Garter snake
Garter snake | |
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Theeastern garter snake (Thamnophis sirtalis sirtalis) | |
Scientific classification![]() | |
Domain: | Eukaryota |
Kingdom: | Animalia |
Phylum: | Chordata |
Class: | Reptilia |
Order: | Squamata |
Suborder: | Serpentes |
Family: | Colubridae |
Subfamily: | Natricinae |
Genus: | Thamnophis Fitzinger,1843 |
Species | |
35, seetext | |
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Thamnophisdistribution | |
Synonyms[1] | |
Atomarchus,Chilopoma,Eutaenia,Eutainia,Phamnovis,Prymnomiodon,Stypocemus,Tropidonote,Tropidonotus |
Garter snakeis thecommon namefor small to medium-sizedsnakesbelonging to thegenusThamnophisin thefamilyColubridae.They are native toNorthandCentral America,ranging from centralCanadain the north toCosta Ricain the south.
With about 35 recognized species and subspecies, garter snakes are highly variable in appearance; generally, they have large round eyes with rounded pupils, a slender build, keeled scales (appearing ‘raised’), and a pattern of longitudinal stripes that may or may not include spots (although some have no stripes at all). Certain subspecies have stripes of blue, yellow, or red, mixed with black tops and beige-tan underbelly markings. They also vary significantly in total length, from 18 to 51 in (46 to 130 cm).
With no real consensus on the classification of the species ofThamnophis,disagreements betweentaxonomistsand disputed sources (such as field guides) are common. One area of debate, for example, is whether or not two specific types of snake are separate species, orsubspeciesof the same. Garter snakes are closely related to the genusNerodia(water snakes), with some species having been moved back and forth between genera.
Taxonomy
[edit]The first garter snake to be scientifically described was theeastern garter snake(nowThamnophis sirtalis sirtalis), by zoologist and taxonomistCarl Linnaeusin 1758. The genusThamnophiswas described byLeopold Fitzingerin 1843 as the genus for the garter snakes and ribbon snakes.[2]Many snakes previously identified as their own genera or species have been reclassified as species or subspecies inThamnophis.TheReptile Databasecurrently recognised 37 species in the genus, some with several subspecies.[3]
Distribution and habitat
[edit]Native toNorthandCentral America,speciesin the genusThamnophiscan be found in all of thelower 48 United States,and all of the Canadian provinces. They are found from thesubarcticplains of west-centralCanadaeast throughOntarioandQuebec;fromAtlantic Canadaand south toFlorida,across the southern and central U.S. into the arid regions of the southwest andMexico,Guatemalaand south to the neotropics andCosta Rica.
Garter snakes are not originally native to the eastern Canadian island ofNewfoundland,but have been breeding there in the wild and gradually spreading since at least 2010. It is unknown how they reached the island, probably accidentally viahayshipments or as escaped pets.[4][5]
Their wide distribution is due to their varied diets and adaptability to different habitats, with varying proximity to water. However, in the western part of North America these snakes are more aquatic than in the eastern portion. Garter snakes live in a variety of habitats, including forests, woodlands, fields, grasslands and lawns, but never far from water, often an adjacent wetland, stream or pond. This reflects the fact that amphibians are a large part of their diet. Garter snakes are often found near small ponds with tall weeds.
Behavior
[edit]![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Garter_snake_tooth.jpg/220px-Garter_snake_tooth.jpg)
Garter snakes have complexpheromonalcommunication systems. They can find other snakes by following their pheromone-scented trails. Male and female skin pheromones are so different as to be immediately distinguishable. However, male garter snakes sometimes produce both male and female pheromones. During the mating season, this ability fools other males into attempting to mate with them. This causes the transfer of heat to them inkleptothermy,which is an advantage immediately afterhibernation,allowing them to become more active.[6]Male snakes giving off both male and female pheromones have been shown to garner more copulations than normal males in themating ballsthat form at the den when females enter the mating melee. A snake hatch can include as many as 57 young.[7]
Garter snakes use thevomeronasal organto communicate via pheromones through tongue flicking, which gathers chemical cues in the environment. Upon entering thelumenof the organ, the chemical molecules will come into contact with the sensory cells, which are attached to the neurosensory epithelium of the vomeronasal organ.[citation needed]
If disturbed, a garter snake may coil and strike, but it typically hides its head and flails its tail. These snakes will also discharge a malodorous, musky-scented secretion from a gland near thecloaca.This secretion from North American garter snakes contains seven highly odoriferous volatile components:acetic,propanoic,2-methylpropanoic,butanoic,and3-methylbutanoicacids; andtrimethylamine,and2-piperidone.[8]They often use these techniques to escape when ensnared by a predator. They will also slither into the water to escape a predator on land.Hawks,crows,egrets,herons,cranes,raccoons,ottersand other snake species (such ascoral snakesandkingsnakes) will eat garter snakes, with evenshrewsandfrogseating the juveniles.
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Garter_Snake_Scales.tif/lossy-page1-220px-Garter_Snake_Scales.tif.jpg)
Beingheterothermic,like allreptiles,garter snakes bask in the sun to regulate their body temperature. Duringbrumation(the reptile equivalent of hibernation), garter snakes typically occupy large communal sites calledhibernacula.These snakes will migrate large distances tobrumate.
Social behavior
[edit]A long-term study by theOntario Ministry of Transportationhas shed light on the social behavior of Butler's garter snakes. The study, conducted in a 250-hectare area nearWindsor, Canada,tracked over 3,000 individual snakes over a 12-year period. The findings challenge previous assumptions about solitary snake behavior and suggest that these snakes form social groups and communities. The study revealed that Butler's garter snakes do not wander randomly but instead tend to associate with specific groups of snakes. These groups typically consist of three to four individuals, with some larger groups reaching up to 46 snakes.[9][10]
Diet
[edit]![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Garter_swallowing_frog.jpg/220px-Garter_swallowing_frog.jpg)
Garter snakes, like all snakes, are carnivorous. Their diet consists of almost any creature they are capable of overpowering:slugs,earthworms(nightcrawlers,asredwormsare toxic to garter snakes),leeches,lizards,amphibians(includingfrogeggs),minnows,androdents.When living near water, they eat other aquatic animals. Theribbon snake(Thamnophis saurita) in particular favorsfrogs(includingtadpoles), readily eating them despite their strong chemical defenses. Food is swallowed whole. Garter snakes often adapt to eating whatever they can find and whenever they can find it because food can be either scarce or abundant. Although they feed mostly on liveanimalsthey will sometimes eat eggs.[11]
Venom
[edit]Garter snakes were long thought to be non-venomous,but discoveries in the early 2000s revealed that they produce a neurotoxic venom.[12]Despite this, garter snakes cannot seriously injure or kill humans with the small amounts of comparatively mild venom they produce and they also lack an effective means of delivering it. In a few cases, some swelling and bruising has been reported.[13]They do have enlarged teeth in the back of their mouth[14]but their gums are significantly larger and the secretions of theirDuvernoy's glandare only mildly toxic.[13][15]
Evidence suggests that garter snake andnewtpopulations share an evolutionary link in theirtetrodotoxinresistance levels, implyingco-evolutionbetween predator and prey.[16]Garter snakes feeding on toxic newts can also retain those toxins in their liver for weeks, making those snakes poisonous as well as venomous.[17]
Conservation status
[edit]![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Mating_ball_of_garter_snakes.jpg/220px-Mating_ball_of_garter_snakes.jpg)
Despite the decline in their population from collection as pets (especially in the more northerly regions, in which large groups are collected at hibernation),[18]pollution of aquatic areas, and the introduction ofAmerican bullfrogsas potential predators, garter snakes are still some of the most commonly found reptiles in much of their ranges. The San Francisco garter snake (Thamnophis sirtalis tetrataenia), however, has been on the endangered list since 1969. Predation bycrayfishhas also been responsible for the decline of thenarrow-headed garter snake(Thamnophis rufipunctatus).[19]Many breeders have bred all species of garter snakes, making it a popular breed.
Species and subspecies
[edit]Arranged Alpha betically by scientific name:
Image | Name | Subspecies | Distribution |
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Aquatic garter snake,Thamnophis atratus(Kennicott,1860) |
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coast of Oregon and California. |
Bogert's garter snake,Thamnophis bogertiRossman&Burbrink,2005 | Oaxaca, Mexico | ||
Shorthead garter snake,Thamnophis brachystoma(Cope,1892) | northwestern Pennsylvania and southwestern New York. | ||
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Butler's garter snake,Thamnophis butleri(Cope, 1889) | northwestern Ohio, northeastern Indiana, the eastern portion of the Lower Peninsula of Michigan, and the adjacent extreme southern tip of Ontario, Canada. | |
Goldenhead garter snake,Thamnophis chrysocephalus(Cope, 1885) | Mexico. | ||
Conant's garter snake,Thamnophis conantiRossman & Burbrink, 2005 | Puebla and Veracruz, Mexico. | ||
Cope's mountain meadow snake,Thamnophis copeiDugès,1879 | Mexico. | ||
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Sierra garter snake,Thamnophis couchii(Kennicott, 1859) | California and Oregon in the United States | |
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Blackneck garter snake,Thamnophis cyrtopsis(Kennicott, 1860) |
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southwestern United States, Mexico and Guatemala |
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Western terrestrial garter snake,Thamnophis elegans(Baird&Girard,1853) |
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central British Columbia, central Alberta, and southwestern Manitoba in Canada, central United States |
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Mexican garter snake,Thamnophis eques(Reuss,1834) |
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Mexico and in the United States (Arizona and New Mexico). |
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Mexican wandering garter snake,Thamnophis erransH. M. Smith,1942 | Chihuahua, Durango, Jalisco, Nayarit, and Zacatecas States of Mexico. | |
Montane garter snake,Thamnophis exsulRossman, 1969 | Mexico. | ||
Fox's mountain meadow snake,Thamnophis foxiRossman&Blaney,1968 | Mexico. | ||
Highland garter snake,Thamnophis fulvus(Bocourt,1893) | Mexico, Guatemala, Honduras and El Salvador. | ||
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Giant garter snake,Thamnophis gigasFitch,1940 | central California. | |
Godman's garter snake,[20]Thamnophis godmani(Günther,1894) | southern Mexico | ||
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Two-striped garter snake,Thamnophis hammondii(Kennicott, 1860) | central California to Baja California, Mexico | |
Liner's garter snake,Thamnophis lineri[21]Rossman & Burbrink, 2005 | Mexico. | ||
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Checkered garter snake,Thamnophis marcianus(Baird & Girard, 1853) |
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southwestern United States, Mexico, and Central America. |
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Blackbelly garter snake,Thamnophis melanogaster(Peters,1864) |
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Mexico. |
Tamaulipan montane garter snake,Thamnophis mendaxWalker,1955 | Mexico. | ||
Southern Durango spotted garter snake,Thamnophis nigronuchalisThompson, 1957 | Durango, Mexico. | ||
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Northwestern garter snake,Thamnophis ordinoides(Baird & Girard, 1852) | California, Oregon, and Washington; in Canada, it is found in British Columbia | |
Tepalcatepec Valley garter snake,Thamnophis postremusSmith,1942 | Mexico. | ||
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Western ribbon snake,Thamnophis proximus(Say,1823) |
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western United States, Mexico, and Central America |
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Yellow-throated garter snake,Thamnophis pulchrilatus(Cope,1885) | Mexico. | |
Plains garter snake,Thamnophis radix(Baird & Girard, 1853) | central United States as far north as Canada and as far south as Texas. | ||
Rossman's garter snake,Thamnophis rossmaniConant, 2000 | Mexico. | ||
Narrow-headed garter snake,Thamnophis rufipunctatus(Cope, 1875) | Arizona and New Mexico, and in the Mexican states of Sonora, Chihuahua and Durango | ||
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Ribbon snake,Thamnophis saurita(Linnaeus,1766) |
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Eastern North America |
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Longtail alpine garter snake,Thamnophis scalaris(Cope, 1861) | Mexico. | |
Short-tail alpine garter snake,Thamnophis scaliger(Jan, 1863) | Mexico. | ||
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Common garter snake,Thamnophis sirtalis(Linnaeus,1758) |
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North America |
Sumichrast's garter snake,Thamnophis sumichrasti(Cope, 1866) | Mexico. | ||
Madrean narrow-headed garter snake,Thamnophis unilabialisW. Tanner, 1985 | Mexico. | ||
West Coast garter snake,Thamnophis validus(Kennicott,1860) |
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Mexico. |
In the above list, abinomial authorityor atrinomial authorityin parentheses indicates that the species or subspecies was originally described in a genus other thanThamnophis.
See also
[edit]- Narcisse Snake Dens
- List of snakes,overview of all snake families and genera
References
[edit]- ^Wright AH,Wright AA (1957).Handbook of Snakes of the United States and Canada.Ithaca and London: Comstock Publishing Associates, a division of Cornell University Press. 1,105 pp. (in 2 volumes). (Thamnophis,p. 755).
- ^"ITIS Standard Report Page: Thamnophis".itis.gov.Retrieved2019-07-06.
- ^Uetz, P.; Freed, P.; Hošek, J. (eds.)."Species in genusThamnophis".The Reptile Database.Retrieved1 July2024.
- ^CBC News, "Think there aren't any snakes in Newfoundland? Think again",June 25, 2024. Accessed on June 27, 2024.
- ^Nature Conservancy Canada, "Snakes, saints and sightings: What you can do to help uncover the mystery of gartersnakes in Newfoundland".Accessed on June 27, 2024.
- ^Shine, R;Phillips, B; Waye, H; LeMaster, M; Mason, RT (2001)."Benefits of female mimicry to snakes".Nature.414(6861): 267.Bibcode:2001Natur.414..267S.doi:10.1038/35104687.PMID11713516.S2CID205023381.
- ^"Garter Snake facts".
- ^Wood, William F.; Parker, Joshua M.; Weldon, Paul J. (1995). "Volatile Components in Scent Gland Secretions of Garter Snakes (Thamnophis sp.)".J. Chemical Ecology.21:213–219.doi:10.1007/BF02036652.
- ^Howlett, Joseph (2023-12-15)."Garter snakes make friends, organize their society around females".Science.Retrieved2023-12-19.
- ^Skinner, Morgan; Miller, Noam (2020-04-15)."Aggregation and social interaction in garter snakes (Thamnophis sirtalis sirtalis)".Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology.74(5): 51.doi:10.1007/s00265-020-2827-0.ISSN1432-0762.
- ^"Garter Snake Care Sheet".Thamnophis.
- ^Zimmer, Carl (April 5, 2005)."Open Wide: Decoding the Secrets of Venom".The New York Times.
- ^abSmith, Michael (September 2001)."Duverney's Glands and" Warm "Herping".Cross Timbers Herpetologist.Dallas-Fort Worth Herpetological Society – via Melissa Kaplan's Herp Care Collection.
- ^Wright, Debra L.; Kardong, Kenneth V.; Bentley, David L. (1979). "The Functional Anatomy of the Teeth of the Western Terrestrial Garter Snake,Thamnophis elegans".Herpetologica.35(3): 223–228.JSTOR3891690.
- ^de Queiroz, Alan (September 27, 2010)."Garter Snakes".Online Nevada Encyclopedia.Nevada Humanities. Archived fromthe originalon February 18, 2017.RetrievedDecember 29,2016.
- ^Williams, Becky L.; Brodie, Edmund D. Jr.; Brodie, Edmund D. III (2003). "Coevolution of Deadly Toxins and Predator Resistance: Self-Assessment of Resistance by Garter Snakes Leads to Behavioral Rejection of Toxic Newt Prey".Herpetologica.59(2): 155–163.doi:10.1655/0018-0831(2003)059[0155:codtap]2.0.co;2.S2CID18028592.
- ^Williams, Becky L.; Brodie, Edmund D. Jr.; Brodie, Edmund D. III (2004). "A resistant predator and its toxic prey: persistence of newt toxin leads to poisonous (not venomous) snakes".Journal of Chemical Ecology.30(10): 1901–1919.doi:10.1023/B:JOEC.0000045585.77875.09.PMID15609827.S2CID14274035.
- ^Zimmerman R (2013)."Thamnophis sirtalis".Kids' Inquiry of Diverse Species.Animal Diversity Web.RetrievedNovember 5,2016.
- ^Hammerson GA (2007)."Thamnophis rufipunctatus".IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.2007:e.T63990A12727179.doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2007.RLTS.T63990A12727179.en.
- ^Beolens, Bo; Watkins, Michael; Grayson, Michael (2011).The Eponym Dictionary of Reptiles.Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. xiii + 296 pp.ISBN978-1-4214-0135-5.(Thamnophis godmani,p. 102).
- ^Thamnophis lineri.The Reptile Database.http:// reptile-database.org.
Further reading
[edit]- Conant R(1975).A Field Guide to Reptiles and Amphibians of Eastern and Central North America, Second Edition.Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company. xviii + 429 pp. + Plates 1-48.ISBN978-0-395-19979-4(hardcover),ISBN978-0-395-19977-0(paperback). (GenusThamnophis,p. 157).
- Fitzinger L(1843).Systema Reptilium, Fasciculus Primus, Amblyglossae.Vienna: Braumüller & Seidel. 106 pp. + indices. (Thamnophis,new genus, p. 26). (in Latin).
- Goin, Coleman J.,Goin, Olive B.;Zug, George R.(1978).Introduction to Herpetology, Third Edition.San Francisco: W.H. Freeman and Company. xi + 378 pp.ISBN978-0-7167-0020-3.(Thamnophis,pp. 132, 156, 326).
- Powell R,Conant R,Collins JT(2016).Peterson Field Guide to Reptiles and Amphibians of Eastern and Central North America, Fourth Edition.Boston and New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. xiv + 494 pp., 47 plates, 207 figures.ISBN978-0-544-12997-9.(GenusThamnophis,p. 426).
- Ruthven AG(1908). "Variation and Genetic Relationships of the Garter-snakes".Bulletin of the United States National Museum61:1–201, 82 figures.
- Schmidt, Karl P.;Davis, D. Dwight (1941).Field Book of Snakes of the United States and Canada.New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons. 365 pp., 34 plates, 103 figures. (GenusThamnophis,p. 236).
- Stebbins RC(2003).A Field Guide to Western Reptiles and Amphibians, Third Edition.The Peterson Field Guide Series. Boston and New York: Houghton Mifflin Company. xiii + 533 pp., 56 plates.ISBN978-0-395-98272-3.(GenusThamnophis,pp. 373–374).
- Vandenburgh J,Slevin JR(1918). "The Garter-snakes of Western North America".Proceedings of the California Academy of Sciences, Fourth Series8:181–270, 11 plates.
External links
[edit]- González-Fernández, Andrea; Manjarrez, Javier; García-Vázquez, Uri; D'Addario, Maristella; Sunny, Armando (2018)."Present and future ecological niche modeling of garter snake species from the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt".PeerJ.6:e4618.doi:10.7717/peerj.4618.PMC5903425.PMID29666767.
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![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png)
- Anapsid.org: Garter snakes
- Several pictures of a Mexican ribbon snake (Thamnophis proximus rutiloris)
- Plains garter snake -Thamnophis radix.Species account from the Iowa Reptile and Amphibian Field Guide
- Eastern garter snake -Thamnophis sirtalis.Species account from the Iowa Reptile and Amphibian Field Guide
- Descriptions and biology of garter snakes
- GenusThamnophisatThe Reptile Database