Jump to content

Gar

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about North American freshwater fish of the family Lepisosteidae, not to be confused with marinegarfishorneedlefishof the family Belonidae. For other uses, seeGar (disambiguation).

Gar
Temporal range:Late Jurassic-recent
Spotted gar
(Lepisosteus oculatus)
Scientific classificationEdit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Actinopterygii
Clade: Ginglymodi
Order: Lepisosteiformes
Superfamily: Lepisosteoidea
Family: Lepisosteidae
G. Cuvier,1825
Genera

Garsare an ancient group ofray-finned fishin thefamilyLepisosteidae.They comprise seven living species of fish in two genera that inhabitfresh,brackish,and occasionallymarine watersof easternNorth America,Central AmericaandCubain theCaribbean,[1][2]though extinct members of the family were more widespread. They are the only surviving members of theGinglymodi,a clade of fish which first appeared during theTriassic,over 240 million years ago, and are one of only two surviving groups ofholosteianfish, alongside thebowfins,which have a similar distribution.[3]

Gars have elongated bodies that are heavily armored withganoid scales,[4]and fronted by similarly elongatedjawsfilled with long, sharp teeth. Gars are sometimes referred to as "garpike", but are not closely related topike,which are in the fish familyEsocidae.All of the gars are relatively large fish, but thealligator gar(Atractosteus spatula) is the largest; the alligator gar often grows to a length over 2 m (6.5 ft) and a weight over 45 kg (100 lb),[5]and specimens of up to 3 m (9.8 ft) in length have been reported.[6]Unusually, their vascularisedswim bladderscan function as lungs,[7]and most gars surface periodically to take a gulp of air. Gar flesh is edible and the hard skin and scales of gars are used by humans, but gar eggs are highly toxic.[8][9]

Etymology

[edit]

The name "gar" was originally used for a species ofneedlefish(Belone belone) found in the North Atlantic and likely took its name from theOld Englishword for "spear".[10]Belone beloneis now more commonly referred to as the "garfish" or "gar fish" to avoid confusion with the North American gars of the family Lepisosteidae.[11]Confusingly, the name "garfish" is also commonly used for a number of other species of the related generaStrongylura,Tylosurus,andXenentodonof the familyBelonidae.

ThegenericnameLepisosteuscomes from theGreeklepismeaning "scale" andosteonmeaning "bone".[12]Atractosteusis similarly derived from Greek, in this case fromatraktos,meaningarrow.[13]

Evolution

[edit]

Evolutionary history

[edit]
Atractosteus strausi,anEocenegar from theMesselofGermany
Masillosteus,an Eocene gar fromFossil Butte,Wyoming

Gars are considered to be the only surviving members of theGinglymodi,a group ofbony fishthat flourished in theMesozoic.[14]The oldest known ginglymodians appeared during theMiddle Triassic,over 240 million years ago.[15]Because they have the slowest known rate of molecular evolution among all jawed vertebrates, it has also slowed down their rate of speciation.[16]The closest living relatives of gars are thebowfin,with the gars and bowfin together forming the cladeHolostei;both lineages diverged during theLate Permian.[3]

The closest extinct relatives of gar are theObaichthyidae,an extinct group of gar-like fishes from theEarly Cretaceousof Africa and South America, which likely diverged from the ancestors of true gars during theLate Jurassic.The oldest anatomically modern gar isNhanulepisosteusfrom the Upper Jurassic (Kimmeridgian) ofMexico,around 157 million years old.Nhanulepisosteusinhabited a marine environment unlike modern gars, indicating that gars may have originally been marine fish prior to invading freshwater habitats before the Early Cretaceous.[14][17]Although most succeeding gar fossils are known from freshwater environments, at least some marine gars are known to have persisted into theLate Cretaceous,with the likely marineHerreraichthysknown from Mexico and the definitely marineGrandemarinusknown fromMorocco.[18][19]

Gars diversified inwestern North Americathroughout the Early Cretaceous.AtractosteusandLepisosteushad already diverged by the end of the Early Cretaceous, about 105 million years ago. From western North America, gars dispersed to regions as disparate as Africa, India, South America and Europe, and fossil remains of gars were widespread worldwide by the end of the Cretaceous.[17]

Several different gar genera survived theCretaceous-Paleogene extinction event,although they remained restricted to North America and Europe after this point. One species (Atractosteus grandei,a relative of the modernalligator gar) is the oldest known animal of theCenozoic,with one fossil specimen dated to just a few thousand years after theChicxulub impact,indicating a rapid recovery of freshwater ecosystems. Two short-snouted gar genera,MasillosteusandCuneatus,are known from theEocenein western North America and Europe, but disappear shortly afterwards.LepisosteusandAtractosteusshow a similar initial distribution and eventual contraction, but both genera dispersed toeastern North Americaprior to their disappearance from western North America and Europe, withAtractosteusalso dispersing further south to theNeotropics.Eastern North America has since served as a vitalrefugiumfor gars, withLepisosteusundergoing a diversification throughout it.[17]

Phylogeny

[edit]

The following phylogeny of extant and fossil gar genera was found by Brownsteinet al.(2022):[17]

Lepisosteoidea

†Obaichthyidae

Lepisosteidae

†Nhanulepisosteus

†Cuneatini
Lepisosteini

†Herreraichthys

Atractosteus

†Oniichthys( "Atractosteus"falipoui)

Lepisosteus

A slightly different phylogeny was found by Cooperet al(2023):[19]

Lepisosteoidea

†Obaichthyidae

Lepisosteidae

†Nhanulepisosteus

Masillosteinae

†Masillosteus

Lepisosteinae

Distribution

[edit]
Distribution of living gars

Fossils indicate that gars formerly had a wider distribution, having been found on every continent except Australia and Antarctica.[14]Living gars are confined to North America. The distribution of the gars in North America lies mainly in the shallow,brackishwaters off of Texas, Louisiana, and the eastern coast of Mexico, as well as in some of the rivers and lakes that flow into them.[20][21]A few populations are also present in the Great Lakes region of the United States, living in similar shallow waters.[22]

Anatomy

[edit]
Large gar in an aquarium

Scales

[edit]

Gar bodies are elongated, heavily armored withganoid scales,and fronted by similarly elongatedjawsfilled with long, sharp teeth. Their tails areheterocercal,and thedorsal finsare close to the tail.[23]

Swim bladder

[edit]

As their vascularised swim bladders can function as lungs,[7]most gars surface periodically to take a gulp of air, doing so more frequently in stagnant or warm water when the concentration of oxygen in the water is low. Experiments on the swim bladder has shown that the temperature of the water affects which respiration method the gar will use - aerial or aquatic. They increase the aerial breathing rate (breathing air) as the temperature of the water is increased. Gars can live completely submerged in oxygenated water without access to air and remain healthy while also being able to survive in deoxygenated water if allowed access to air.[24]This adaptation can be the result of environmental pressures and behavioral factors.[25]As a result of this organ, they are extremely resilient and able to tolerate conditions that most other fish could not survive.

Pectoral girdle

[edit]
Medial and lateral view of Lepisosteidae pectoral girdle

The gar has paired pectoral fins and pelvic fins, as well as an anal fin, a caudal fin, and a dorsal fin.[26]The bone structures within the fins are important to study as they can showhomologythroughout the fossil record. Specifically, the pelvic girdle resembles that of otheractinopterygianswhile still having some of its own characteristics. Gars have a postcleithrun - which is a bone that is lateral to the scapula, but do not have postpectorals. Proximally to the postcleithrum, the supracleithrum is important as it plays a critical role in opening the gar's jaws. This structure has a unique internal coracoid lamina only present in the gar species. Near the supracleithrum is the posttemporal bone, which is significantly smaller than other actinopterygians. Gars also have no clavicle bone, although elongated plates have been observed within the area.[27]

Morphology

[edit]
Fin chart for shortnose gar

All the gars are relatively large fish, but thealligator gar(Atractosteus spatula) is the largest. The largest alligator gar ever caught and officially recorded was 8 ft 5 in (2.6 m) long, weighed 327 lb (148 kg), and was 47 in (120 cm) around the girth.[28]Even the smaller species, such asLepisosteus oculatus,are large, commonly reaching lengths of over 60 cm (2.0 ft), and sometimes much longer.[29]

Ecology

[edit]

Gars tend to be slow-moving fish except when striking at their prey. They prefer the shallow and weedy areas of rivers, lakes, andbayous,often congregating in small groups.[1]They are voracious predators, catching their prey in their needle-like teeth with a sideways strike of the head.[29]They feed extensively on smaller fish and invertebrates such as crabs.[6]Gars are found across much of the eastern portion of North America.[1]Although gars are found primarily in freshwater habitats, several species enterbrackishwaters and a few, most notablyAtractosteus tristoechus,are sometimes found in the sea. Some gars travel from lakes and rivers through sewers to get to ponds.[1][30]

Species and identification

[edit]

The gar family contains seven extant species, in two genera:[7]

Cladogram of living gars[31]
Lepisosteidae

FamilyLepisosteidae

Alligator gar

[edit]
Main article:Alligator gar
Alligator gar(Atractosteus spatula)

The largest member of the gar family, the alligator gar(Atractosteus spatula), can measure up to 10 feet long and weigh over 300 pounds.[34][35]Its body and snout are wide and stocky, and it was named "alligator gar" because locals often mistook it for analligator.[34][36]The species can be found inTexas,Oklahoma,Louisiana,theMississippi River,Ohio,theMissouri river,and the southern drainages intoMexico.[35][36]Its habitat consists of lakes and bays with slow currents.[35]The gars grow rapidly when young and continue to grow at a slower rate after reaching adulthood.[37]They are deep green or yellow in color.[35][36]Recreational fishing of the alligator gar became popular due to its massive size and its meat is sold for food.[38]Over five decades of overfishing have brought it close to extinction,[36][37]and man-made dams have contributed to this loss by restricting the gar's access to the flood plain areas in which it spawns.[38]Some U.S. states have enacted laws to combat overfishing, and reintroduction programs are being carried out in some states, such asIllinois,where human activity has extirpated the gar.[36][37]Before being released, each gar must meet a length requirement to ensure that it has the best chance of survival in the wild.[39]Some states, such asTexas,restrict the number of gar that may be caught in a day, the season in which they may be caught, and the equipment anglers may use to catch them. Some states also impose a minimum length requirement to prevent gar from being caught at too early an age.[40]Scientists have found that the alligator gar can help maintain ecosystem balance by eating invasive species such as the Asian carp, and their success in a particular area can show scientists that area may also make a suitable habitat for other migratory species.[41]

Florida gar

[edit]
Main article:Florida gar
Lepisosteus platyrhincus

The Florida gar(Lepisosteus platyrhincus) can be found in theOcklockonee river,Florida,andGeorgia,[42][43]and prefers muddy or sandy bottoms with bountiful vegetation.[42][44]It is commonly confused with its cousin, thespotted gar.[42]Uneven black spots cover its head, body, and fins.[42][43]Green-brown scales run along the back of its body, and the scales on its underbelly are white or yellow.[42][45]This coloration, which blends well with the gar's surroundings, allows it to ambush its prey.[42][45]The Florida gar has noganoid scaleson its throat.[42]Female Florida gars grow to lengths between 13 and 34 inches, bigger than their male counterparts.[42][45]

Spotted gar

[edit]
Main article:Spotted gar
Spotted gar (Lepisosteus oculatus)

The spotted gar(Lepisosteus oculatus)is a smaller species of gar,[34]measuring just under four feet long and weighing 15 pounds on average.[34]Like Florida gars, female spotted gars are typically larger than male spotted gars.[46]This gar has dark spots covering its head, body, and fins.[34]Its body is compact, and it has a shorter snout.[34]It prefers to live in clearer shallow water with a depth of 3–5 meters,[41]and to surround itself in foliage.[44][46]Its habitat ranges from the waters ofLake Michigan,theLake Erie Basin,theMississippi River System,andriver drainagesalong the northern coast of theGulf of Mexicofrom theNueces RiverinTexaseast to the lowerApalachicola RiverinFlorida.[46][47]It shares its habitat with thealligator gar,its main predator. These smaller gar live an average of 18 years.[46]

Shortnose gar

[edit]
Main article:Shortnose gar
Shortnose gar (Lepisosteus platostomus)

The shortnose gar (Lepisosteus platostomus)is found in theMississippi River Basin,Indiana,Wisconsin,Montana,Alabama,andLouisiana.[48]It prefers to live in lakes, swamps, and calm pools.[44][48]The shortnose gar takes its name from its snout, which is shorter and broader than that of other gar species.[34][48]Like thelongnose gar,it has one row of teeth. The upper jaw is longer than the rest of its head.[48]The shortnose gar is deep green or brown in color, similar to thealligator gar.[34][48]Depending on the clarity of water, spots can be present on thecaudal,dorsal,andanal fins.[48]The shortnose gar has a lifespan of 20 years, reaches up to 5 pounds in weight,[49]and grows to lengths of 24–35 inches.[47][49]It consumes moreinvertebratesthan any other gar,[48]and their stomachs have been found to contain higherAsian carpcontent than any other native North American fish.[41]

Longnose gar

[edit]
Main article:Longnose gar
Longnose gar(Lepisosteus osseus)

The Longnose gar(Lepisosteus osseus)has a longer, narrower, more cylindrical body,[34][50]and can be distinguished from other species of gar by its snout, which is more than twice the length of the rest of its head.[51][52]It can reach up to 6 feet and 8 inches in length and weigh up to 35–80 pounds.[34][51]Like the shortnose gar, it has only a single row of teeth.[51][52]Unlike its relatives, it enters brackish water from time to time.[44][51]Females are larger and live longer than the male longnose gar.[50][51]Females live 22 years, and males about half as long.[51]There are spots on the head,dorsal,anal,andcaudal fins.[34][51][53]Depending on thewater clarity,the longnose gar comes in two colors.[51]In clear water, they're a dark deep green color. In muddy waters, it is more brown in color.[51]Edges of theganoid scalesand in between are black.[51][53]These types of gar are occasionally fished by locals, and blamed for eating other fish in the rivers.[50][51]The longnose gar has a large range of territory inNorth America,into theGulf of Mexico.[51][53]Located inFlorida,Quebec,allGreat LakesexceptLake Superior,Missouri,Mississippi,Texas,andnorthern Mexico.[51][54]

Roe

[edit]

The flesh of gar is edible, but itseggscontain anichthyotoxin,a type ofprotein toxinwhich is highly toxic to humans.[55][56]The protein can be denatured when brought to a temperature of 120 degrees Celsius,[57]but as the roe's temperature does not typically reach that level when it is cooked, even cooked roe causes severe symptoms. It was once thought that the production of the toxin in gar roe was an evolutionary adaptation to provide protection for the eggs, butbluegillsandchannel catfishfed gar eggs in experiments remained healthy, even though they are the natural predators of the gar eggs.Crayfishfed the roe were not immune to the toxin, and most died. The roe's toxicities to humans and crayfish may be coincidences, however, and not the result of explicit natural selection.[55]

A gar leaps out of the water.

Significance to humans

[edit]

Several species are traded as aquarium fish.[29]The hard ganoid scales of gars are sometimes used to make jewelry whereas the tough skin is used to make such items as lamp shades. Historically, Native Americans used gar scales as arrowheads, native Caribbeans used the skin for breastplates, and early American pioneers covered the blades of their plows with gar skin.[58]It is suspected that gars have an unusually strong DNA repair apparatus. If confirmed by further studies, it could be used in medical treatments against human diseases like cancer.[59]

Not much is known about the precise function of the gar in Native American religion and culture other than the ritual "garfish dances" that have been performed byCreekandChickasawtribes.[60]

References

[edit]
  1. ^abcd"Family Lepisosteidae - Gars".Retrieved2007-04-21.
  2. ^Sterba, G: Freshwater Fishes of the World, p. 609, Vista Books, 1962
  3. ^abLópez-Arbarello, Adriana; Sferco, Emilia (March 2018)."Neopterygian phylogeny: the merger assay".Royal Society Open Science.5(3): 172337.Bibcode:2018RSOS....572337L.doi:10.1098/rsos.172337.ISSN2054-5703.PMC5882744.PMID29657820.
  4. ^Sherman, Vincent R.; Yaraghi, Nicholas A.; Kisailus, David; Meyers, Marc A. (2016-12-01)."Microstructural and geometric influences in the protective scales of Atractosteus spatula".Journal of the Royal Society Interface.13(125): 20160595.doi:10.1098/rsif.2016.0595.ISSN1742-5689.PMC5221522.PMID27974575.
  5. ^"Atractosteus spatula".Florida Museum of Natural History.Retrieved2016-04-21.
  6. ^ab"Atractosteus spatula - Alligator gar".Retrieved2007-07-19.
  7. ^abcFroese, Rainer;Pauly, Daniel (eds.)."Family Lepisosteidae".FishBase.January 2009 version.
  8. ^"Did You Know That Gar Eggs Make You Sick?".22 April 2010.
  9. ^"Gar eggs are toxic".22 April 2010.
  10. ^"Gar".Retrieved2007-04-21.
  11. ^"Common Names of Belone belone".Archived fromthe originalon 2007-10-19.Retrieved2007-04-21.
  12. ^"Genera reference detail".Retrieved2007-04-21.
  13. ^"Genera reference detail".Archived fromthe originalon 2016-10-06.Retrieved2016-02-21.
  14. ^abcPaulo M. Brito; Jésus Alvarado-Ortega; François J. Meunier (2017)."Earliest known lepisosteoid extends the range of anatomically modern gars to the Late Jurassic".Scientific Reports.7(1): Article number 17830.Bibcode:2017NatSR...717830B.doi:10.1038/s41598-017-17984-w.PMC5736718.PMID29259200.
  15. ^Romano, Carlo (2021)."A Hiatus Obscures the Early Evolution of Modern Lineages of Bony Fishes".Frontiers in Earth Science.8:672.doi:10.3389/feart.2020.618853.ISSN2296-6463.
  16. ^The genomic signatures of evolutionary stasis
  17. ^abcdBrownstein, Chase Doran; Yang, Liandong; Friedman, Matt; Near, Thomas J. (20 December 2022)."Phylogenomics of the Ancient and Species-Depauperate Gars Tracks 150 Million Years of Continental Fragmentation in the Northern Hemisphere".Systematic Biology.72(1): 213–227.doi:10.1093/sysbio/syac080.PMID36537110.Retrieved2023-06-05.
  18. ^Alvarado-Ortega, Jesús; Brito, Paulo M.; Porras-Múzquiz, Héctor Gerardo; Mújica-Monroy, Irene Heidi (2016-01-01)."A Late Cretaceous marine long snout" pejelagarto "fish (Lepisosteidae, Lepisosteini) from Múzquiz, Coahuila, northeastern Mexico".Cretaceous Research.57:19–28.Bibcode:2016CrRes..57...19A.doi:10.1016/j.cretres.2015.07.009.ISSN0195-6671.
  19. ^abCooper, S. L. A.; Gunn, J.; Brito, P. M.; Zouhri, S.; Martill, D. M. (2023)."A new fully marine, short-snouted lepisosteid gar from the Upper Cretaceous (Turonian) of North Africa".Cretaceous Research.151:105650.Bibcode:2023CrRes.15105650C.doi:10.1016/j.cretres.2023.105650.
  20. ^"Atractosteus spatula:: Florida Museum of Natural History".floridamuseum.ufl.edu.2017-05-10.Retrieved2018-05-11.
  21. ^"Lepisosteus oculatus (Spotted gar)".Animal Diversity Web.Retrieved2018-05-11.
  22. ^"Spotted Gar (Lepisosteus oculatus) - Species Profile".nas.er.usgs.gov.Retrieved2018-05-11.
  23. ^Wiley, Edward G. (1998). Paxton, J.R.; Eschmeyer, W.N. (eds.).Encyclopedia of Fishes.San Diego: Academic Press. pp. 78–79.ISBN0-12-547665-5.
  24. ^Renfro, Larry; Hill, Loren (1970). "Factors Influencing the Aerial Breathing and Metabolism of Gars (Lepisosteus)".The Southwestern Naturalist.15(1): 45–54.doi:10.2307/3670201.JSTOR3670201.
  25. ^Hill, Loren (1972). "Social Aspects of Aerial Respiration of Young Gars (Lepisosteus)".The Southwestern Naturalist.16(3): 239–247.doi:10.2307/3670060.JSTOR3670060.
  26. ^Becker, George (1983)."Fishes of Wisconsin"(PDF):239–248.{{cite journal}}:Cite journal requires|journal=(help)
  27. ^Malcolm, Jollie (1984). "Development of Cranial and Pectoral Girdle Bones of Lepisosteus with a Note on Scales".Copeia.1984(2). American Society of Ichthyologists and Herpetologists (ASIH): 476–502.doi:10.2307/1445204.JSTOR1445204.
  28. ^"Alligator Gar (Atractosteus spatula)".Texas Parks & Wildlife Department.RetrievedMarch 8,2016.
  29. ^abcKodera H.et al.:Jurassic Fishes. TFH, 1994,ISBN0-7938-0086-2[page needed]
  30. ^Monks N. (editor): Brackish Water Fishes, pp 322–324. TFH 2006,ISBN0-7938-0564-3
  31. ^Jeremy J. Wright, Solomon R. David, Thomas J. Near:Gene trees, species trees, and morphology converge on a similar phylogeny of living gars (Actinopterygii: Holostei: Lepisosteidae), an ancient clade of ray-finned fishes.Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 63 (2012) 848–856PDF
  32. ^Cavin, Lionel; Martin, Michel; Valentin, Xavier (1996). "Occurrence ofAtractosteus africanus(actinopterygii, lepisosteidae) in the early Campanien of Ventabren (Bouches-du-Rhône, France). Paleobiogeographical implications ".Revue de Paléobiologie.15(1): 1–7.
  33. ^Prostak, Sergio (2022-08-16)."Newly-Discovered Giant Gar Species Survived Dinosaur Extinction | Sci.News".Sci.News: Breaking Science News.Retrieved2022-08-16.
  34. ^abcdefghijk"How to Identify Alligator Gar".tpwd.texas.gov.Retrieved2019-07-20.
  35. ^abcd"Atractosteus spatula summary page".FishBase.Retrieved2019-07-26.
  36. ^abcde"Alligator Gars, Alligator Gar Pictures, Alligator Gar Facts".National Geographic.2009-12-15. Archived fromthe originalon October 3, 2018.Retrieved2019-07-24.
  37. ^abc"Alligator Gar (Atractosteus spatula)".tpwd.texas.gov.Retrieved2019-07-26.
  38. ^ab"Alligator Gar".U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.
  39. ^"Fishing in Illinois".ifishillinois.org.Retrieved2019-08-03.
  40. ^"Who Fishes for Alligator Gar?".tpwd.texas.gov.Retrieved2019-08-03.
  41. ^abc"Conservation of Ancient Fishes: Reintroducing the Alligator Gar; and What About Those Carp?".National Geographic Society Newsroom.2016-08-08. Archived fromthe originalon January 8, 2018.Retrieved2019-08-03.
  42. ^abcdefgh"Lepisosteus platyrhincus".Florida Museum.2017-05-10.Retrieved2019-07-24.
  43. ^ab"Florida Gar".Florida Fish And Wildlife Conservation Commission.Archived fromthe originalon 2019-08-03.Retrieved2019-08-03.
  44. ^abcd"FAMILY Details for Lepisosteidae - Gars".fishbase.in.Retrieved2019-07-26.
  45. ^abc"Toronto Zoo | Florida gar".torontozoo.Retrieved2019-08-03.
  46. ^abcdGivinsky, Lana Hall; Thomas Meade; Drew Paulette; Josh Albert; Stephanie."Lepisosteus oculatus (Spotted gar)".Animal Diversity Web.Retrieved2019-07-24.{{cite web}}:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  47. ^ab"Spotted Gar (Lepisosteus oculatus) - Species Profile".nas.er.usgs.gov.Retrieved2019-07-26.
  48. ^abcdefgBradburn, Mark."Lepisosteus platostomus (Shortnose gar)".Animal Diversity Web.Retrieved2019-07-24.
  49. ^ab"Lepisosteus platostomus summary page".FishBase.Retrieved2019-07-24.
  50. ^abc"Longnose Gar | Chesapeake Bay Program".chesapeakebay.net.Archived fromthe originalon 2022-03-23.Retrieved2019-07-26.
  51. ^abcdefghijklm"Lepisosteus osseus".Florida Museum.2017-05-10.Retrieved2019-07-24.
  52. ^ab"Gar - NYS Dept. of Environmental Conservation".dec.ny.gov.Archived fromthe originalon 2019-08-03.Retrieved2019-08-03.
  53. ^abc"National Aquarium | Longnose Gar".National Aquarium.Archived fromthe originalon 2019-08-03.Retrieved2019-08-03.
  54. ^"Longnose Gar".MDC Discover Nature.Retrieved2019-08-03.
  55. ^abOstrand, Kenneth G.; Thies, Monte L.; Hall, Darrell D.; Carpenter, Mark (1996). "Gar ichthyootoxin: Its effect on natural predators and the toxin's evolutionary function".The Southwestern Naturalist.41(4): 375–377.JSTOR30055193.
  56. ^"Gar".Environment.nationalgeographic. Archived fromthe originalon January 9, 2011.Retrieved29 May2011.
  57. ^Fuhrman, Frederick A.; Fuhrman, Geraldine J.; Dull, David L.; Mosher, Harry S. (1969-05-01). "Toxins from eggs of fishes and amphibia".Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry.17(3): 417–424.doi:10.1021/jf60163a043.ISSN0021-8561.
  58. ^Burton, Maurice; Robert Burton (2002).The international wildlife encyclopedia, Volume 9.Marshall Cavendish. p. 929.ISBN978-0-7614-7266-7.Retrieved18 July2010.
  59. ^Ancient Fish Boast Slowest Molecular Evolution Among Jawed Vertebrates
  60. ^Spitzer, Mark (2010).Season of the Gar: Adventures in Pursuit of America's Most Misunderstood Fish.U of Arkansas P. pp. 118–19.ISBN978-1-55728-929-2.
[edit]
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gar&oldid=1225376813"