Genetic history of the African diaspora
Thegenetic history of the African diasporais composed of the overall genetic history of theAfrican diaspora,within regions outside ofAfrica,such asNorth America,Central America,theCaribbean,South America,Europe,Asia,andAustralia;this includes the genetic histories ofAfrican Americans,Afro-Canadians,Afro-Caribbeans,Afro-Latinos,Afro-Europeans,Afro-Asians,andAfrican Australians.
Overview[edit]
Prehistoric[edit]
TheSaharaserved as a trans-regional passageway and place of dwelling for people in Africa during varioushumid phases[1][2][3]and periods throughout thehistory of Africa.[4][5]As early as 11,000 years ago,Sub-SaharanWest Africans,bearingmacrohaplogroup L(e.g.,L1b1a11,L1b1a6a, L1b1a8, L1b1a9a1,L2a1k,L3d1b1a), may have migrated throughNorth Africaand intoEurope,mostly intosouthern Europe(e.g.,Iberia).[6]
Amid theGreen SaharainAfrica,the mutation forsickle celloriginated in theSahara[7]or in thenorthwest forestregion of westernCentral Africa(e.g., Cameroon)[7][8]by at least 7,300 years ago,[7][8]though possibly as early as 22,000 years ago.[9][8]The ancestral sickle cell haplotype to modern haplotypes (e.g.,Cameroon/Central African RepublicandBenin/Senegalhaplotypes) may have first arose in the ancestors of modernWest Africans,bearing haplogroupsE1b1a1-L485andE1b1a1-U175or their ancestral haplogroup E1b1a1-M4732.[7]West Africans (e.g.,YorubaandEsanof Nigeria), bearing the Benin sickle cell haplotype, may have migrated through thenortheastern region of Africainto the western region ofArabia.[7]West Africans (e.g.,Mendeof Sierra Leone), bearing the Senegal sickle cell haplotype,[10][7]may have migrated intoMauritania(77% modern rate of occurrence) and Senegal (100%); they may also have migrated across the Sahara, intoNorth Africa,and from North Africa, intoSouthern Europe,Turkey,and a region near northernIraqand southern Turkey.[10]Some may have migrated and introduced the Senegal and Benin sickle cell haplotypes intoBasra,Iraq, where both occur equally.[10]West Africans, bearing the Benin sickle cell haplotype, may have migrated into the northern region of Iraq (69.5%),Jordan(80%),Lebanon(73%),Oman(52.1%), andEgypt(80.8%).[10]
During the early period of the Holocene,Sub-Saharan African mitochondrial DNAwas introduced into Europe, mostly inIberia.[11]West Africansprobably migrated, acrossSahelianAfrica,North Africa,and theStrait of Gibraltar,intoEurope,and introduced 63% of Sub-Saharan African mitochondrial DNA.[11]Between 15,000 BP and 7000 BP, 86% ofSub-Saharan African mitochondrial DNAwas introduced into Southwest Asia byEast Africans,largely in the region ofArabia,which constitute 50% of Sub-Saharan African mitochondrial DNA in modernSouthwest Asia.[11]
In 4000 BP, there may have been a population that traversed fromAfrica(e.g.,West Africaor West-Central Africa), through theStrait of Gibraltar,into theIberian peninsula,where admi xing between Africans and Iberians (e.g., of northernPortugal,of southernSpain) occurred.[12]
Historic[edit]
AnAfricanindividual, who has been dated between 1st century CE and 3rd century CE as well as carriedhaplogroup H1,may have forcibly (viaenslavement) or voluntarily migrated from the centralSaharaor theNile Valley(e.g.,Sudan) toRome.[13]
During the modern period,West Africansintroduced more than 75% ofSub-Saharan mitochondrial DNAinto North America andSouthern Africansintroduced almost 15%.[11]West Africans also introduced ~45% of Sub-Saharan African mitochondrial DNA into South America, whereas, Southern Africans, largely indigenousAngolans,introduced ~55%.[11]During the modern period, West Africans introduced 75% of Sub-Saharan African mitochondrial DNA into Iberia and other parts of Europe, possibly by sea voyage.[11]During the modern period, a greater number of West Africans introduced Sub-Saharan African mitochondrial DNA than East Africans.[11]In the modern period, 68% of Sub-Saharan African mitochondrial DNA was introduced by East Africans and 22% was introduced byWest Africans,which constitutes 50% of Sub-Saharan African mitochondrial DNA in modern Southwest Asia.[11]
International Trade of Enslaved Africans[edit]
Regarding theIndian Ocean slave trade,Romuald (2017) states: "From the 8th to the 19th centuries, about four million people were captured from the shores ofeastern AfricabyArabMuslimandSwahilitraders. It has been suggested that slaves transported before the 16th century originated from theHorn of Africa,i.e.,NiloticorAfro-Asiaticspeakers from present-dayEthiopia,whereas most Africans enslaved from the 18th century onward wereZanj,i.e.,Bantu speakersofsoutheastern Africa."[14]Regarding theTrans-Atlantic slave trade,Fortes-Lima (2021) states:
Between the 15th and the 19th century, around twelve million Africans were forcibly displaced from their countries to be enslaved (that means around 30,000 captives a year over three and a half centuries). Enslaved Africans were taken from African slaving coasts that stretched thousands of miles, fromSenegaltoAngola,and even round theCapeand on toMozambique.The largest number (around 95%) of slaves arrived inLatin America,with ~43% disembarked inSouth America,~52% in theCaribbean,while the remaining 5% arrived in what has become today theUnited States.This forced and massive migration of people radically changed the genetic landscape of present-day populations inthe Americas...According to historical resources, from 1501 to 1867 enslaved Africans were embarked from eight major historical coastal regions insub-Saharan Africa:5.7% of the captives were fromSenegambia,3.2% fromSierra Leone,2.7% fromWindward Coast,9.6% fromGold Coast,16.1% fromBight of Benin,12.3% from theBight of Biafra,46.3% from WestCentral Africa,and 4.1% fromSoutheast Africa.West Central Africa region (coastal region from present-dayGabontoAngola) was always the largest regional point for captives throughout most of the TAST [Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade] period, and much of the trade there was focused in present-day Angola. As the TAST expanded after 1641, slaving regions such as Gold Coast, the Bights of Benin and Biafra, and West Central Africa became more prominent than they had been before.[15]
International Emigration of Modern Africans[edit]
Europe[edit]
InLisbon,Portugal,87% ofAngolans,who were sampled in 2014, carried various haplogroups ofMacro-haplogroup L(e.g.,L0a, L0d,L1b,L1c,L2a,L2b,L2c,L3a, L3b, L3d, L3f,L4), whereas, other sampled Angolans carried different haplogroups (e.g.,H,T,R0,K,U,J,M).[16]InLisbon,Portugal,out of 80Guinea-Bissauns,who were sampled in 2017, 73 carriedMacro-haplogroup L,5 carriedhaplogroup U,one carriedhaplogroup M,and one carriedhaplogroup V.[17]InLisbon,Portugal,81% ofMozambicans,who were sampled in 2017, carried various haplogroups ofMacro-haplogroup L,whereas, 19% of the sampled Mozambicans carried different haplogroups (e.g.,H,U,K,J1,M4,R0,T2).[18]
Americas[edit]
Out of 642 individuals from 15 populations among theAfrican diaspora in the Americassampled in 2016, some of which included individuals who self-identified as being of African descent, the ancestry of 328African Americanswere found to be 80%African,the ancestry ofAfro-Jamaicanswere found to be 89%African,and the ancestry of Puerto Ricans were found to be 27%African.[15]
Due to their relative isolation from Europeans andNative Americans,Maroonsretainedand adapted theircultures from Africa.[15]European colonial forces relinquished and recognized the territorial sovereignty of areas occupied by Maroons, such asColombia,Jamaica,French Guiana, and Suriname.[15]Alukus,Kwinti,Matawai,Ndjukas,Paramakas,andSaramakas,who areMaroonsof Noir Marron, are the largest, autonomous group of Maroons in theAmericas.[15]Though Noir Marron groups and other groups among theAfrican diasporahave been in the Americas for 400 years, the ancestry of Noir Marron individuals sampled in 2017 has shown that Maroons are 98% African, which is the highest degree of retained African ancestry among the African diaspora.[15]Noir Marron Maroons were found to be genetically linked with Africans in the region of theBight of Benin;in particular, there are strong genetic connections withAfricansinBeninand a linguistic connection withGbe speakers,such as theFon people.[15]
During the Holocene, 3% ofSub-Saharan African mitochondrial DNAis indicated to have been introduced intoSouth Americaand 6% is indicated to have been introduced intoNorth America.[11]However, Sá et al. (2022) provided the following rationale: “This could be explained by statistical residuals from the recent lineages, but also from a couple of lineages whose founders in Africa were likely not detected, or due to minor errors in the sequences leading to overestimates of the age estimate of specific lineages.”[11]During the modern period,West Africansintroduced more than 75% ofSub-Saharan mitochondrial DNAinto North America andSouthern Africansintroduced almost 15%.[11]West Africans also introduced ~45% of Sub-Saharan African mitochondrial DNA into South America, whereas, Southern Africans, largely indigenousAngolans,introduced ~55%.[11]
North America[edit]
United States of America[edit]
Ancient DNA[edit]
AtAvery’s RestinDelaware,3 out of 11 individuals wereAfrican Americans,who were dated between 1675 CE and 1725 CE; one was ofWest Africanancestry and carried haplogroupsE1b1a-CTS2447andL3e3b,another was of westernCentral AfricanBantu-speaking ancestry and carriedE1b1a-Z5974andL0a1a2,and another was ofWest AfricanandEast Africanancestry and carriedE1b1a-Z5974andL3d2.[19]
At a burial site inDelaware,enslavedAfrican Americans,who were dated to the 17th century CE as well as hadWest AfricanandBantuancestry fromCentral AfricaandEast Africa,carried haplogroupsL3e3,L0a1a,andL3i2.[20]
At Catoctin Furnace African American Cemetery, inCatoctin Furnace,Maryland,there were 27African Americansfound who were dated between 1774 CE and 1850 CE.[21][22]One female individual, who was of 95.17%Sub-Saharan Africanand 1.69%Europeanancestry, carried haplogroupL3e1.[23]One male individual, who was of 98.14%Sub-Saharan Africanancestry, carried haplogroupsE1b1a1a1a1c2candL2a1+143+@16309.[23]One male individual, who was of 83.73%Sub-Saharan Africanand 7.74%Europeanancestry, carried haplogroupsE1b1a1a1a1c1b1andL3e2a1b1.[23]One male individual, who was of 88.47%Sub-Saharan Africanand 7.92%Europeanancestry, carried haplogroupsR1b1a1b1a1a2c1andL3e1.[23]One male individual, who was of 84.94%Sub-Saharan Africanand 9.45%Europeanancestry, carried haplogroupsE1b1a1a1a2a1aandL2a1+143+16189 (16192)+@16309.[23]One female individual, who was of 97.02%Sub-Saharan Africanand 1.06%Europeanancestry, carried haplogroupL3f1b1a.[23]One male individual, who was of 87.83%Sub-Saharan Africanand 8.23%Europeanancestry, carried haplogroupsE1b1a1a1a1c1a1a3a1d1andL3d1b3.[23]One male individual, who was of 98.14%Sub-Saharan Africanancestry, carried haplogroupsE1b1a1a1a1aandL3e2a1b1.[23]One male individual, who was of 53.75%Sub-Saharan Africanand 42.11%Europeanancestry, carried haplogroupsR1b1a1b1a1a2c1a1h2a~andL3f1b3.[23]One female individual, who was of 98.12%Sub-Saharan Africanancestry, carried haplogroupL2b1a3.[23]One female individual, who was of 97.94%Sub-Saharan Africanancestry, carried haplogroupL3e1a1a.[23]One male individual, who was of 93.87%Sub-Saharan Africanand 2.58%Europeanancestry, carried haplogroupsE1b1a1a1andL3e1.[23]One male individual, who was of 98.70%Sub-Saharan Africanancestry, carried haplogroupsE1b1a1a1a1c1b2aandL2a1a1.[23]One male individual, who was of 97.01%Sub-Saharan Africanancestry, carried haplogroupsE1b1a1a1a1c1a1andL3e2a1b1.[23]One female individual, who was of 87.17%Sub-Saharan Africanand 6.93%Europeanancestry, carried haplogroupL2a1+143+16189 (16192)+@16309.[23]One male individual, who was of 82.31%Sub-Saharan Africanand 10.24%Europeanancestry, carried haplogroupsE1b1a1a1a1c1bandL3e2a1b1.[23]One male individual, who was of 91.82%Sub-Saharan Africanand 5.31%Europeanancestry, carried haplogroupsE1b1a1a1a1c1a1andL3e2.[23]One female individual, who was of 75.81%Sub-Saharan Africanand 21.44%Europeanancestry, carried haplogroupL4b2b1.[23]One female individual, who was of 91.95%Sub-Saharan Africanand 4.47%Europeanancestry, carried haplogroupL3e2.[23]One male individual, who was of 87.70%Sub-Saharan Africanand 4.93%Europeanancestry, carried haplogroupsE2bandL2b1a3.[23]One female individual, who was of 97.53%Sub-Saharan Africanand 0.21%Europeanancestry, carried haplogroupL2b1a3.[23]One female individual, who was of 83.28%Sub-Saharan Africanand 10.72%Europeanancestry, carried haplogroupL3e2a1b1.[23]One male individual, who was of 41.31%Sub-Saharan Africanand 53.59%Europeanancestry, carried haplogroupsR1a1a1andJ1b1a1a.[23]One male individual, who was of 92.70%Sub-Saharan Africanand 3.57%Europeanancestry, carried haplogroupsA1b1andL0a1b1a.[23]One male individual, who was of 81.18%Sub-Saharan Africanand 14.86%Europeanancestry, carried haplogroupsE1b1a1~andL2c.[23]One female individual, who was of 88.09%Sub-Saharan Africanand 5.44%Europeanancestry, carried haplogroupL2a1+143+16189 (16192)+@16309.[23]One female individual, who was of 92.32%Sub-Saharan Africanand 4.05%Europeanancestry, carried haplogroupL2b1a3.[23]
At a burial site inSchuyler Flatts,New York,6 out of 14 individuals wereAfrican Americans,who were dated to the 18th century CE as well as ofWest African,westernCentral African,andMalagasyancestry, carried various haplogroups; two carriedhaplogroup L2(e.g.,L2a1,L2b1), two carriedhaplogroup L3(e.g.,L3e2, L3e2b), one carriedhaplogroup M,and one carriedhaplogroup M7.[24]
At anAfrican Americancemetery dated to the 18th century CE, inPortsmouth, New Hampshire,enslavedAfrican Americans carried haplogroupsU5andU6.[25]
At an Anson Street burial site dated to the 18th century CE, inCharleston, South Carolina,29enslavedAfrican Americanscarried the following haplogroups: one carriedhaplogroup L0(e.g.,L0a1), six carried haplogroup L1 (e.g.,L1b,L1c), nine carriedL2(e.g.,L2a,L2b,L2c), twelve carriedL3(e.g.,L3e, L3b, L3d, L3f),and one carriedU6 (e.g., U6a5).[26]
At an Anson Street burial site, inCharleston,South Carolina,there were 18African Americansfound who were dated to the 18th century CE.[27]Banza was of westernCentral Africanancestry and carried haplogroupsE1b1a-CTS668andL3e3b1.[27]Lima was ofWest Africanancestry and carried haplogroupsE1b1a-M4671andL3b3.[27]Kuto was of westernCentral Africanancestry and carried haplogroupsE1b1a-CTS2198andL2a1a2.[27]Anika was ofSub-Saharan Africanancestry and carried haplogroupsE1b1a-CTS6126andL2b1.[27]Nana was ofWest Africanancestry and carriedhaplogroup L2b3a.[27]Zimbu was of westernCentral Africanancestry and carried haplogroupsE1b1a-CTS5497andL3e1e.[27]Wuta was ofSub-Saharan Africanancestry and carried haplogroupsE1b1a-CTS7305andL3e2b+152.[27]Daba was ofWest Africanancestry and carried haplogroupsE1b1a-M4273andL2c.[27]Fumu was ofSub-Saharan Africanancestry and carried haplogroupsB2a1a-Y12201andL3e2b+152.[27]Lisa was ofWest Africanancestry and carried haplogroupsE1b1a-Z6020andH100.[27]Ganda was ofWest Africanancestry and carried haplogroupsE1b1a-CTS5612andL1c1c.[27]Coosaw was ofWest AfricanandNative Americanancestry and carried haplogroupsE2b1a-CTS2400andA2.[27]Kidzera was of westernCentral Africanancestry and carriedhaplogroup L2a1a2c.[27]Pita was ofSub-Saharan Africanancestry and carried haplogroupsE1b1a-M4287andL3e2b.[27]Tima was of westernCentral Africanancestry and carriedhaplogroup L3e1e.[27]Jode was ofSub-Saharan Africanancestry and carried haplogroupsE1b1a-CTS4975andL2a1a2c.[27]Ajana was of westernCentral Africanancestry and carriedhaplogroup L2a1I.[27]Isi was of westernCentral Africanancestry and carriedhaplogroup L3e2a.[27]
InMaryland,a tobacco pipe dated to the 19th century CE was determined to have been used by anenslavedAfrican American woman,who was ofMendeancestry, and carriedhaplogroup L3e.[28]She may have lived for a period of time between 1736 CE and 1864 CE.[15]
At Avondale Burial Place, inBibb County, Georgia,utilized between 1820 CE and 1950 CE, 18 out of 20 individuals were determined to beAfrican American,as they carried the following haplogroups: oneL0,two withL1,seven withL2,seven withL3,and one withU6.[29]
InPhiladelphia,Pennsylvania,an individual ofWest Africanancestry, who died ofcholeraduring acholera pandemicin 1849 CE, carriedhaplogroup L3d1b3.[30]
Y-Chromosomal DNA[edit]
60% ofAfrican Americans,who were sampled in 2007, were ofhaplogroup E1b1a,within which 22.9% were particularly ofhaplogroup E-M2;they also possessed numerousSNPs(e.g., U175, U209, U181, U290, U174, U186, and U247).[31]
An African American man, who was sampled in 2013, carriedhaplogroup A00,which likely dates back to 338,000 BP, and is a haplogroup shared with theMbo people.[32]
Torres et al. (2012) states: "One African American population, those fromSouth Carolina,cluster with the African populations. Notably, the South Carolina population falls nearest to theGrain Coastpopulations. Ethnohistorical records indicate a relationship between African Americans within this region of theUnited StatesandWest AfricansfromSenegal,Gambia,andSierra Leone.Based on such records it has been suggested that many African Americans within South Carolina originate from the Grain Coast region of West Africa. Furthermore, Africans from this region were sought-after and imported to the Americas for their knowledge ofrice cultivation."[33]
X-Chromosomal DNA[edit]
Due to the X-chromosomes inAfrican Americanshaving high concentrations of ancestry fromAfrica,this coheres with the understanding of there being an asymmetric flow of genes from European males toAfrican females;[34][35]consequently, this can be understood as being the result ofenslavedAfrican American femalesbeingrapedby European males.[36]
Mitochondrial DNA[edit]
African Americans,who were sampled in 2015, carried various haplogroups ofmacro-haplogroup L(e.g.,L0,L1,L1b,L1c,L2,L2a,L2b,L2c,L2e,L3,L3b, L3d, L3e, L3f, L3h, L3x,L4).[37]10.2% of African Americans carried haplogroup L1b and 19.8% of African Americans carried haplogroup L2a.[37]
Stefflova et al. (2011) states: "Ancestry fromGuinea Bissau-Mali-Senegal-Sierra Leonepredominates in otherUnited StatesAfrican Americanpopulations compared toPhiladelphiaalone (43% vs. 22%). Despite the differences in coverage and sampling, this pattern may be attributed to a significant contribution of slaves fromBritish colonies in Africato theBritish-controlled Philadelphiaregion compared to a more diverse contribution to other parts of the United States fromFrench,Spanish,andDutchcolonies. Additional possible contributing factors include the different periods of theslave trade influencing the Philadelphianpopulation compared to the other parts of the United States. However, these remain tentative conclusions since we cannot rule out a contribution from sampling bias. Another example of these differences is theGullah/Geecheepopulations fromSouth Carolina/Georgiathat have >78% of their source from the Guinea Bissau-Mali-Senegal-Sierra Leone region (data not shown), corresponding to the “Rice coast”around Sierra Leone that was the major source of slaves drawn by the United States in the later period of the slave trade. "[38]The plurality of the African component of African Americans was found to be fromWest Africanpopulations fromSenegambiaand the Rice Coast (Guinea Bissau-Mali-Senegal-Sierra Leone), followed byCentral Africansfrom theCongoandAngola,and lastly West-Central Africans (Nigeria-Niger-Cameroon).[38]
Autosomal DNA[edit]
In addition to being found to have 2.6% (±2.1%)Native Americanand 10.6% (±2.3%)Europeanancestry, African-Americans who were sampled in 2008, were found to be 86.8% (±2.1%)West African.[39]In addition to being found to have 8% Asian (as a proxy for Native American ancestry) and 19.6% European ancestry, African-Americans, who were sampled in 2010, were found to be 72.5%African.[40]African Americans were found to be more closely genetically related toYoruba peoplethanEast Africans(e.g.,Luhya,Maasai).[40]Murray et al. (2010) also states: "In the analysis of AIMs [Ancestry Informative Markers], African Americans were most distant from Yorubans, followed by the Luhya, and then the Maasai and were closest to Barbadians."[40]Out of 5,244 African Americans sampled in 2017, their ancestry was found to range between 73% and 78%African;in particular, they were found to be ofWest Africanand westernCentral Africanancestry.[15]Approximately 7% of their ancestry derives fromWindward Coast,13% fromSenegambia,30% fromAngola,and nearly 50% fromBenin,westernNigeria,andTogo.[15]Additionally, 4.8% of their ancestry derives fromBantu peoplesand 16% derives fromAfrican rainforest hunter-gatherers.[15]
Tishkoff et al. (2009) via "Supervised STRUCTURE analysis [inferred] African American ancestry from global training populations, including bothBantu(Lemande) and non-Bantu (Mandinka)Niger-Kordofanian–speaking populations. These results were generally consistent with the unsupervised STRUCTURE analysis (table S6) and demonstrate that most African Americans have high proportions of both Bantu (~0.45 mean) and non-Bantu (~0.22 mean) Niger-Kordofanian ancestry, concordant with diasporas originating as far west asSenegambiaand as far south asAngolaandSouth Africa."[41]Moderate to modest amounts ofChadic,Fulani,Nilo-Saharan,Cushitic,andSandaweancestry were also inferred; this is consistent with the phylogenetic analysis of Tishkoff et al. (2009), wherein African-Americans were found to share more recent common ancestry with a clade includingHausaand Fulani fromCameroon,in addition to Chadic andCentral Sudanicspeakers such as theMada,Sara,andLaka.[41]
Medical DNA[edit]
The African ancestry inAfrican Americanshave often been connected to the risk alleles and genetic components of diseases predominant among African Americans, such asblood disorders,hypertension,progressivekidney failure,andtype 2 diabetes.[42]
African Americans, who have a high rate of occurrence oftype 2 diabetes,have a few gene variants (e.g., severalSNPsinIGF2andHLA-Bgenes; the SNP, rs7903146, within theTCF7L2gene; theintergenicSNP, rs7560163, located between the RBM43 gene andRND3gene) that are strongly associated with type 2 diabetes.[42]
The rate of occurrence forhypertensionin African Americans is 39%.[42]Several genes (e.g.,EVX1-HOXA,PLEKHG1,RSPO3,SOX6,ULK4), which contributes to thesignaling pathwayfornitric oxide– a pathway connected with multiple functions (e.g.,endothelianfunction,heart contraction,vasodilatation) relating to hypertension – and thus, are associated with hypertension.[42]Hypertension is also associated with theNPR3gene.[42]These genes have all been connected with hypertension in African Americans.[42]
Risk allele variants G1 and G2 are associated withchronic kidney disease,which are common among populations ofSub-Saharan Africanancestry; the G2 variant occurs at a 3%-8% rate among populations of westernCentral Africanancestry and origin.[42]
Someinfectious diseasesare protected against due toAfricanancestry.[42]Hereditaryblood disorders,such assickle cell anemiaandthalassemia,produce an effect on the development ofhemoglobin,which, consequently, prevents the reproduction ofmalaria parasiteswithin theerythrocyte.[42]Populations withWest Africanancestry, including among theAfrican diasporabrought via the Trans-Atlantic slave trade, tend to have occurrences of sickle cell anemia and thalassemia.[42]TheSickle Hemoglobin S traitoccurs in 8% of African Americans, and, generally,sickle cell anemiaoccurs in 0.02% of African Americans.[42]
African Americanshave as much as 65% of the Duffy-nullgenotype.[43]The cancer medicine,azathioprine,regarding its safety and when it should be discontinued, was found to be unsuitable and possibly damaging toAfrican Americans,as the standard range was based on “normal” ranges forEuropeans;the distinct genetic data from African Americans (e.g., Duffy-null phenotype) might provide a different explanation forneutropenia.[43]
Caribbean[edit]
A majority ofAfro-Caribbean peopledescend from peoples in the regions ofWest Africaand westernCentral Africa.[44]In particular, their genetic ancestry, to some extent, derives from peoples in the region ofAngola,but more so, from peoples in regions, such as theBight of Benin,Bight of Biafra,Cameroon,andGhana.[44]Additionally, between the late 19th century CE and early 20th century CE, someHaitiansmigrated intoCuba,thereby, resulting in the addition of ancestry fromAfrica.[44]
Barbados[edit]
Autosomal DNA[edit]
In addition to being found to have 0.2% (±2.0%)Native Americanand 10.2% (±2.2%)Europeanancestry, Afro-Barbadians, who were sampled in 2008, were found to be 89.6% (±2.0%)West African.[39]In addition to being found to have 6.7%Asianand 15.9%Europeanancestry, Afro-Barbadians, who were sampled in 2010, were found to be 77.4%African.[40]Afro-Barbadians were found to be more closely genetically related toYoruba peoplethanEast Africans.[40]In addition to being found to have 6%Asianand 16%Europeanancestry, Afro-Barbadians, who were sampled in 2013, were found to be 77%African;most of the African ancestry ofAfro-Barbadianswere found to derive from theYoruba people.[45]In addition to being found to have 0%Native Americanand 16%European(e.g.,Northern/Western) ancestry,Afro-Barbadians,who were sampled in 2016 and self-reported their African ancestry, were found to be 84%African(e.g.,Yoruba).[46][47]The ancestry of Afro-Barbadians, who were sampled in 2017, were found to be 88%African.[15]
Medical DNA[edit]
Risk allele variants G1 and G2 are associated withchronic kidney disease,which are common among populations ofSub-Saharan Africanancestry; the G2 variant occurs at a 3%-8% rate among populations of westernCentral Africanancestry and origin.[42]
Someinfectious diseasesare protected against due toAfricanancestry.[42]Hereditaryblood disorders,such assickle cell anemiaandthalassemia,produce an effect on the development ofhemoglobin,which, consequently, prevents the reproduction ofmalaria parasiteswithin theerythrocyte.[42]Populations withWest Africanancestry, including among theAfrican diasporabrought via the Trans-Atlantic slave trade, tend to have occurrences of sickle cell anemia and thalassemia.[42]
Dominica[edit]
Autosomal DNA[edit]
In addition to being found to have 16.2% (±10.4%)Native Americanand 28.1% (±12.3%)Europeanancestry,Afro-Dominicans,who were sampled in 2013, were found to be 55.6% (±16.1%)West African.[48]
Medical DNA[edit]
Risk allele variants G1 and G2 are associated withchronic kidney disease,which are common among populations ofSub-Saharan Africanancestry; the G2 variant occurs at a 3%-8% rate among populations of westernCentral Africanancestry and origin.[42]
Someinfectious diseasesare protected against due toAfricanancestry.[42]Hereditaryblood disorders,such assickle cell anemiaandthalassemia,produce an effect on the development ofhemoglobin,which, consequently, prevents the reproduction ofmalaria parasiteswithin theerythrocyte.[42]Populations withWest Africanancestry, including among theAfrican diasporabrought via the Trans-Atlantic slave trade, tend to have occurrences of sickle cell anemia and thalassemia.[42]
Dominican Republic[edit]
Autosomal DNA[edit]
In addition to being found to have 9%Native Americanand 52%European(e.g.,Northern/Western) ancestry,Afro-Dominicans,who were sampled in 2016 and self-reported their African ancestry, were found to be 38%African(e.g.,Yoruba).[46][47]
Medical DNA[edit]
Risk allele variants G1 and G2 are associated withchronic kidney disease,which are common among populations ofSub-Saharan Africanancestry; the G2 variant occurs at a 3%-8% rate among populations of westernCentral Africanancestry and origin.[42]
Someinfectious diseasesare protected against due toAfricanancestry.[42]Hereditaryblood disorders,such assickle cell anemiaandthalassemia,produce an effect on the development ofhemoglobin,which, consequently, prevents the reproduction ofmalaria parasiteswithin theerythrocyte.[42]Populations withWest Africanancestry, including among theAfrican diasporabrought via the Trans-Atlantic slave trade, tend to have occurrences of sickle cell anemia and thalassemia.[42]
Grenada[edit]
Autosomal DNA[edit]
In addition to being found to have 6.8% (±4.6%)Native Americanand 12.1% (±11.2%)Europeanancestry,Afro-Grenadians,who were sampled in 2013, were found to be 81.1% (±11.3%)West African.[48]
Medical DNA[edit]
Risk allele variants G1 and G2 are associated withchronic kidney disease,which are common among populations ofSub-Saharan Africanancestry; the G2 variant occurs at a 3%-8% rate among populations of westernCentral Africanancestry and origin.[42]
Someinfectious diseasesare protected against due toAfricanancestry.[42]Hereditaryblood disorders,such assickle cell anemiaandthalassemia,produce an effect on the development ofhemoglobin,which, consequently, prevents the reproduction ofmalaria parasiteswithin theerythrocyte.[42]Populations withWest Africanancestry, including among theAfrican diasporabrought via the Trans-Atlantic slave trade, tend to have occurrences of sickle cell anemia and thalassemia.[42]
Haiti[edit]
Y-Chromosomal DNA[edit]
Afro-Haitians,who were sampled in 2012, were found to have carried haplogroupE1b1a-M2(63.4%), within which were more specific sub-haplogroups, such as haplogroupsE1b1a7-M191(26.8%) andE1b1a8-U175(26%), and subgroups within those sub-haplogroups, such as E1b1a7a-U174 (26.8%) and E1b1a8a-P278 (13%); there were also various sub-haplogroups ofhaplogroup R1b(e.g.,R1b1b1-M269,R1b1b1a1b2-M529, R1b1b1a1b*-S116, R-M306,R1b2*-V88) as well ashaplogroup R1a-M198.[49]
Autosomal DNA[edit]
The ancestry ofAfro-Haitians,who were sampled in 2013, were found to be 84%African.[15]
Medical DNA[edit]
Risk allele variants G1 and G2 are associated withchronic kidney disease,which are common among populations ofSub-Saharan Africanancestry; the G2 variant occurs at a 3%-8% rate among populations of westernCentral Africanancestry and origin.[42]
Someinfectious diseasesare protected against due toAfricanancestry.[42]Hereditaryblood disorders,such assickle cell anemiaandthalassemia,produce an effect on the development ofhemoglobin,which, consequently, prevents the reproduction ofmalaria parasiteswithin theerythrocyte.[42]Populations withWest Africanancestry, including among theAfrican diasporabrought via the Trans-Atlantic slave trade, tend to have occurrences of sickle cell anemia and thalassemia.[42]
Jamaica[edit]
Y-Chromosomal DNA[edit]
Afro-Jamaicans,who were sampled in 2012, were found to have carried haplogroupE1b1a-M2(60.4%), within which were more specific sub-haplogroups, such asE1b1a7-M191(27.7%) andE1b1a8-U175(23.3%), and subgroups within those sub-haplogroups, such as E1b1a7a-U174 (25.8%) and E1b1a8a-P278 (11.3%); there were also various sub-haplogroups ofhaplogroup R1b(e.g.,R1b1b1-M269,R1b1b1a1b2-M529, R1b1b1a1b*-S116, R-M306,R1b2*-V88) as well ashaplogroup R1a-M198.[49]
Mitochondrial DNA[edit]
Afro-Jamaicans,who were sampled in 2012, were found to have mostly (97.5%) carried various forms ofmacro-haplogroup Las well as various other haplogroups (e.g.,U6,A2,B2,D4,H,J,U2,M).[50]
Autosomal DNA[edit]
In addition to being found to have 3.2% (±3.1%)Native Americanand 12.4% (±3.5%)Europeanancestry, Afro-Jamaicans, who were sampled in 2008, were found to be 84.4% (±3.1%)West African.[39]In addition to being found to have 8.3% (±13.5%)Native Americanand 10.3% (±8.4%)Europeanancestry, Afro-Jamaicans, who were sampled in 2013, were found to be 81.4% (±15.9%)West African.[48]The ancestry ofAfro-Jamaicans,who were sampled in 2016, were found to be 89%African.[15]In addition to being found to have 1%Native Americanand 11%European(e.g.,Northern/Western) ancestry,Afro-Jamaicans,who were sampled in 2016 and self-reported their African ancestry, were found to be 89%African(e.g.,Yoruba).[46][47]
Medical DNA[edit]
Risk allele variants G1 and G2 are associated withchronic kidney disease,which are common among populations ofSub-Saharan Africanancestry; the G2 variant occurs at a 3%-8% rate among populations of westernCentral Africanancestry and origin.[42]
Someinfectious diseasesare protected against due toAfricanancestry.[42]Hereditaryblood disorders,such assickle cell anemiaandthalassemia,produce an effect on the development ofhemoglobin,which, consequently, prevents the reproduction ofmalaria parasiteswithin theerythrocyte.[42]Populations withWest Africanancestry, including among theAfrican diasporabrought via the Trans-Atlantic slave trade, tend to have occurrences of sickle cell anemia and thalassemia.[42]
Puerto Rico[edit]
Autosomal DNA[edit]
In addition to being found to have 12%Native Americanand 61%European(e.g.,Northern/Western) ancestry,Afro-Puerto Ricans,who were sampled in 2016 and self-reported their African ancestry, were found to be 27%African(e.g.,Yoruba).[46][47]
Medical DNA[edit]
Risk allele variants G1 and G2 are associated withchronic kidney disease,which are common among populations ofSub-Saharan Africanancestry; the G2 variant occurs at a 3%-8% rate among populations of westernCentral Africanancestry and origin.[42]
Someinfectious diseasesare protected against due toAfricanancestry.[42]Hereditaryblood disorders,such assickle cell anemiaandthalassemia,produce an effect on the development ofhemoglobin,which, consequently, prevents the reproduction ofmalaria parasiteswithin theerythrocyte.[42]Populations withWest Africanancestry, including among theAfrican diasporabrought via the Trans-Atlantic slave trade, tend to have occurrences of sickle cell anemia and thalassemia.[42]
Saint Kitts and Nevis[edit]
Autosomal DNA[edit]
In addition to being found to have 5.8% (±2.9%)Native Americanand 8.2% (±5.4%)Europeanancestry,Afro-Kittitians,who were sampled in 2013, were found to be 85.9% (±5.7%)West African.[48]
Medical DNA[edit]
Risk allele variants G1 and G2 are associated withchronic kidney disease,which are common among populations ofSub-Saharan Africanancestry; the G2 variant occurs at a 3%-8% rate among populations of westernCentral Africanancestry and origin.[42]
Someinfectious diseasesare protected against due toAfricanancestry.[42]Hereditaryblood disorders,such assickle cell anemiaandthalassemia,produce an effect on the development ofhemoglobin,which, consequently, prevents the reproduction ofmalaria parasiteswithin theerythrocyte.[42]Populations withWest Africanancestry, including among theAfrican diasporabrought via the Trans-Atlantic slave trade, tend to have occurrences of sickle cell anemia and thalassemia.[42]
Saint Lucia[edit]
Autosomal DNA[edit]
In addition to being found to have 7.5% (±7.3%)Native Americanand 17.9% (±12.5%)Europeanancestry,Afro-Saint Lucians,who were sampled in 2013, were found to be 74.5% (±15.3%)West African.[48]
Medical DNA[edit]
Risk allele variants G1 and G2 are associated withchronic kidney disease,which are common among populations ofSub-Saharan Africanancestry; the G2 variant occurs at a 3%-8% rate among populations of westernCentral Africanancestry and origin.[42]
Someinfectious diseasesare protected against due toAfricanancestry.[42]Hereditaryblood disorders,such assickle cell anemiaandthalassemia,produce an effect on the development ofhemoglobin,which, consequently, prevents the reproduction ofmalaria parasiteswithin theerythrocyte.[42]Populations withWest Africanancestry, including among theAfrican diasporabrought via the Trans-Atlantic slave trade, tend to have occurrences of sickle cell anemia and thalassemia.[42]
Saint Martin[edit]
Ancient DNA[edit]
In Zoutsteeg,Philipsburg, Saint Martin,threeenslavedAfricans ofWest African(e.g.,Nigeria,Ghana) and westernCentral African(e.g.,Bantu peoplesofnorthern Cameroon) ancestry, who are estimated to date between 1660 CE and 1688 CE, were found; one carried haplogroupsR1b1c-V88andL3b1a,another carriedhaplogroup L3d1b,and the last carriedhaplogroup L2a1f.[51]A man and woman may have been fromGhanaorNigeria,and a man may have been from among theBantu peoplesofCameroon,Republic of the Congo,andDemocratic Republic of the Congo.[15]
Medical DNA[edit]
Risk allele variants G1 and G2 are associated withchronic kidney disease,which are common among populations ofSub-Saharan Africanancestry; the G2 variant occurs at a 3%-8% rate among populations of westernCentral Africanancestry and origin.[42]
Someinfectious diseasesare protected against due toAfricanancestry.[42]Hereditaryblood disorders,such assickle cell anemiaandthalassemia,produce an effect on the development ofhemoglobin,which, consequently, prevents the reproduction ofmalaria parasiteswithin theerythrocyte.[42]Populations withWest Africanancestry, including among theAfrican diasporabrought via the Trans-Atlantic slave trade, tend to have occurrences of sickle cell anemia and thalassemia.[42]
Saint Vincent[edit]
Autosomal DNA[edit]
The ancestry of theGarifunainSaint Vincent,who were sampled in 2013, were found to be 70%African.[15]The ancestry of theGarifunaofSaint Vincent,who were sampled in 2019, were found to be 70%African.[15]In addition to being found to have 6.5% (±6.4%)Native Americanand 12.8% (±12.9%)Europeanancestry,Afro-Vincentians,who were sampled in 2013, were found to be 80.6% (±16.4%)West African.[48]
Medical DNA[edit]
Risk allele variants G1 and G2 are associated withchronic kidney disease,which are common among populations ofSub-Saharan Africanancestry; the G2 variant occurs at a 3%-8% rate among populations of westernCentral Africanancestry and origin.[42]
Someinfectious diseasesare protected against due toAfricanancestry.[42]Hereditaryblood disorders,such assickle cell anemiaandthalassemia,produce an effect on the development ofhemoglobin,which, consequently, prevents the reproduction ofmalaria parasiteswithin theerythrocyte.[42]Populations withWest Africanancestry, including among theAfrican diasporabrought via the Trans-Atlantic slave trade, tend to have occurrences of sickle cell anemia and thalassemia.[42]
Trinidad and Tobago[edit]
Autosomal DNA[edit]
In addition to being found to have 9.2% (±8.7%)Native Americanand 15.8% (±11.5%)Europeanancestry,Afro-Trinidadians,who were sampled in 2013, were found to be 75.0% (±16.6%)West African.[48]
Medical DNA[edit]
Risk allele variants G1 and G2 are associated withchronic kidney disease,which are common among populations ofSub-Saharan Africanancestry; the G2 variant occurs at a 3%-8% rate among populations of westernCentral Africanancestry and origin.[42]
Someinfectious diseasesare protected against due toAfricanancestry.[42]Hereditaryblood disorders,such assickle cell anemiaandthalassemia,produce an effect on the development ofhemoglobin,which, consequently, prevents the reproduction ofmalaria parasiteswithin theerythrocyte.[42]Populations withWest Africanancestry, including among theAfrican diasporabrought via the Trans-Atlantic slave trade, tend to have occurrences of sickle cell anemia and thalassemia.[42]
Virgin Islands[edit]
Saint Thomas[edit]
Autosomal DNA[edit]
In addition to being found to have 2.6% (±2.1%)Native Americanand 10.6% (±2.3%)Europeanancestry,Afro-Virgin IslandersfromSaint Thomas,who were sampled in 2008, were found to be 86.8% (±2.2%)West African.[39]In addition to being found to have 5.6% (±4.9%)Native Americanand 16.9% (±21.1%)Europeanancestry,Afro-Virgin IslandersfromSaint Thomas,who were sampled in 2013, were found to be 77.4% (±21.9%)West African.[48]
Medical DNA[edit]
Risk allele variants G1 and G2 are associated withchronic kidney disease,which are common among populations ofSub-Saharan Africanancestry; the G2 variant occurs at a 3%-8% rate among populations of westernCentral Africanancestry and origin.[42]
Someinfectious diseasesare protected against due toAfricanancestry.[42]Hereditaryblood disorders,such assickle cell anemiaandthalassemia,produce an effect on the development ofhemoglobin,which, consequently, prevents the reproduction ofmalaria parasiteswithin theerythrocyte.[42]Populations withWest Africanancestry, including among theAfrican diasporabrought via the Trans-Atlantic slave trade, tend to have occurrences of sickle cell anemia and thalassemia.[42]
Central America[edit]
Belize[edit]
Autosomal DNA[edit]
In addition to being found to have 29.0%Native Americanand 1.0%Europeanancestry, someAfro-Belizeansfrom Livingston, who were sampled in 1981, were found to be 70.0%African.[52]In addition to being found to have 17.4%Native Americanand 2.7%Europeanancestry, someAfro-BelizeansfromStann Creek,who were sampled in 1983, were found to be 79.9%African.[52]In addition to being found to have 24.1%Native Americanand 4.9%Europeanancestry, someAfro-BelizeansfromPunta Gorda,who were sampled in 1983, were found to be 71.0%African.[52]In addition to being found to have 23.9%Native Americanand 0.5%Europeanancestry, someAfro-BelizeansfromHopkins,who were sampled in 1983, were found to be 75.6%African.[52]In addition to being found to have 7.4%Native Americanand 17.1%Europeanancestry, someAfro-BelizeansfromStann Creek,who were sampled in 1983, were found to be 75.5%African.[52]In addition to being found to have 5.2%Native Americanand 42.8%Europeanancestry, someAfro-BelizeansfromPunta Gorda,who were sampled in 1983, were found to be 52.0%African.[52]In addition to being found to have 8.6%Native Americanand 16.7%Europeanancestry, someAfro-BelizeansfromBelize City,who were sampled in 1983, were found to be 74.7%African.[52]
Medical DNA[edit]
Risk allele variants G1 and G2 are associated withchronic kidney disease,which are common among populations ofSub-Saharan Africanancestry; the G2 variant occurs at a 3%-8% rate among populations of westernCentral Africanancestry and origin.[42]
Someinfectious diseasesare protected against due toAfricanancestry.[42]Hereditaryblood disorders,such assickle cell anemiaandthalassemia,produce an effect on the development ofhemoglobin,which, consequently, prevents the reproduction ofmalaria parasiteswithin theerythrocyte.[42]Populations withWest Africanancestry, including among theAfrican diasporabrought via the Trans-Atlantic slave trade, tend to have occurrences of sickle cell anemia and thalassemia.[42]
Guatemala[edit]
Autosomal DNA[edit]
Medical DNA[edit]
Risk allele variants G1 and G2 are associated withchronic kidney disease,which are common among populations ofSub-Saharan Africanancestry; the G2 variant occurs at a 3%-8% rate among populations of westernCentral Africanancestry and origin.[42]
Someinfectious diseasesare protected against due toAfricanancestry.[42]Hereditaryblood disorders,such assickle cell anemiaandthalassemia,produce an effect on the development ofhemoglobin,which, consequently, prevents the reproduction ofmalaria parasiteswithin theerythrocyte.[42]Populations withWest Africanancestry, including among theAfrican diasporabrought via the Trans-Atlantic slave trade, tend to have occurrences of sickle cell anemia and thalassemia.[42]
Honduras[edit]
Autosomal DNA[edit]
In addition to being found to have 17%Native Americanand 2%European(e.g.,Northern/Western) ancestry,Afro-Hondurans,who were sampled in 2016 and self-reported their African ancestry, were found to be 81%African(e.g.,Yoruba).[46][47]
Medical DNA[edit]
Risk allele variants G1 and G2 are associated withchronic kidney disease,which are common among populations ofSub-Saharan Africanancestry; the G2 variant occurs at a 3%-8% rate among populations of westernCentral Africanancestry and origin.[42]
Someinfectious diseasesare protected against due toAfricanancestry.[42]Hereditaryblood disorders,such assickle cell anemiaandthalassemia,produce an effect on the development ofhemoglobin,which, consequently, prevents the reproduction ofmalaria parasiteswithin theerythrocyte.[42]Populations withWest Africanancestry, including among theAfrican diasporabrought via the Trans-Atlantic slave trade, tend to have occurrences of sickle cell anemia and thalassemia.[42]
Mexico[edit]
Ancient DNA[edit]
At a San Jose de los Naturales Royal Hospital burial site, inMexico City, Mexico,threeenslavedWest Africans ofWest AfricanandSouthern Africanancestry, dated between 1453 CE and 1626 CE, 1450 CE and 1620 CE, and 1436 CE and 1472 CE, were found; one carried haplogroupsE1b1a1a1c1b/E-M263.2andL1b2a,another carried haplogroupsE1b1a1a1d1/E-P278.1/E-M425andL3d1a1a,and the last carried haplogroupsE1b1a1a1c1a1c/E-CTS8030andL3e1a1a.[53]Human leukocyte antigenalleles further confirm that the individuals were ofSub-Saharan Africanorigin.[15]
At the 11–1 burial site, inCampeche,Mexico,aWest Africanwoman, who was in her early twenties and dated to the late 17th century CE, carriedhaplogroup L3.[54]
Medical DNA[edit]
At La Concepción chapel and Hospital Real de San José de los Naturales, inMexico City, Mexico,enslavedAfricans,who carriedhaplogroup L,were sampled for viral genomes.[55]From among the sampled individuals, who may have died between 1472–1625 CE and 1442–1608 CE, theancient DNAof the viruses were able to be were able to be reconstructed.[55]Due to the brutality of theMiddle Passageandenslavementof the first generation of Africans, the transmission of theHepatitis Bvirus and humanparvovirus B19from Africa to the Americas was facilitated by Spanish slavers and colonists; while this has not been established as causally connected, it is at least associated with theCocoliztli epidemics.[55]
Risk allele variants G1 and G2 are associated withchronic kidney disease,which are common among populations ofSub-Saharan Africanancestry; the G2 variant occurs at a 3%-8% rate among populations of westernCentral Africanancestry and origin.[42]
Someinfectious diseasesare protected against due toAfricanancestry.[42]Hereditaryblood disorders,such assickle cell anemiaandthalassemia,produce an effect on the development ofhemoglobin,which, consequently, prevents the reproduction ofmalaria parasiteswithin theerythrocyte.[42]Populations withWest Africanancestry, including among theAfrican diasporabrought via the Trans-Atlantic slave trade, tend to have occurrences of sickle cell anemia and thalassemia.[42]
Nicaragua[edit]
Autosomal DNA[edit]
Medical DNA[edit]
Risk allele variants G1 and G2 are associated withchronic kidney disease,which are common among populations ofSub-Saharan Africanancestry; the G2 variant occurs at a 3%-8% rate among populations of westernCentral Africanancestry and origin.[42]
Someinfectious diseasesare protected against due toAfricanancestry.[42]Hereditaryblood disorders,such assickle cell anemiaandthalassemia,produce an effect on the development ofhemoglobin,which, consequently, prevents the reproduction ofmalaria parasiteswithin theerythrocyte.[42]Populations withWest Africanancestry, including among theAfrican diasporabrought via the Trans-Atlantic slave trade, tend to have occurrences of sickle cell anemia and thalassemia.[42]
South America[edit]
Bolivia[edit]
Autosomal DNA[edit]
The ancestry ofAfro-Boliviansfrom theYungas Valley,who were sampled in 2016, were found to be 80%African.[15]
Medical DNA[edit]
Risk allele variants G1 and G2 are associated withchronic kidney disease,which are common among populations ofSub-Saharan Africanancestry; the G2 variant occurs at a 3%-8% rate among populations of westernCentral Africanancestry and origin.[42]
Someinfectious diseasesare protected against due toAfricanancestry.[42]Hereditaryblood disorders,such assickle cell anemiaandthalassemia,produce an effect on the development ofhemoglobin,which, consequently, prevents the reproduction ofmalaria parasiteswithin theerythrocyte.[42]Populations withWest Africanancestry, including among theAfrican diasporabrought via the Trans-Atlantic slave trade, tend to have occurrences of sickle cell anemia and thalassemia.[42]
Brazil[edit]
Ancient DNA[edit]
At Pretos Novos Cemetery, inRio de Janeiro, Brazil,4 out 16 carriedM. tuberculosisand 3 out of 16 carried haplogroupsL3e2, L3d1,andL1c2;thus, indicating that the individuals, who were buried in the cemetery between the 18th century CE and the 19th century CE, were born inWest Africaand/or westernCentral Africa,and soon died after reaching Rio de Janeiro.[56]
Autosomal DNA[edit]
The average ancestry ofAfro-Brazilianswere found to be 70.8%African.[15]
Medical DNA[edit]
Risk allele variants G1 and G2 are associated withchronic kidney disease,which are common among populations ofSub-Saharan Africanancestry; the G2 variant occurs at a 3%-8% rate among populations of westernCentral Africanancestry and origin.[42]
Someinfectious diseasesare protected against due toAfricanancestry.[42]Hereditaryblood disorders,such assickle cell anemiaandthalassemia,produce an effect on the development ofhemoglobin,which, consequently, prevents the reproduction ofmalaria parasiteswithin theerythrocyte.[42]Populations withWest Africanancestry, including among theAfrican diasporabrought via the Trans-Atlantic slave trade, tend to have occurrences of sickle cell anemia and thalassemia.[42]
Colombia[edit]
Y-Chromosomal DNA[edit]
AtPalenque,in addition tohaplogroup R1bbeing found, includinghaplogroup R1b-V88,haplogroup E1b1a-M2was found, which includes its sub-lineages (e.g., U175, U181, U290).[57]While 37.9% was unable to be identified, the following African paternal haplogroups were able to be identified atPalenque:E1b1a-M2* (xM154, M191) (22.4% rate of occurrence) likely originates nearBight of Benin,E1b1a-M2* (xM154, M191) (12.1%) likely originates nearLoango/Angola,B2a-M150* (xM109) (5.2%) likely originates inLoango,R1b-V88(6.9%) likely originates nearBight of Benin/Loango,E1b1b-M35* (xM78, M81, M123, V6, M293) (5.2%) likely originates nearSenegambia/Bight of Benin,Y-MRCA* (xM13,SRY10831.1) (3.4%) likely originates inUpper Guinea,E1a-M33(1.7%) likely originates inUpper Guinea,E1a-M33(1.7%) likely originates nearBight of Benin/Bight of Biafra,E1b1a-M191(1.7%) likely originates nearLoango/Angola,andE1b1a-M191(1.7%) likely originates inLoango.[58]
Mitochondrial DNA[edit]
While 67.1% was unable to be identified, the following African maternal haplogroups were able to be identified atPalenque:L1b1a1’4(8.9% rate of occurrence) likely originates nearSenegambia/Upper Guinea,L1c3a1b(6.3%) likely originates nearGold Coast/Angola,L0a1a+200(1.3%) likely originates nearUpper Guinea/Bight of Benin,L2b1a(1.3%) likely originates nearBight of Benin/Angola,L2d+16129(1.3%) likely originates inAngola,L3e1d(12.7%) likely originates inAngola,andL3f1b+16365(1.3%) likely originates inGold Coast.[58]
Autosomal DNA[edit]
In 2016, linguistic evidence (e.g.,Kikongoinfluence and remnants from the early history of Palenque found inPalenquero), which was also compatible with a diverse origin for African Y-chromosome, supportedBakongo peoplebeing the founding population of Palenque; in 2020, theYombe peopleof theRepublic of the Congowere found to be genetically closest with the people ofPalenque.[57]
In addition to being found to have 28%Native Americanand 39%European(e.g.,Northern/Western) ancestry,Afro-Colombians,who were sampled in 2016 and self-reported their African ancestry, were found to be 33%African(e.g.,Yoruba).[46][47]The average ancestry ofAfro-Colombianswere found to be 76.8%African.[15]
Medical DNA[edit]
Risk allele variants G1 and G2 are associated withchronic kidney disease,which are common among populations ofSub-Saharan Africanancestry; the G2 variant occurs at a 3%-8% rate among populations of westernCentral Africanancestry and origin.[42]
Someinfectious diseasesare protected against due toAfricanancestry.[42]Hereditaryblood disorders,such assickle cell anemiaandthalassemia,produce an effect on the development ofhemoglobin,which, consequently, prevents the reproduction ofmalaria parasiteswithin theerythrocyte.[42]Populations withWest Africanancestry, including among theAfrican diasporabrought via the Trans-Atlantic slave trade, tend to have occurrences of sickle cell anemia and thalassemia.[42]
Based on 30 genetic markers,Africanancestry was shown to providestatistically significantprotection against Dengue Fever in Colombians.[42]
Peru[edit]
Autosomal DNA[edit]
The ancestry ofAfro-Peruvians,who were sampled in 2018, were found to be 78%African.[15]
Medical DNA[edit]
Risk allele variants G1 and G2 are associated withchronic kidney disease,which are common among populations ofSub-Saharan Africanancestry; the G2 variant occurs at a 3%-8% rate among populations of westernCentral Africanancestry and origin.[42]
Someinfectious diseasesare protected against due toAfricanancestry.[42]Hereditaryblood disorders,such assickle cell anemiaandthalassemia,produce an effect on the development ofhemoglobin,which, consequently, prevents the reproduction ofmalaria parasiteswithin theerythrocyte.[42]Populations withWest Africanancestry, including among theAfrican diasporabrought via the Trans-Atlantic slave trade, tend to have occurrences of sickle cell anemia and thalassemia.[42]
Suriname[edit]
Ancient DNA[edit]
InBatavia, Suriname,an enslavedWest African(e.g.,Mali) with someMiddle Easternancestry, who died more than a century ago, carried a strain ofM. lepraeandhaplogroup L3.[59]
Autosomal DNA[edit]
Due to their relative isolation from Europeans andNative Americans,Maroonsretainedand adapted theircultures from Africa.[15]European colonial forces relinquished and recognized the territorial sovereignty of areas occupied by Maroons, such asColombia,Jamaica,French Guiana, and Suriname.[15]Alukus,Kwinti,Matawai,Ndjukas,Paramakas,andSaramakas,who areMaroonsof Noir Marron, are the largest, autonomous group of Maroons in theAmericas.[15]Though Noir Marron groups and other groups among theAfrican diasporahave been in the Americas for 400 years, the ancestry of Noir Marron individuals sampled in 2017 has shown that Maroons are 98% African, which is the highest degree of retained African ancestry among the African diaspora.[15]Noir Marron Maroons were found to be genetically linked with Africans in the region of theBight of Benin;in particular, there are strong genetic connections withAfricansinBeninand a linguistic connection withGbe speakers,such as theFon people.[15]
Medical DNA[edit]
Risk allele variants G1 and G2 are associated withchronic kidney disease,which are common among populations ofSub-Saharan Africanancestry; the G2 variant occurs at a 3%-8% rate among populations of westernCentral Africanancestry and origin.[42]
Someinfectious diseasesare protected against due toAfricanancestry.[42]Hereditaryblood disorders,such assickle cell anemiaandthalassemia,produce an effect on the development ofhemoglobin,which, consequently, prevents the reproduction ofmalaria parasiteswithin theerythrocyte.[42]Populations withWest Africanancestry, including among theAfrican diasporabrought via the Trans-Atlantic slave trade, tend to have occurrences of sickle cell anemia and thalassemia.[42]
Atlantic Ocean[edit]
North Atlantic Ocean[edit]
Macaronesia[edit]
Canary Islands[edit]
Ancient DNA[edit]
At Finca Clavijo, inGran Canaria,Canary Islands,nine individuals, dated between 15th century CE and 17th century CE, who were ofSub-Saharan AfricanandNorth African/Moorishorigin, were enslaved and forcibly brought fromAfrica(e.g.,Morocco,Senegal River); the Sub-Saharan African individuals carried haplogroupsL1b,L1c,andL2a1,and the Moorish individuals carried haplogroupsH,HV/R,R0,I,andU6b1.[60]
Medical DNA[edit]
Risk allele variants G1 and G2 are associated withchronic kidney disease,which are common among populations ofSub-Saharan Africanancestry; the G2 variant occurs at a 3%-8% rate among populations of westernCentral Africanancestry and origin.[42]
Someinfectious diseasesare protected against due toAfricanancestry.[42]Hereditaryblood disorders,such assickle cell anemiaandthalassemia,produce an effect on the development ofhemoglobin,which, consequently, prevents the reproduction ofmalaria parasiteswithin theerythrocyte.[42]Populations withWest Africanancestry, including among theAfrican diasporabrought via the Trans-Atlantic slave trade, tend to have occurrences of sickle cell anemia and thalassemia.[42]
South Atlantic Ocean[edit]
Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha[edit]
Saint Helena[edit]
Ancient DNA[edit]
InSaint Helena,20 freed Africans,[61][62]who were dated to the 19th century CE,[61]were also of westernCentral African[61][63][64](e.g.,Bantu peoplesofGabonandAngola) ancestry.[61]One female individual carried haplogroupL1b1a10b.[65]One female individual carriedhaplogroup L2a1f.[65]One female individual carriedhaplogroup L2a1a3c.[65]One male individual carried haplogroupsE1b1a1a1a2a1a3b1dandL1c3a.[65]One male individual carried haplogroupsE1b1a1a1a1c1a1aandL0a1b2a.[65]One male individual carried haplogroupsE1b1a1a1a2a1a3b1a2a2andL0a1e.[65]One male individual carried haplogroupsE1b1a1a1a2a1a3b1andL2a1f1.[65]One male individual carried haplogroupsE1b1a1andL3.[65]One male individual carried haplogroupsE1b1a1a1a2a1a3b1dandL3e1e.[65]One male individual carried haplogroupsE1b1a1a1a2a1a3a1dandL3e3b2.[65]One male individual carried haplogroupsE1b1a1a1a1c1a1a3andL3e1a3a.[65]One male individual carried haplogroupsE1b1a1a1a2a1a3b1a2a2andL2b1a.[65]One male individual carried haplogroupsE1b1a1a1a2a1a3b1andL3f1b1a.[65]One male individual carried haplogroupsE1b1a1a1a2a1a3b1d1c1aandL3d3a1.[65]One male individual carried haplogroupsB2a1a1a1andL3e2b1.[65]One male individual carried haplogroupsE1b1a1a1a2a1a3b1d1c1aandL2a1f.[65]One male individual carried haplogroupsE1b1a1a1a1c1a1a3a1c1andL3e1d1a.[65]One male individual carried haplogroupsE1b1a1a1a2a1a3a1dandL1b1a10.[65]One male individual carried haplogroupsE1b1a1a1a1c1a1a3a1candL2a1f1.[65]One male individual carried haplogroupsE1b1a1a1a1c1a1andL2b1a.[65]An enslavedAfrican Americanman andwoman,from the 18th century CE Anson Street burial site inCharleston, South Carolina,who carriedhaplogroup L3e1e,shared this haplogroup with freed Africans in Saint Helena.[26]Based on those who were present among enlaved Africans, the ratio of males-to-females supports the conclusion of there being a strong selection bias for males in the latter period of theTrans-Atlantic Slave Trade.[61][66][67]Consequently, due to this study on the freed Africans of Saint Helena, among other studies, greater genetic insights have been made into the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade and its effects on thedemographics of Africa.[68]
Medical DNA[edit]
Risk allele variants G1 and G2 are associated withchronic kidney disease,which are common among populations ofSub-Saharan Africanancestry; the G2 variant occurs at a 3%-8% rate among populations of westernCentral Africanancestry and origin.[42]
Someinfectious diseasesare protected against due toAfricanancestry.[42]Hereditaryblood disorders,such assickle cell anemiaandthalassemia,produce an effect on the development ofhemoglobin,which, consequently, prevents the reproduction ofmalaria parasiteswithin theerythrocyte.[42]Populations withWest Africanancestry, including among theAfrican diasporabrought via the Trans-Atlantic slave trade, tend to have occurrences of sickle cell anemia and thalassemia.[42]
Eurasia[edit]
Amid theGreen SaharainAfrica,the mutation forsickle celloriginated in theSahara[7]or in thenorthwest forestregion of westernCentral Africa(e.g., Cameroon)[7][8]by at least 7,300 years ago,[7][8]though possibly as early as 22,000 years ago.[9][8]The ancestral sickle cell haplotype to modern haplotypes (e.g.,Cameroon/Central African RepublicandBenin/Senegalhaplotypes) may have first arose in the ancestors of modernWest Africans,bearing haplogroupsE1b1a1-L485andE1b1a1-U175or their ancestral haplogroup E1b1a1-M4732.[7]West Africans (e.g.,YorubaandEsanof Nigeria), bearing the Benin sickle cell haplotype, may have migrated through thenortheastern region of Africainto the western region ofArabia.[7]West Africans (e.g.,Mendeof Sierra Leone), bearing the Senegal sickle cell haplotype,[10][7]may have migrated intoMauritania(77% modern rate of occurrence) and Senegal (100%); they may also have migrated across the Sahara, intoNorth Africa,and from North Africa, intoSouthern Europe,Turkey,and a region near northernIraqand southern Turkey.[10]Some may have migrated and introduced the Senegal and Benin sickle cell haplotypes intoBasra,Iraq, where both occur equally.[10]West Africans, bearing the Benin sickle cell haplotype, may have migrated into the northern region of Iraq (69.5%),Jordan(80%),Lebanon(73%),Oman(52.1%), andEgypt(80.8%).[10]
Europe[edit]
As early as 11,000 years ago,Sub-SaharanWest Africans,bearingmacrohaplogroup L(e.g.,L1b1a11,L1b1a6a, L1b1a8, L1b1a9a1,L2a1k,L3d1b1a), may have migrated throughNorth Africaand intoEurope,mostly intosouthern Europe(e.g.,Iberia).[6]
During the early period of the Holocene,Sub-Saharan African mitochondrial DNAwas introduced into Europe, mostly inIberia.[11]West Africansprobably migrated, acrossSahelianAfrica,North Africa,and theStrait of Gibraltar,intoEurope,and introduced 63% of Sub-Saharan African mitochondrial DNA.[11]During the modern period, West Africans introduced 75% of Sub-Saharan African mitochondrial DNA into Iberia and other parts of Europe, possibly by sea voyage.[11]
France[edit]
Ancient DNA[edit]
AtPont-sur-Seine,inFrance,a male individual, dated to theMiddle Neolithic,carried haplogroupsE1b1a1a1a1c2candU5b1-16189-@16192.[69]
Medical DNA[edit]
Risk allele variants G1 and G2 are associated withchronic kidney disease,which are common among populations ofSub-Saharan Africanancestry; the G2 variant occurs at a 3%-8% rate among populations of westernCentral Africanancestry and origin.[42]
Someinfectious diseasesare protected against due toAfricanancestry.[42]Hereditaryblood disorders,such assickle cell anemiaandthalassemia,produce an effect on the development ofhemoglobin,which, consequently, prevents the reproduction ofmalaria parasiteswithin theerythrocyte.[42]Populations withWest Africanancestry, including among theAfrican diasporabrought via the Trans-Atlantic slave trade, tend to have occurrences of sickle cell anemia and thalassemia.[42]
Greece[edit]
Medical DNA[edit]
According to some studies,Greeksshare someHuman Leukocyte Antigen(HLA) alleles withEast Africans(e.g., Amhara,Nuba,Oromo) and West Africans (e.g.,Fulani,Mossi,Rimaibe) fromBurkina Faso,[70][71][72]who are viewed as having a possible earlier origin inEthiopia.[71][73]In particular, West Africans (e.g., Fulani, Mossi, Rimaibe) and Ethiopians (e.g.,Amhara,Oromo) are viewed as sharing the mostHLA-DRB1alleles with Greeks.[74][72]Greeks, West Africans, and Ethiopians are viewed as viewed as sharing chromosome 7 markers.[70]During thedesertificationof theGreen Saharain 5000 BCE, or during the time ofancient Egypt,admixture between Greeks and black Africans are viewed as having occurred.[70]Following thearidificationof the Green Sahara, Africans are viewed as possibly having migrated from the southern region of the Sahara to the region ofAthensand theislands in the Aegean.[71][73]If the migration of black Africans into Greece occurred following the drying of theGreen Sahara,it is viewed that this may indicate thatPelasgiansderive from black Africans.[70]More likely, if the migration ofblack Africansinto Greece occurred during the time of ancient Egypt, then it is viewed that it may have been when black African dynasties in ancient Egypt and that those who followed them were expelled.[70][71]Alternatively, during the existence of ancient Egypt, it is viewed that groups from Ethiopia may have migrated to Greece and West Africa, thereby, resulting in the possible admixture of modern Greeks and modern West African ethnic groups (e.g., Fulani, Mossi, Rimaibe).[74]Greeks are viewed as sharing some alleles with West Africans (e.g., Fulani, Mossi, and Rimaibe) and East Africans (e.g., Oromo, Amhara, Nubians),[75][72]the latter of which are viewed as also interrelated.[75]Following the expulsion of what are characterized as black African Egyptian dynasties and groups who followed the dynasties toward Greece, it is viewed that there may have been subsequent admixture between the incoming groups and Greeks.[75]Another migration ofWest Africansmay have occurred thereafter.[75]Additionally, following desertification of theGreen Saharaaround 5000 BCE, it is viewed that there may have been another migration of black Africans intoGreece.[75]A shared autosomal marker, relating tocystic fibrosis(3120 + 1 G), was viewed as having been found between some Africans and Greeks; as a possible historic explanation for the presence of this marker, theDanaids,who are identified as Africans, are viewed as possibly having migrated toward thenorth,intoancient Egypt,being repelled in ancient Egypt, and subsequently having migrated intoPeloponnesus.[72]
Risk allele variants G1 and G2 are associated withchronic kidney disease,which are common among populations ofSub-Saharan Africanancestry; the G2 variant occurs at a 3%-8% rate among populations of westernCentral Africanancestry and origin.[42]
Someinfectious diseasesare protected against due toAfricanancestry.[42]Hereditaryblood disorders,such assickle cell anemiaandthalassemia,produce an effect on the development ofhemoglobin,which, consequently, prevents the reproduction ofmalaria parasiteswithin theerythrocyte.[42]Populations withWest Africanancestry, including among theAfrican diasporabrought via the Trans-Atlantic slave trade, tend to have occurrences of sickle cell anemia and thalassemia.[42]
Italy[edit]
Ancient DNA[edit]
AnAfricanindividual, who has been dated between 1st century CE and 3rd century CE as well as carriedhaplogroup H1,may have forcibly (viaenslavement) or voluntarily migrated from the centralSaharaor theNile Valley(e.g.,Sudan) toRome.[13]
Medical DNA[edit]
Risk allele variants G1 and G2 are associated withchronic kidney disease,which are common among populations ofSub-Saharan Africanancestry; the G2 variant occurs at a 3%-8% rate among populations of westernCentral Africanancestry and origin.[42]
Someinfectious diseasesare protected against due toAfricanancestry.[42]Hereditaryblood disorders,such assickle cell anemiaandthalassemia,produce an effect on the development ofhemoglobin,which, consequently, prevents the reproduction ofmalaria parasiteswithin theerythrocyte.[42]Populations withWest Africanancestry, including among theAfrican diasporabrought via the Trans-Atlantic slave trade, tend to have occurrences of sickle cell anemia and thalassemia.[42]
Portugal[edit]
Ancient DNA[edit]
In 4000 BP, there may have been a population that traversed fromAfrica(e.g.,West Africaor West-Central Africa), through theStrait of Gibraltar,into theIberian peninsula,where admi xing between Africans and Iberians (e.g., of northernPortugal,of southernSpain) occurred.[12]
At Valle da Gafaria, inLagos, Portugal,sevenenslaved Africans,five of which had a combination ofAfrican and European admixture,and two of which hadWest AfricanandBantuancestry, all of who were estimated to date between the 15th century CE and the 17th century CE; while one of their haplogroups went undetermined, it was determined that the others carried haplogroupsH2a2,L1b1,L3i1b,L3'4'6,L2b1,andL3d.[76][77]
At Cabeço da Amoreira, inPortugal,anenslavedWest Africanman, who may have been from theSenegambiancoastal region ofGambia,Mauritania,orSenegal,and carried haplogroupsE1b1aandL3b1a,was buried amongshell middensbetween the 16th century CE and the 18th century CE.[78]
Mitochondrial DNA[edit]
InLisbon,Portugal,87% ofAngolans,who were sampled in 2014, carried various haplogroups ofMacro-haplogroup L(e.g.,L0a, L0d,L1b,L1c,L2a,L2b,L2c,L3a, L3b, L3d, L3f,L4), whereas, other sampled Angolans carried different haplogroups (e.g.,H,T,R0,K,U,J,M).[16]
InLisbon,Portugal,out of 80Guinea-Bissauns,who were sampled in 2017, 73 carriedMacro-haplogroup L,5 carriedhaplogroup U,one carriedhaplogroup M,and one carriedhaplogroup V.[17]
InLisbon,Portugal,81% ofMozambicans,who were sampled in 2017, carried various haplogroups ofMacro-haplogroup L,whereas, 19% of the sampled Mozambicans carried different haplogroups (e.g.,H,U,K,J1,M4,R0,T2).[18]
Medical DNA[edit]
Risk allele variants G1 and G2 are associated withchronic kidney disease,which are common among populations ofSub-Saharan Africanancestry; the G2 variant occurs at a 3%-8% rate among populations of westernCentral Africanancestry and origin.[42]
Someinfectious diseasesare protected against due toAfricanancestry.[42]Hereditaryblood disorders,such assickle cell anemiaandthalassemia,produce an effect on the development ofhemoglobin,which, consequently, prevents the reproduction ofmalaria parasiteswithin theerythrocyte.[42]Populations withWest Africanancestry, including among theAfrican diasporabrought via the Trans-Atlantic slave trade, tend to have occurrences of sickle cell anemia and thalassemia.[42]
Spain[edit]
Ancient DNA[edit]
In 4000 BP, there may have been a population that traversed fromAfrica(e.g.,West Africaor West-Central Africa), through theStrait of Gibraltar,into theIberian peninsula,where admi xing between Africans and Iberians (e.g., of northernPortugal,of southernSpain) occurred.[12]
InGranada,Spain,a Muslim (Moor) of theCordoba Caliphate,[79]who was of haplogroupsE1b1a1andH1+16189,[80]as well as estimated to date between 900 CE and 1000 CE, and aMorisco,[79]who was ofhaplogroup L2e1,[80]as well as estimated to date between 1500 CE and 1600 CE, were both found to be ofWest African(i.e.,Gambian) andIberiandescent.[79]
Medical DNA[edit]
Risk allele variants G1 and G2 are associated withchronic kidney disease,which are common among populations ofSub-Saharan Africanancestry; the G2 variant occurs at a 3%-8% rate among populations of westernCentral Africanancestry and origin.[42]
Someinfectious diseasesare protected against due toAfricanancestry.[42]Hereditaryblood disorders,such assickle cell anemiaandthalassemia,produce an effect on the development ofhemoglobin,which, consequently, prevents the reproduction ofmalaria parasiteswithin theerythrocyte.[42]Populations withWest Africanancestry, including among theAfrican diasporabrought via the Trans-Atlantic slave trade, tend to have occurrences of sickle cell anemia and thalassemia.[42]
Asia[edit]
Between 15,000 BP and 7000 BP, 86% ofSub-Saharan African mitochondrial DNAwas introduced into Southwest Asia byEast Africans,largely in the region ofArabia,which constitute 50% of Sub-Saharan African mitochondrial DNA in modernSouthwest Asia.[11]During the modern period, a greater number of West Africans introduced Sub-Saharan African mitochondrial DNA than East Africans.[11]In the modern period, 68% of Sub-Saharan African mitochondrial DNA was introduced by East Africans and 22% was introduced byWest Africans,which constitutes 50% of Sub-Saharan African mitochondrial DNA in modern Southwest Asia.[11]
Arabia[edit]
Mitochondrial DNA[edit]
From as early as 2500 BP,East Africanfemales migrated, as well as some who may have later beenenslavedand forcibly transported, intoArabia.[81]Consequently,Arabs,who were sampled in 2003, have been shown to carrySub-Saharan Africanhaplogroups (e.g.,L1,L2,L3b, L3d, L3e); specifically, 35% ofYemenesefrom theHadramawtregion, and between 10% and 15% among other Arabs (e.g.,Bedouin,Iraqis,Jordanians,Palestinians,Syrians).[81]
Medical DNA[edit]
Risk allele variants G1 and G2 are associated withchronic kidney disease,which are common among populations ofSub-Saharan Africanancestry; the G2 variant occurs at a 3%-8% rate among populations of westernCentral Africanancestry and origin.[42]
Someinfectious diseasesare protected against due toAfricanancestry.[42]Hereditaryblood disorders,such assickle cell anemiaandthalassemia,produce an effect on the development ofhemoglobin,which, consequently, prevents the reproduction ofmalaria parasiteswithin theerythrocyte.[42]Populations withWest Africanancestry, including among theAfrican diasporabrought via the Trans-Atlantic slave trade, tend to have occurrences of sickle cell anemia and thalassemia.[42]
Georgia[edit]
Ancient DNA[edit]
InAbkhazia,Georgia,anAfricanwoman, Zana, who carriedhaplogroup L2b1b,was 34%West Africanand 66%East African,and lived during the 19th century CE.[82]Between the 16th century CE and the 19th century CE, the ancestors of Zana, who were of West African and East African ancestry, may have arrived in Abkhazia, Georgia as a result ofenslavementduringtheOttoman Empire.[82]Khwit, who was the son of Zana and carried haplogroupsR1b1a1b1andL2b1b,was ofAfricanandEuropeanadmixture.[82]
Medical DNA[edit]
Local myth about Zana ofAbkhazia,Georgiabeing anAlmastywas refuted by genetic evidence fromancient DNA,which confirmed that Zana was neither closely related to chimpanzees nor closely related to archaic humans, but closely related to othermodern humans.[82]Margaryan et al. (2021) speculate that Zana may have hadcongenital generalized hypertrichosis,which may have resulted in the development of the local myth.[82]
Risk allele variants G1 and G2 are associated withchronic kidney disease,which are common among populations ofSub-Saharan Africanancestry; the G2 variant occurs at a 3%-8% rate among populations of westernCentral Africanancestry and origin.[42]
Someinfectious diseasesare protected against due toAfricanancestry.[42]Hereditaryblood disorders,such assickle cell anemiaandthalassemia,produce an effect on the development ofhemoglobin,which, consequently, prevents the reproduction ofmalaria parasiteswithin theerythrocyte.[42]Populations withWest Africanancestry, including among theAfrican diasporabrought via the Trans-Atlantic slave trade, tend to have occurrences of sickle cell anemia and thalassemia.[42]
India[edit]
Y-Chromosomal DNA[edit]
Out of the total amount of haplogroups carried,Siddis,who were sampled in 2011, 70% of their paternal haplogroups were found to beAfrican;their paternal haplogroups were found to be common amongBantu-speaking peoples.[14]
Mitochondrial DNA[edit]
Out of the total amount of haplogroups carried,Siddis,who were sampled in 2011, 24% of their maternal haplogroups were found to beAfrican.[14]
Autosomal DNA[edit]
In addition to being found to have 30.74% (±10.98%)South Indianand 7.05% (±10.15%)Europeanancestry,Siddis,who were sampled in 2011, were found to be 62.21% (±9.68%)East African.[83]Siddis, who were sampled twice in 2011, were found to be 60%-75%Sub-Saharan African.[14]
Medical DNA[edit]
Risk allele variants G1 and G2 are associated withchronic kidney disease,which are common among populations ofSub-Saharan Africanancestry; the G2 variant occurs at a 3%-8% rate among populations of westernCentral Africanancestry and origin.[42]
Someinfectious diseasesare protected against due toAfricanancestry.[42]Hereditaryblood disorders,such assickle cell anemiaandthalassemia,produce an effect on the development ofhemoglobin,which, consequently, prevents the reproduction ofmalaria parasiteswithin theerythrocyte.[42]Populations withWest Africanancestry, including among theAfrican diasporabrought via the Trans-Atlantic slave trade, tend to have occurrences of sickle cell anemia and thalassemia.[42]
Israel[edit]
Medical DNA[edit]
During theCopper Ageandearly Islamic eraofancient Israel,West Africansmay have migrated into ancient Israel and introducedhead lousefromWest Africa.[84]
Risk allele variants G1 and G2 are associated withchronic kidney disease,which are common among populations ofSub-Saharan Africanancestry; the G2 variant occurs at a 3%-8% rate among populations of westernCentral Africanancestry and origin.[42]
Someinfectious diseasesare protected against due toAfricanancestry.[42]Hereditaryblood disorders,such assickle cell anemiaandthalassemia,produce an effect on the development ofhemoglobin,which, consequently, prevents the reproduction ofmalaria parasiteswithin theerythrocyte.[42]Populations withWest Africanancestry, including among theAfrican diasporabrought via the Trans-Atlantic slave trade, tend to have occurrences of sickle cell anemia and thalassemia.[42]
Pakistan[edit]
Y-Chromosomal DNA[edit]
Out of the total amount of haplogroups carried,Makranis,who were sampled in 2002 and 2004, 12% (±7%) of their paternal haplogroups wereAfrican.[14]
Mitochondrial DNA[edit]
Out of the total amount of haplogroups carried,Makranis,who were sampled in 2002 and 2004, 40% (±9%) of their maternal haplogroups wereAfrican.[14]
Autosomal DNA[edit]
While theoratureamong Makranis narrates an origin fromAbyssinia,the genetic results from 2017 show that much of the ancestry ofMakranisderives fromBantu-speaking peoples(Zanj), specifically from thesoutheast AfricanSwahili coast.[14]In addition to being found to have 74.5%Pakistaniancestry, Makranis, who were sampled in 2017, were found to be 25.5%Sub-Saharan African.[14]Due to the African ancestry in Makranis being genetically similar to southeastern Bantu (e.g.,Sotho) and eastern Bantu (e.g.,Luhya) peoples, their African ancestry may derive from a source population inMozambique.[14]Additionally, the African ancestors of the Makranis may have been enslaved by slavers from theOmani Empireduring theIndian Ocean slave tradeof the 18th century CE.[14]
Medical DNA[edit]
SinceenslavedAfricans were brought toPakistan,the AfricanDuffy-null allelesin Makranis have evolved.[14]Makranishave an increased level ofmalarialresistance toP. vivax.[14]
Risk allele variants G1 and G2 are associated withchronic kidney disease,which are common among populations ofSub-Saharan Africanancestry; the G2 variant occurs at a 3%-8% rate among populations of westernCentral Africanancestry and origin.[42]
Someinfectious diseasesare protected against due toAfricanancestry.[42]Hereditaryblood disorders,such assickle cell anemiaandthalassemia,produce an effect on the development ofhemoglobin,which, consequently, prevents the reproduction ofmalaria parasiteswithin theerythrocyte.[42]Populations withWest Africanancestry, including among theAfrican diasporabrought via the Trans-Atlantic slave trade, tend to have occurrences of sickle cell anemia and thalassemia.[42]
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| Secondary Afro-American diaspora |
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| Genetic history by region | |
| Population genetics by group |
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