Ortigueira
• 
  Goldtorcsfrom Xanceda,Mesía
• 
  Sacrificial hatchet showing an ox, cauldron and torc
• 
  Short swords
• 
  Local ear pendants of ultimate Mediterranean origin

Occasional contacts with Mediterranean navigators, since the last half of the second millennium BCE,became common after the 6th century BCEand the voyage ofHimilco.Punicimportations from southern Spain became frequent along the coast of southern Galicia, although they didn't penetrate very far to the north or to the interior; also, new decorative motives, as thesix-petal rosettes,are popularized, together with new metallurgical techniques and pieces (ear pendants) and some other innovations as the round hand mill. In exchange, Punics obtainedtin,abundant in the islands and peninsulas of western Galicia (probable origin of theCassiteridesisland myth)and probably also gold. Incidentally,Avienus'Ora Maritimasays afterHimilcothat theOestrymni(inhabitants of western Iberia) usedhide boatsto navigate, an assertion confirmed byPliny the Elderfor the Galicians.

Roman conquest

Guerreirosfrom northern Portugal, wearing torcs,viriaeandcaetra.Castro culture.

First recorded contact with Rome happened during theSecond Punic War,whenGallaeciansandAstures,together withLusitanians,CantabriansandCeltiberians—that is, the majorIndo-Europeannations of Iberia— figured among the mercenary armies hired byHannibalto go with him into Italy. According toSilus Italicus'sPunicaIII:

Fibrarum, et pennæ, divinarumque sagacem
Flammarum misit dives Callæcia pubem,
Barbara nunc patriis ululantem carmina linguis,
Nunc, pedis alterno percussa verbere terra,
Ad numerum resonas gaudentem plaudere cætras.
Hæc requies ludusque viris, ea sacra voluptas.
Cetera femineus peragit labor: addere sulco
Semina, et inpresso tellurem vertere aratro
Segne viris: quidquid duro sine Marte gerendum,
Callaici conjux obit inrequieta mariti.

Gallaecians vs. Romans. Reenactors inXinzo de Limia,Festa do Esquecemento

"Opulent Galicia sent her youth, expert in divination through the entrails of beasts, the flight of birds and the divine lightnings; sometimes they delight to chant rude songs in their fatherland's tongues, other times they make the ground tremble with alternative foot while happily clashing theircaetraat the same time. This leisure and diversion is a sacred delight for the men, the feminine laboriosity do the rest: adding the seed to the furrow and working the ground with the plough while the men idle. Everything which must be done, with the exception of the hard war, is made restlessly by the wife of the Galician. "He later also mentions theGroviiof southern Galicia and northwestern Portugal, with their capitalTui,apart from the other Galicians; other authors also marked the distinctness of the Grovii: Pomponius Mela by addressing that they were non Celtic, unlike the rest of the inhabitants of the coasts of Galicia; Pliny by signalling their Greek origin.

After ending victoriously theLusitanian warwith the assassination ofViriathus,consulCaepiotried to wage war, unsuccessfully, on Gallaecians andVettones,for the help they lent to the Lusitanians. In 138 BCE, another consul,Decimus Junius Brutus,in command of two legions, passed deDouroriver and later the Lethes or Oblivio (Limia,which frightened his troops because of its othername), in a successful campaign, managing to conquer many places of the Galicians. After reaching theMinhoriver, and in his way back, he attacked (again successfully) theBracari,who had been harassing hissupplychain:Appiandescribe the Bracari women fighting bravely side by side with their men; of the women who were taken prisoners, some killed themselves, and others killed their children, preferring death to servitude.Thespoils of warallowed Decimus Junius Brutus to celebrate atriumphback in Rome, receiving the nameCallaicus.Recently a very large marchingRoman campwas discovered at high altitude, in Lomba do Mouro, at the very frontier of Galicia with Portugal. In 2021 aC-14 datingshowed that it was built during the 2nd century BCE; since it is north of the Limia, it probably belonged to this campaign.

The Roman contact had a very large impact on the Castro Culture: an increase in commerce with the south and the Mediterranean; adoption or development of sculpture and stone carving; thewarrior ethosappear to increase in social importance;some hill-forts are built new or rebuilt as true urban centres,oppida,with streets and definite public spaces, asSan Cibrao de Las(10ha) orSanta Trega(20 ha).

• Oppida and Roman conquest
• 
  Gates of the oppidum of Saint Cibrao de Las
• 
  Aerial photo of San Cibrao de Las
• 
  Santa Tregra, A Guarda
• 
  Santa Trega with theMinhoin the background
• 
  Asminted circa 20 BCE during the conquest of Galicia, Asturia and Cantabria
• 
  Arms of the Gallaeci: knife,javelins,falcataandcaetra
• 
  Equitation scene, Formigueiro,Amoeiro

In 61 BCEJulius Caesar,commanding thirtycohorts,launched fromCádiza maritime campaign along the Atlantic shores which ended inBrigantium.According toCassius Dio,the locals, who had never seen a Roman fleet, surrendered in awe. Recent excavations at theCastro de Elviñahillfort, near A Coruña, have found both evidences of siege and partial destruction of the walls of the site, and also of a temple, dated to the middle of the first century BCE.

Finally, in 29 BCE,Augustuslaunched a campaign of conquest against Gallaecians, Asturians and Cantabrians. The most memorable episode of this war was the siege on the Mons Medullius, whoPaulus Orosiusplaced near theMinhoriver: it was surrounded by a 15 mille trench before a simultaneous Roman advance; according toAnneus Florusthe besieged decided to kill themselves, by fire, sword, or by the venon of theyew tree.Tens of Roman camps have been found related to this war, most of them corresponding to the later stages of the war, against Asturians and Cantabrians, some tweenty of them in Galicia.Augustus' victory over the Gallaecians is celebrated in theSebasteionof Aphrodisias, Turkey, where a triumphal monument toAugustusmentions themamong other fifteen nations conquered by him. Also, thetriumphal archofCapentrasprobably represents a Gallaecian among other nations defeated by Augustus.

Languages and ethnicity

Geography and peoples of Galicia, after Mela, Pliny and local Latin epigraphy

See also:Gallaecian language,Lusitanian language,andCeltiberian language

Pomponius Mela(a geographer from Tingentera, modern dayAlgecirasin Andalusia) described, circa 43 CE, the coasts of northwestern Iberia:

Frons illa aliquamdiu rectam ripam habet, dein modico flexu accepto mox paululum eminet, tum reducta iterum iterumque recto margine iacens ad promunturium quod Celticum vocamus extenditur.
Totam Celtici colunt, sed a Durio ad flexum Grovi, fluuntque per eos Avo, Celadus, Nebis, Minius et cui oblivionis cognomen est Limia. Flexus ipse Lambriacam urbem amplexus recipit fluvios Laeron et Ullam. Partem quae prominet Praesamarchi habitant, perque eos Tamaris et Sars flumina non longe orta decurrunt, Tamaris secundum Ebora portum, Sars iuxta turrem Augusti titulo memorabilem. Cetera super Tamarici Nerique incolunt in eo tractu ultimi. Hactenus enim ad occidentem versa litora pertinent.
Deinde ad septentriones toto latere terra convertitur a Celtico promunturio ad Pyrenaeum usque. Perpetua eius ora, nisi ubi modici recessus ac parva promunturia sunt, ad Cantabros paene recta est.
In ea primum Artabri sunt etiamnum Celticae gentis, deinde Astyres. In Artabris sinus ore angusto admissum mare non angusto ambitu excipiens Adrobricam urbem et quattuor amnium ostia incingit: duo etiam inter accolentis ignobilia sunt, per alia Ducanaris exit et Libyca

Iberia circa 300 BCE

"That ocean front for some distance has a straight bank, then, having taken a slight bend, soon protrudes a little bit and then it is drawn back, and again and again; then, lying on a straight line, the coast extends to the promontory which we call Celtic. All of it is inhabited by Celtics, except from the Durio until the bend, where the Grovi dwelt —and through them flow the rivers Avo, Celadus, Nebis, Minius and Limia, also called Oblivio—. On the bend there is the city of Lambriaca and the receding part receives the rivers Laeros and Ulia. The prominent part is inhabited by the Praestamarci, and through them flow the rivers Tamaris and Sars —which are born not afar— Tamaris by harbour Ebora, Sars by the tower of Augustus, of memorable title. For the rest, the Supertamarici and Neri inhabit in the last tract. Up to here what belongs to the western coast. From there all the coast is turned to the north, from the Celtic promontory to the Pyrenees. Its regular coast, except where there are small retreats and small headlands, is almost straight by the Cantabrians. On it first of all are the Artabri, still a Celtic people, then the Astures. Among the Artabri there is a bay which lets the sea through a narrow mouth, and encircles, not in a narrow circuit, the city of Adrobrica and the mouth of four rivers." The Atlantic and northern coast of today's Galicia was inhabited by Celtic peoples, with the exception of the southern extreme. Others geographers and authors (Pliny, Strabo), as well as the local Latin epigraphy, confirm the presence of Celtic peoples.

As for the language or languages spoken by the Galicians previously to theirromanization,most scholars usually perceive a primitiveIndo-Europeanlayer, another later one hardly distinguishable from Celtic and identifiable withLusitanian,most notable in the south, the Gallaecia Bracarense (as a result, Lusitanian is sometimes calledLusitanian-Gallaecian) and finally Celtic proper; as stated by Alberto J. Lorrio:"the presence of Celtic elements in the Northwest is indisputable, but there is no unanimity in considering whether there was an only Indo-European language in the West of Iberia, of Celtic kind, or either a number of languages derived from the arrival of non-Celtic Indo-Europeans first, and Celts later on". Some academic positions on this issue:

• Francesco Benozzo,proponent of thePalaeolithic continuity theory,considers that Celtic language is autochthonous in Galicia.Since recent genetic studios show that European and Iberian Palaeolithic population was assimilated by larger migrant populations proceeding first from the Balkans andAnatolia,and later from Central Europe and ultimately from thePontic steppe,this theory is probably flawed.
• ForJohn T. KochandBarry Cunliffe,proponent of theCeltic from the West theory,the Celtic language would have expanded during the late Bronze Age from the European Atlantic fringe, including Galicia, to the east.For Patrick Simms-Williams, Celtic expanded from modern day France during the late Bronze Age.
• Joan Coromines,lexicographer and author of theDiccionario crítico etimológico castellano e hispánico,considered that Galician language had a very important substrate attributable to at least two different Indo-European languages, an older non Celtic one who he derived from theUrnfieldpeople and thought was present in most of northern Iberia, and another one he namedArtabrian,the Celtic language of the Celts of Galicia.
• Blanca M. PrósperandFrancisco Villardefend that Lusitanian is a non Celtic Indo-European language related toItalic languagesbecause, in their opinion, the Indo-Europeanaspirated stopshave evolved into /f/ and /h/. At the same time, all along the area of this language, and specially in modern-day Galicia, a Celtic language was spoken; this language, aq-Celtic languagesimilar toCeltiberian,is theWestern Hispano-Celtic.
• Joaquín Gorrochategui, José M. Vallejo,Alberto J. Lorrio, García Alonso,E. Lujánand others, consider that Lusitanian is not a Celtic language, but they don't consider it closer to Italic, neither, but part of a group of IE dialects which later evolved into Celtic, Italic and Lusitanian. On the other hand, Celtic speakers lived in close proximity to the Lusitanian. In this context, Gallaecia Bracarensis was clearly in communion with the Lusitania,while Gallaecia Lucensis had its own Celtic profile.
• Jürgen Untermann,continued by his disciple Carlos Búa,defended that along the westernmost part of Iberia there was essentially just one language or group of languages, Gallaecian-Lusitanian or Lusitanian and Gallaecian, which in their opinion was definitely Celtic and not Italoid, as shown by the ending of dative plural (-bo, -bor < PIE -*b^hos) and the evolution of thesyllabic consonants,in particular -r̥- > -ri-.
• Local scholars and researchers of toponymy and lexicon of pre-Latin origin (J. J. Moralejo, Edelmiro Bascuas) saw at least two layers of Indo-Europeans: one early layer of a very primitive IE language which preserved p, most notable in river names, and a later Celtic layer.

Roman period

See also:Roman-era records of Gallaecian names and words

Conventi Iuridici (subprovincial divisions)

After the Roman conquest, the lands and people of northwestern Iberia were divided in threeconventi(Gallaecia Lucensis,Gallaecia Bracarensisand Asturia) and annexed to the province ofHispania Tarraconensis.Pliny wrote that the Lucenses comprised 16populiand 166,000 free heads, and mentions theLemavi,Albiones,Cibarci,EgivarriNamarini,Adovi,Arroni,Arrotrebae, Celtici Neri,Celtici Supertamarci,Copori,Celtici Praestamarci,Cileniamong them (other authors mention also the Baedui,ArtabriandSeurri); theAsturescomprised 22 populi and 240,000, of whom the Lougei, Gigurri and Tiburi dwelt lands now in Galicia; finally the Bracarenses 24civitatesand 285,000, of whom theGrovi,Helleni,Querquerni,Coelerni,Bibali,Limici,Tamacani andInteramicidwelt, at least partially, in modern-day Galicia. The names of some of these peoples have been preserved as the names of regions, parishes and villages:Lemos< Lemavos, Cabarcos, Soneira < *Sub Nerii, Céltigos < Celticos,Valdeorras< Valle de Gigurris,Trives< Tiburis, Támagos < Tamacanos. Some other Galician regions derive from some populi or subdivision not listed by the classic authors, among them: Bergantiños < Brigantinos, fromBriganti,Nendo < Nemetos, fromNemeton,Entíns < Gentinis ('the chieftains').

A common characteristic of both Gallaecians and western Astures were their onomastic formula and social structure: while most of the other Indo-European peoples of Hispania used a formula such as:

Name + Patronimic (gen.s.) + Gens / Family (gen. pl.), as, for example,

Turaesius Letondicum Marsi f(ilius):'Turaesius son of Marsi, of the Letondi clan'

Roman works of Montefurado (Pierced Mountain), which diverted the course of the river Sil

Gallaecians and western Astures used, until the 2nd century of our era, the formula:

Name + Patronimic (gen. s.) + [Populi/Civitas] (nom.s.) + [⊃] (abreviature ofcastellum) Origo (abl.s.) as:

Nicer Clvtosi ⊃ Cavriaca Principis Albionum:Nicer, son of Clutosios, from castle Cauria, prince of the Albion

Caeleo Cadroiolonis f(ilius) Cilenus ⊃ Berisamo:Cailio, son of Cadroilo, Cilenus from castle Berisamo

Fabia Eburi f(ilia) Lemava ⊃ Eritaeco:Fabia, daughter of Eburios, Lemava from castle Eritaico

Eburia Calueni f(ilia) Celtica Sup(ertamarca) ⊃ Lubri:Eburia, daughter of Calugenos, Celtica Supertamarca from castle Lubris

Anceitus Vacc[e]i f(ilius) limicus ⊃ Talabrig(a):Anceitos, son of Vacceos, Limicus from castle Talabriga

The known personal names used by locals in northern Gallaecia were largely Celtic:Aio,Alluquius,Ambatus,Ambollus,Andamus,Angetus,Arius,Artius,Atius,Atia,Boutius,Cadroiolo,Caeleo,Caluenus,Camalus,Cambauius,Celtiatus,Cloutaius,Cloutius,Clutamus,Clutosius,Coedus,Coemia,Coroturetis,Eburus,Eburia,Louesus,Medamus,Nantia,Nantius,Reburrus,Secoilia,Seguia,Talauius,Tridia,Vecius,Veroblius,Verotus,Vesuclotus,among others.

Threelegionswere stationed near theCantabrian mountainsafter the war, later reduced to theLegio VII GeminainLeón,with three auxiliarycohortsin Galicia (theCohors I Celtiberorumin Ciadella,Sobrado dos Monxes,nearBrigantium;other unity atAquis Querquennis,and another one nearLucus Augusti) and others elsewhere. Soon Roma began to recruitauxiliary troopslocally: five cohorts of Gallaecians from the conventus Lucenses, other five of bracarenses, two mixed ones of Galicians and Asturians, and analaand cohort of Lemavi.

Also, Gallaecia and Asturia became the most important producers of gold on the Empire: according toPlinyLusitania, Gallaecia and, especially, Asturia, produced the equivalent to 6,700 kg per year. It has been estimated that the eight hundred Roman gold mines known in Galicia produced in total in between 190,000 and 2,000,000 kg.

• 
  Reenactors at Lugo'sArde Lucus
• 
  Roman camp of Aquis Querquennis
• 
  Nicer Clutosi's stelle
• 
  Apana Amboli's stele
• 
  Tabula hospitalis from Carbedo
• 
  Romanized hill-fort of Viladonga, Castro de Rei

During theDiocletian reforms,late third century, Gallaecia was upgraded toprovince.

Germanic era: 5th – 8th centuries

See also:Germanic personal names in Galicia

In 409 theVandals,SuebiandAlans,who had entered in the Roman Empire in 405 or 406crossing the Rhin,passed into the Iberian Peninsula. After a year of war and plundering, they were pacified by the offering of lands where to settle. The Roman province of Gallaecia (including Gallaecia proper and the regions ofAsturiaand Cantabria) were assigned to the Suebi and theHasding Vandals.Both groups clashed soon, in 419, and so the Vandals left to southern Iberia, where they incorporated the last remnants of Alans andSilingi Vandals,who had been crushed by Rome in previous years. In 429 the Vandals left for Africa.

In 430 a long term conflict broke in between the Suebi and locals who chroniclerHydatiuscalledgallaecos(i.e.galegos,the endonym of modern-day Galicians) and, initially,plebs( "folk, common people" ), in contrast with whom he calledromani:the rural landowners in Lusitania and the inhabitants of the cities. Soon, among those Galicians, appear also local noblemen and churchmen. As theBritonsin southern Great Britain, the Galician were forced to act autonomously from Rome, exercising home rule.They reoccupied old Iron Age hill-forts and built new strongholds andfortificationall along Galicia;the largest known today are at Mt. Pindo,Mt. Aloiaand at Castro Valente.These fortresses were later used by locals against Visigoths,ArabsandNorsemen.In this conflict in between Galicians and Suebi, Rome and local bishops acted frequently rather asintermediariesthan as a part, and peace our truce was obtained or warranted with the interchange of prisoners andhostages.

In 438 both people attained a peace that would last for twenty years; by then old kingHermeric,who had led their people at least since their arrival fromCentral Europe,ceded the crown to his sonRechila,who would expand the kingdom to the south and east, conqueringEmerita Augusta,MértolaandSeville,and moving his troops into eastern Hispania, defeating both Roman andVisigotharmies along the way. His successor and son,Rechiar,converted frompaganismto Catholicism upon being crowned, and married a Visigoth princess. He negotiated with Rome a new status for his kingdom and became the first post-Roman Germanic king to mint coins in his name.Soon, he tried to expand into the last Roman province in Hispania,Tarraconense;eventually this led to open conflict with Rome and the Visigoths. In 456 a large army offoederaticommanded by the kings of the Visigoths and theBurgundiansentered Hispania and defeated the Suebi army near the city ofLeón.Rechiar fled toPorto,but he was captured and later executed. Notwithstanding, the Visigoths left in a hurry the theatre of operation, returning to France. That allowed the Suebi to regroup. After a period ofpetty-kingsrivalry, accompanied by devastation and pillage on Galicians,Remismundwas recognized as only and legitimate king by the Suebi, and accepted by the Visigoths; he also promoted theArianismamong the Suebi. As result, the Suebi kingdom came to its limits, encompassing modern day Galicia, northern Portugal untilCoimbra,and large parts ofAsturias,LeónandZamora.

The chronicle of Hydatius also records naval raids of both Vandals andHerulion the Galician coasts during the 5th century.

Medieval era

See also:Gallaeci,Gallaecia,andKingdom of Galicia

In 718 the area briefly came under the control of the Moors after their conquest and dismantling of the Visigothic Empire, but the Galicians successfully rebelled against Moorish rule in 739, establishing a renewedKingdom of Galiciawhich would become totally stable after 813 with the medieval popularization of the"Way of St James".

Geography and demographics

Galician bagpipersin New York.

See also:Galicians in Argentina

Political and administrative divisions

The autonomous community, a concept established in theSpanish constitutionof 1978, that is known as (a)Comunidade Autónoma Galegain Galician, and as (la)Comunidad Autónoma Gallegain Spanish (in English:Galician Autonomous Community), is composed of the four Spanish provinces ofA Coruña,Lugo,Ourense,andPontevedra.

Population, main cities and languages

The official statistical body of Galicia is theInstituto Galego de Estatística(IGE). According to the IGE, Galicia's total population in 2008 was 2,783,100 (1,138,474 inA Coruña,355.406 inLugo,336.002 inOurense,and 953.218 inPontevedra). The most important cities in this region, which serve as the provinces' administrative centres, areVigo(in Pontevedra),Pontevedra,Santiago de Compostela,A Coruña,Ferrol(in A Coruña),Lugo(in Lugo), andOurense(in Ourense). The official languages are Galician and Spanish. Knowledge of Spanish is compulsory according to the Spanish constitution and virtually universal. Knowledge of Galician, after declining for many years owing to the pressure of Spanish and official persecution, is again on the rise due to favorable official language policies and popular support.Currently about 82% of Galicia's population can speak Galicianand about 61% have it as a mother tongue.

Culture

Celtic revival and Celtic identity

See also:Castro culture,Gallaecian language,Celtic place names in Galicia,List of Galician words of Celtic origin,andCeltic revival

Galician pipe band Dambara at theFestival Interceltique de Lorient,2012

In the 19th century a group ofRomanticandNationalistwriters and scholars, among themEduardo PondalandManuel Murguía,led aCeltic revivalinitially based on the historical testimonies of ancient Roman and Greek authors (Pomponius Mela,Pliny the Elder,StraboandPtolemy), who wrote about theCelticpeoples who inhabited Galicia;but they also based this revival inlinguisticandonomasticdata,and in the similarity of some aspects of the culture and the geography of Galicia with that of theCeltic countriesas Ireland,Brittanyand Britain, as well as in the Bronze and Iron Age archaeological cultures.These similarities included legends and traditions,and decorative and popular arts andmusic.It also included the green hilly landscape and the ubiquity of Iron Agehill-forts,Neolithicmegalithsand Bronze Agecup and ring marks,which were and are popularly seen as "Celtic", also among foreigners who travelled to Galicia.

As a Celtic region of Spain, Galicia has a tartan called Galicia National.

During the late 19th and early 20th century this revival permeated Galician society: in 1916Os Pinos,a poem by Eduardo Pondal, was chosen as the lyrics for the new Galician hymn. One of the strophes of the poem says:Galicians, be strong / ready to great deeds / align your breast / for a glorious end / sons of the noble Celts / strong and traveller / fight for the fate / of the homeland ofBreogán.The Celtic past became an integral part of the self-perceived Galician identity:as a result an important number of cultural association and sport clubs received names related to the Celts, among themCelta de Vigo,Céltiga FC,CB Breogán,etc.

Galician Celtic Revival:Homes de Brigantia('Men of Brigantia'), by Camilo Díaz Baliño (1922)

From the 1970s on a series of Celtic music and cultural festivals were also popularized, the most notable being theFestival Internacional do Mundo Celta deOrtigueira,at the same time that Galician folk musical bands and interpreters became usual participants in Celtic festivals elsewhere, as in the Interceltic festival of Lorient, where Galicia sent its first delegation in 1976.

• Celtic and non Celtic elements common along the western Atlantic coast of Europe which are popularly perceived as Celtic.
• 
  Acastro(hill-fort) at Baroña,Porto do Son
• 
  DolmenatAxeitos,Ribeira
• 
  Medieval interlaced cross,Santiago de Compostela
• 
  Massive goldtorcofBurela
• 
  Triskelionfrom theMuseo deOurense
• 
  View of the hillfort at San Cibrao de Las,Ourense
• 
  GalicianNeolithicorBronze Agecup and ring marks
• 
  The rocky and misty coast of Cabo Silleiro,Baiona

Folklore and traditions

Winged serpent of Gondomil,Portugal.The Christian cross is a latter addition

Myths and legends

Fornela dos Mouros('Mouros' oven') dolmen

Pico Sagro,where a dragon dwelt

Maruxaina

1920's advertising and theSanta Compaña

Galicianfolkloreis similar to that of the rest of westernEurope,especially to that or northernPortugal,AsturiasandCantabria.Among its most notoriousmythsare the following:

• Before the world was inhabited by humans, animals could speak: many traditional tales about animals begin with the phrasealó cando os animais falaban,'back then, when animals used to speak', which has become equivalent to Englishonce upon a time.
• Our world is connected to anunderworlddwelt by themouros('the dark ones' or perhaps 'the dead ones', mistaken by AndalusianMoorsin many tales), an ancient and sombre race who inhabited the upper world before ourselves and who dislike humans. They can still travel to our world to interact with us through the ruins of the places they built or inhabited, such asbarrows,dolmens,stone circles,hill-forts,etc., which are still traditionally called with names such asEira dos Mouros('Mouros'threshing floor'),Casa dos Mouros('Mouros'house'),Forno dos Mouros('Mouros'oven'). This kind of place names are already attested in Latin documents dating to circa 900 CE and later. Humans can also travel to the underworld, either becoming very rich or suffering for their greed as a result. Somemourosorencantoscan appear as tall and strong men riding large horses and there are specific spells to ask them for riches.
• Fairiesandnymphs(who also belong to the netherworld) receive many names, among themmouras,encantos('apparition; spell'),damas('ladies'),madamas('miladies'),xás(from Latindianas). They are frequently portrayed as women of incredible beauty and riches and long golden blonde hair that can be found by the aforementioned prehistoric ruins or at fountains and ponds, where they comb their hair. Other times, they are gigantic women of incredible strength, enough to move massive boulders, who can be found with a spinning distaff or a baby.Under this appearance they are the same with theVella( "the Old Lady" ), who is somehow also responsible for the weather: therainbowis calledarco da vellain Galician ( "Old Lady's bow" ), a myth which is probably related to theCailleach,'Old Woman', 'Hag', of Ireland and Scotland.
• Lavandeiras(washerwomen) are eerie fairies that are found at a river of pond washing clothes, under the aspect of women, especially at night. They can ask a passer-by to help twits the clothes: if the passer-by mistakenly twists in the same direction, the clothes turn into blood.
• Thetrasnos,tardosortrasgos(goblins) are mischievous,householdcreatures, who like to annoy and confound people. They can causenightmaresby siting on the chest of the people, move things and cause other troubles. In Galiciantrasnada(~'goblin-ery') means 'trick, mischief'.
• Other sign of the netherworld is the apparition of a golden hen followed by his golden chicks (a galiña dos pitos de ouro), which, no matter how hard one tries, can't be caught. There is a similar myth inBulgaria.
• Maruxainawas a vicioussirenwho lived near the town ofSan Cribraoand who eventually was captured and executed by the locals.
• The barrows are also inhabited by other entities calledouvas('elfs').
• Other beings with control of the weather are thenubeiros('cloud-ers').George Borrowin his bookThe Bible in Spainnarrates how he met anubeirowhile travelling Galicia circa 1835.Other similar beings are thetronantesandescoleres.
• Manylakesare believed to be the result of the drowning of ancient cities (frequently calledLucerna,Valverde,'Green Valley', orAntiochiain tales and legends) when the inhabitants failed to give shelter to Jesus or a saint, or when a king of themourosused his magic out of spit. Some nights the city's bells can still be heard.This legend was first recorded in the 12th centuryCodex Calixtinusand in that version isCharlemagnewho prays God and Saint James to drown a Moor city reluctant to commit to him.This myth appear to be related to the Breton myth ofYs.
• Another mythical being associated with drowned cities is theboi bruador,a bellowing ox which can be heard at night near lakes, a legend first recorded circa 1550.
• Olláparosare giants similar tocyclopeswho sometimes have also an eye on the back of the head.They are related to theCantabrianOjáncanu.
• Bruxasandmeigas(witches) can take the form of animals. In particular, thechuchonas('suckers') can take the form of a blowfly to feed on the blood of babies and children, causinganaemia.
• Lobishomes(werewolves) are humans who sometimes turn into wolves because of a curse.Manuel Blanco Romasantawas a Galicianserial killersentenced to death in 1853 for thirteen assassinations. His legal defence was based in his condition of werewolf as consequence of a curse.
• Anciently, there were giantserpents(serpe,there's a mountain range calledCova da Serpe,'Sepents' dem', so named since at least the 10th century), some of them winged, anddragons(dragón) which could feed on cattle. On the legend of the transfer of the body ofSaint Jamesfrom theHoly Landto Galicia, recorded in the 12th centuryCodex Calixtinus,the local queen,Queen Lupa,commanded the disciples of Saint James to go grab a pair of meek oxen she had by the hill known asPico Sacro( "Sacred Peak" ), where a dragon dwelt, with the hope that either the dragon or the oxen (which were actually fierce bulls) would kill them.There were alsococas(cockatrices), which were taken out in procession in certain dates, as attested since 1437.In the town ofRedondelathis procession is still held each year.

Santa Compaña(modern graffiti)

• Thecompaña('retinue'),hoste('army'),estantiga( <hoste antiga,'anciente army'),Santa Compaña('holy retinue') is the local version of thewild hunt.In its modern form is a nocturne procession of the dead, who, porting candles or torches, and frequently a coffin, announce the imminent decease of a neighbour. This procession can "capture" a living person, who is then obliged to precede the Santa Compaña all night long, through forest, streams and brambles, or until another one takes his place. One can protect himself from being taken by the Compaña by tracing a circle and getting inside it, or by throwing oneself to the ground and ignoring the Compaña while it passes over. A solitary phantom related to the Compaña is theestadea.This myth is also related to the fairy host in Ireland,sluaghin Scotland and toili in Wales.
• Theurco(güercuinAsturias) is a giant black dog who emerges from the sea or from a river to cause terror to the locals. They are also, per se, a bad omen.

Traditions and beliefs

While Galician was traditionally a profoundlyCatholicsociety, in its beliefs there are many remnants of previous religious systems, in particular the belief on a pantheon of gods, nowsaints;in the reincarnation in form of an animal, when there are unfinished business; theevil eyeand the sickness caused bycurses;the holiness of crossroads and fountains, etcetera. The first attestation of the beliefs of the Galicians in a Christian context is offered by thePannonianMartin of Bragawho in his letterDe Correctione Rusticorumcondemns, among others, the belief in the Roman gods or in thelamias,nymphsanddianas,and also in practices as putting candles to trees, springs and crossroads.

• Sanctuariesare socially important places for pilgrimage (romaría) and devotion, each one under the protection of a saint orvirgin Mary.There are different beliefs associated with each one: the sanctuary ofSanto André de Teixidoin Cedeira is associated with reincarnation, as it is said thata Santo André de Teixido vai de morto o que non foi de vivo('to Saint Andrew at Teixido —yew-tree-copse— goes as dead the ones that didn't went while alive'). It is advised not to kill lizards or any other animal while in the vicinity. TheCorpiñosanctuary nearLalínand San Campío nearTomiñoare associated with the treatment of mentalillnessand evil eye ormeigallo.Virxe da Barcain Muxía is built by the place where it is said that Mary arrived aboard a stone boat, a recurring myth in Galicia also present in Ireland and Brittany.Many of these places were probably built over pagan cult places.
• High crossesandcalvaries,locally namedcruceirosorpeto de ánimas,are usually placed atcrossroads,before sacred places, or marking a pilgrimage road. Placing flowers or lit candles before that monuments are common practices. In 1996 the Galician community in Ushuaia, Argentine, the southernmost city on the world, built acruceirowith the legent 'Galicia shines in this land's end'.

• Sanctuaries,cruceirosandpetos de ánimas
• 
  Virxe da Barca,Muxía
• 
  Santo André de Teixido,Cedeira
• 
  Peto de ánimas,crossroad of Moldes,Pobra do Caramiñal
• 
  Crurceiro inUshuaia,Argentina
• 
  Calvario at Castro Barbudo,Ponte Caldelas
• 
  Cruceiro do Hío,Cangas do Morrazo
• 
  Cruceiro atMuros

• Traditional medicine was administered bymenciñeirosandmenciñeiras,who used both herbs and spells to treat illness. Also compoñedores and compoñedoras: healers specialized in mending bones and joints.

Popular feasts

Aside from Catholic feasts and celebrations, there are other annual celebrations ofpaganor mixed origin:

• Entroido(Shrovetide,Carnival). TheEntroido('entering; prelude') is usually a period of indulgence and feasts, which contrast with the soberness of theHoly WeekandEaster.Parades and festivals (which were prosecuted by theCatholic Church) are held all along Galicia and, specially inOurense,maskssuch as thepeliqueiros,cigarróns, boteiros,felos,pantallas,who can commit minor mischiefs to other attendants, are central to the celebrations.
• Noite de San Xoán(Saint John's eve). Saint John's eve is celebrated around bonfires which are lit at dusk; young people jump over the fire three, seven or nine times. Other traditions associated to this night is the nine-waves bath in the beach, for having children,and the preparation of theauga de San Xoán(Saint John's water) by letting a bowl with a mixture of selected herbs outdoors all night. This water is used to wash one's face in the morning.
• Rapa das bestas.

• Feasts
• 
  Entroido: Peliqueiros of Laza, Ourense
• 
  Boteiros,Viana do Bolo
• 
  Traditionalfilloas,crepe-like pancakes
• 
  PantallasfromXinzo de Limia
• 
  Carantoñas,Chantada
• 
  San Xoán
• 
  Aloitadores,Rapa das bestas

Traditional costume

Traditional Galician costume, as understood today, got conformed fundamentally during the second half of the 18th century. Notwithstanding, some very characteristic elements, as themonteira(an embroidered felt hat),breechesandjacketare already present in 16th century depictions.Although there are some regional variance, males attire is generally composed ofmonteiraand sometimespano(headcloth),camisa (shirt),chaleco(vest), chaqueta (jacket),faixa(sash),calzón(breeches),cirolas(underwear),polainas(gaiters,spats) andzocas,zocos(clogsorboots).

• Men's traditional costume
• 
  Musicians,c. 1900
• 
  A Galician, 1874
• 
  A bagpiper withmonteira(hat)
• 
  An old man in traditional attire
• 
  Zocas
• 
  Polainas

Female costume was composed ofcofia(coif) or, later,pano(headcloth);dengue(short cape worn as a jacket) orcorpiño(bodice);camisa(shirt),refaixo(petticoat),saia(skirt),mantelo(apron) andfaltriqueira(pouch or bag).

• Women's traditional costume
• 
  Old lady withcofia
• 
  Galician woman with embroideredmanteloand saffronfaldriqueira
• 
  Galician womanbySerafín Avendaño,1891. She's wearing adengue
• 
  Dancing
• 
  Zocos
• 
  At Pontevedra
• 
  Going to the fountainby Alfredo Souto Cuero, 1893.

Traditional music

Muiñeira

Marcha procesional

Muiñeira de Froxán

The most characteristic instrument in traditional music is probably thegaita(bagpipe). The gaita have a conical double-reed chanter, and usually have one to four drones.The bag is usually inflated through a blowpipe, but in thegaita de barquínit is inflated by the operation of a bellows. In the past the gaita was usually accompanied just bytamboril(snare drum) andbomboorcaixa(bass drum), but since the middle of the twentieth century the groups and bands have become very popular. Pieces which are usually interpreted with gaita are themuiñeira,often in⁶
₈time and very similar to Irishjigs;thealborada,played during the early mornings of holydays; themarcha(march) which accompanies processions and retinues. Some renowned compositions are the 19th centuryMuiñeira de Chantadaand the traditionalAires de Pontevedra(an alborada) andMarcha do Antigo Reino de Galicia(March of the Old Kingdom of Galicia).

Another very representative instrument is thepandeireta(tambourine), which along or together with other drums as thepandeiro,castanets,etc., usually accompanied the songs and celebrations of the working women and men during theseráns(evenings),foliadasorfiadas.

Other genres include dealalá,which can be sunga cappella,or thecancións de cego(blindman's songs), interpreted withviolinofzanfoña.

• Galician musics and dancers
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  Bagpiper with agaita de barquínand musicians with apandeiretaandtamboril
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  circa 1900: famous piperO Rilo
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  Bagpiper, 13th century,Cantigas de Santa Maria
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  Dancing amuiñeira
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  1927: Os gaiteiros de Soutelo
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  Musician Faustino Santalices
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  Pandereiteiras de Mens

Literature

Main article:Galician literature

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  Rosalia de Castrowas one of the most representatives authors of theRexurdimento(revival of the Galician language).
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  Eduardo Pondal,considered himself a "bardof freedom ", he imagined aCelticpast of freedom and independence, which he tried to recover forGaliciawith his poetry.
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  Manuel Curros Enríquez,a Galician journalist and writer who was famous for his compromise with theRepublicanismagainst theSpanish Monarchyas well.
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  Manuel Rivaswas born inA Coruña.A famous Galician journalist, writer and poet whose work is the most widely translated in the history of Galician literature.

Painting, plastic arts and architecture

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  PainterLuís Seoane
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  SculptorFrancisco Asorey
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  ArchitectAntonio Palacios

Science

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  Benito Jerónimo Feijóo y Montenegrowas a monk and scholar who wrote a great collection of essays that cover a range of subjects, from natural history and the then known sciences.
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  Martin Sarmiento.He wrote on a wide variety of subjects, includingLiterature,Medicine,Botany,Ethnography,History,Theology,Linguistics,etc.

Music

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  Tanxugueirasare a Galician folk trio formed in 2016. The group aim to bring a modern sound to traditionalGalician musicby merging folk sounds withpopandworld musicinfluences. Their music focuses on themes such as the understanding between peoples, the defence of theGalician languageandculture,andwomen's empowerment.
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  Carlos Núñezis currently one of the most famous Galician bagpipers, who has collaborated with Ry Cooder, Sharon Shannon, Sinéad O'Connor, The Chieftains, Altan among others.
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  Susana Seivaneis a Galician bagpiper. She was born into a family of well-known Galician luthiers and musicians (The Seivane).
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  Carlos Jeanis a DJ and record producer. He was born in Ferrol, of Haitian and Galician heritage.

Sport

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  Francisco Javier Gómez Noya(1983-), former triathlete, Silver in 2012 Summer Olympics.
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  Óscar Pereirois a professional road bicycle racer. Pereiro won the 2006 Tour de France.
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  David Cal Figueroais a Galician sprint canoer who has competed since 1999, he became the athlete with the most Olympic medals of all time in Spain.
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  Ana Peleteirois atriple jumperand the current national record holder. She won the gold medal in the2019 European Athletics Indoor Championships.

Cinema and TV

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  María Castro(1981-) is a well-known Galician actress who performed in several Spanish TV series and movies.
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  Luis Tosarhas starred in some successful Spanish movies such asCelda 211orTe doy mis ojos.
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  Oliver Laxeis a French-born Galician director whose third film,Fire Will Come,became the most watched and most successful Galician film in history.
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  Maria Casarèswas one of the most distinguished stars of the French stage and cinema.
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  Pedro Alonsois best known for his role of Andrés "Berlin" de Fonollosa in the Spanish seriesMoney Heist(La casa de papel).

People of Galician origin

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  Cubanformer leaderFidel Castro
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  Caudilloand dictator of Spain,Francisco Franco
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  Portuguese explorerJoão da Nova
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  American actorMartin Sheen,born Ramón Estévez
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  BrazilianwriterNélida Piñon
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  Argentinianex-presidentRaúl Alfonsín
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  José Alonso y Trelles,Uruguayan poet
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  Laurentino Cortizo Cohen,president of Panama
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  Tabaré Vázquez,ex-president of Uruguay
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  Mariano Rajoy,former Prime Minister of Spain
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  Santiago Casares Quiroga,ORGA's founder and former Prime Minister of Spain
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  George A. Romero,American cinematographer

See also

• List of Galician people
• Galician nationalism
• Fillos de Galicia
• Galician diaspora
• Spanish people
• Nationalities and regions of Spain

External links

• Galician Portal
• A collaborative study of the EDNAP group regarding Y-chromosome binary polymorphism analysis
• Galician language portalArchived5 February 2007 at theWayback Machine
• Galician Music, Culture and History
• Galician Government
• Galician History and Language
• Santiago Tourism
• Page about The Way of St James
• Official page about The Way of St James
• Arquivo do Galego Oral– An archive of records of Galician speakers.
• A Nosa Fala– Sound recordings of the different dialects of the Galician language.