Geography of Algeria
  | |
| Continent | Africa |
|---|---|
| Region | North Africa |
| Coordinates | 28°00′N3°00′E/ 28.000°N 3.000°E |
| Area | Ranked 10th |
| • Total | 2,381,741 km2(919,595 sq mi) |
| • Land | 100% |
| • Water | 0% |
| Coastline | 2,148 km (1,335 mi) |
| Borders | Land boundaries: 6,343 km Morocco1,559 km, Mali1,376 km, Libya982 km, Tunisia965 km, Niger956 km, Mauritania463 km, Western Sahara42 km |
| Maritime claims | 32–52nm |
| Highest point | Mount Tahat,3,003 m |
| Lowest point | Chott Melrhir,−40 m (131 ft) |
| Longest river | Chelif River,230 km |
| Climate | aridtosemiarid |
| Terrain | mostly high plateau and desert, mountains, narrow coastal plain[1] |
| Natural resources | petroleum,natural gas,iron ore,phosphates,uranium,lead,zinc[1] |
| Natural hazards | earthquakes, mudslides, floods, droughts |
| Environmental issues | soil erosion,desertification,pollution |
| Exclusive economic zone | 126,353 km2(48,785 sq mi) |
Algeriacomprises 2,381,740 square kilometres (919,590 sq mi) of land, more than 80% of which is desert, inNorth Africa,betweenMoroccoandTunisia.[2][1]It is the largest country in Africa.[1]Its Arabic name, Al Jazair (the islands), is believed to derive from the rocky islands along the coastline of theMediterranean Sea.[2]The northern portion, an area of mountains, valleys, and plateaus between the Mediterranean and theSahara Desert,forms an integral part of the section of North Africa known as theMaghreb.[2]This area includes Morocco,Tunisia,and the northwestern portion ofLibyaknown historically asTripolitania.[2]
Size and boundaries[edit]
Land boundaries:
Total:6,734 km (4,184 mi)[1]
Border countries:Libya982 km (610 mi),Mali1,376 km (855 mi),Mauritania463 km (288 mi),Morocco1,559 km (969 mi),Niger956 km (594 mi),Tunisia965 km (600 mi),Western Sahara42 km (26 mi).[3][4]
Area – comparative:slightly larger than theDemocratic Republic of the CongoandSaudi Arabia
Coastline:2,148 km (1,335 mi)[5][6]
Maritime claims:Territorial sea:12 nmi (22.2 km; 13.8 mi),contiguous zone:24 nautical miles (44 km; 28 mi);exclusive fishing zone:32 to 52 nmi (59 to 96 km; 37 to 60 mi)[1]
Geographic regions[edit]
The Tell[edit]
The fertile Tell is the country's heartland, containing most of its cities and population.[2]Made up of hills and plains of the narrow coastal region, the several Tell Atlas mountain ranges, and the intermediate valleys and basins, the Tell extends eastward from the Moroccan border to themountainsof the Grande Kabylie and the Bejaia Plain on the east.[2]Its eastern terminus is the Soummam River.[2]
The best agricultural areas are the gentle hills extending 100 kilometers westward from Algiers; the Mitidja Plain, which was a malarial swamp before being cleared by the French; and the Bejaia Plain.[2]The alluvial soils in these areas permitted the French to establish magnificent vineyards and citrus groves.[2]By contrast, in the great valley of the Chelif River and other interior valleys and basins, aridity and excessive summer heat have limited the development of agriculture.[2]The Grande Kabylie is a zone of impoverished small farm villages tucked into convoluted mountains.[2]
The High Plateaus and the Saharan Atlas[edit]
Stretching from the Moroccan border theTell Atlas,including theDjebel Baborformation, is the dominant northwestern mountain range. Stretching more than 600 kilometers eastward from the Moroccan border, the high plateau area (often referred to by the French nameHautes PlainesorHauts Plateaux) consist of undulating, steppe-like plains lying between the Tell andSaharan Atlasranges.[2]The elevation averages between 1,100–1,300 metres (3,600–4,300 ft) in elevation in the west, dropping to 400 metres (1,300 ft) in the east.[2]The climate is so dry that these plains are sometimes thought of as part of theSahara.[2]The plateau area is covered by alluvial debris formed when the mountains eroded.[2]An occasional ridge projects through the alluvial cover to interrupt the monotony of the landscape.[2]
Higher and more continuous than the Tell Atlas, the Sahara Atlas range is formed of three massifs: theKsour Rangenear the Moroccan border, theAmour Range,and theOuled-Naïl Rangesouth ofAlgiers.[2]The mountains, which receive more rainfall than those of the High Plateaus, include some good grazing land.[2]Watercourses on the southern slopes of these massifs disappear into the desert but supply the wells of numerousoasesalong the northern edge of the desert, of whichBiskra,Laghouat,andBécharare the most prominent.[2]
Northeastern Algeria[edit]
Eastern Algeria consists of amassifarea extensively dissected into mountains, plains, and basins.[2]It differs from the western portion of the country in that its prominent topographic features do not parallel the coast.[2]In its southern sector, the steep cliffs and long ridges of theAurès Mountainscreate an almost impenetrable refuge that has played an important part in the history of the Maghrib sinceRomantimes.[2]Near the northern coast, thePetite Kabylie Mountainsare separated from the Grande Kabylie range at the eastward limits of the Tell by the Soummam River.[2]The coast is predominantly mountainous in the far eastern part of the country, but limited plains provide hinterlands for the port cities of Bejaïa, Skikda, and Annaba.[2]In the interior of the region, extensive high plains mark the region aroundSétifandConstantine;these plains were developed during the French colonial period as the principal centers of grain cultivation.[2]Near Constantine, salt marshes offer seasonal grazing grounds to seminomadic sheep herders.[2]
The Sahara[edit]
The Algerian portion of the Sahara extends south of the Saharan Atlas for 1,500 kilometres (930 mi) to the Niger and Mali frontiers.[2]The desert is an otherworldly place, scarcely considered an integral part of the country.[2]Far from being covered wholly by sweeps of sand, however, it is a region of great diversity.[2]Immense areas of sand dunes called areg (sing., erg) occupy about one-quarter of the territory.[2]The largest such region is theGrand Erg Oriental(Great Eastern Erg), where enormous dunes two to five metres (6.6 to 16.4 ft) high are spaced about 40 metres (130 ft) apart.[2]Much of the remainder of the desert is covered by rocky platforms called humud (sing., hamada), and almost the entire southeastern quarter is taken up by the high, complex mass of the Ahaggar andTassili n'Ajjerhighlands, some parts of which reach more than 2,000 metres (6,600 ft).[2]Surrounding the Ahaggar are sandstone plateaus, cut into deep gorges by ancient rivers, and to the west a desert of pebbles stretches to the Mali frontier.[2]
The desert consists of readily distinguishable northern and southern sectors, the northern sector extending southward a little less than half the distance to theNigerandMalifrontiers.[2]The north, less arid than the south, supports most of the few persons who live in the region and contains most of the desert's oases.[2]Sand dunes are the most prominent features of this area's topography, but between the desert areas of the Grand Erg Oriental and theGrand Erg Occidental(Great Western Erg) and extending north to the Atlas Saharien are plateaus, including theTademaïtand a complex limestone structure called theM'zabwhere theMozabiteBerbershave settled.[2]The southern zone of the Sahara is almost totally arid and is inhabited only by theTuaregnomads and, recently, by oil camp workers.[2]Barren rock predominates, but in some parts of Ahaggar and Tassili n'Ajjer alluvial deposits permit garden farming.[2]
Climate and hydrology[edit]
Northern Algeria is in the temperate zone and enjoys a mild, Mediterranean climate.[7]It lies within approximately the same latitudes as southern California and has somewhat similar climatic conditions.[7]Its broken topography, however, provides sharp local contrasts in both prevailing temperatures and incidence of rainfall.[7]Year-to-year variations in climatic conditions are also common.[7]This area, the most inhabited in Algeria, is commonly referred to as the Tell.
In the Tell, temperatures in summer average between 30 and 43 °C (86 and 109 °F) and in winter drop to 10 to 12 °C (50 to 54 °F).[7]Winters are not cold, but the humidity is high and houses are seldom adequately heated.[7]In eastern Algeria, the average temperatures are somewhat lower, and on the steppes of the High Plateaus winter temperatures hover only a few degrees above freezing.[7]A prominent feature of the climate in this region is thesirocco,a dusty, choking south wind blowing off the desert, sometimes at gale force.[7]This wind also occasionally reaches into the coastal Tell.[7]
In Algeria only a relatively small corner of theSaharalies across theTropic of Cancerin the torrid zone, but even in winter, midday desert temperatures can be very hot.[7]After sunset, however, the clear, dry air permits rapid loss of heat, and the nights are cool to chilly.[7]Enormous daily ranges in temperature are recorded.[7]
Rainfall is fairly abundant along the coastal part of the Tell, ranging from 400 to 670 mm (15.7 to 26.4 in) annually, the amount of precipitation increasing from west to east.[7]Precipitation is heaviest in the northern part of eastern Algeria, where it reaches as much as 1,000 mm (39.4 in) in some years.[7]Farther inland the rainfall is less plentiful.[7]Prevailing windsthat are easterly and northeasterly in summer change to westerly and northerly in winter and carry with them a general increase in precipitation from September to December, a decrease in the late winter and spring months, and a near absence of rainfall during the summer months.[7]
| Climate data for Algiers (Houari Boumediene Airport) 1976–2005 averages, extremes 1838–present | |||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
| Record high °C (°F) | 27.6 (81.7) |
31.4 (88.5) |
36.3 (97.3) |
36.5 (97.7) |
41.1 (106.0) |
44.6 (112.3) |
45.2 (113.4) |
47.5 (117.5) |
44.4 (111.9) |
39.5 (103.1) |
34.4 (93.9) |
30.4 (86.7) |
47.5 (117.5) |
| Mean daily maximum °C (°F) | 16.7 (62.1) |
17.4 (63.3) |
19.3 (66.7) |
20.9 (69.6) |
23.9 (75.0) |
28.2 (82.8) |
31.2 (88.2) |
32.2 (90.0) |
29.6 (85.3) |
25.9 (78.6) |
20.8 (69.4) |
17.9 (64.2) |
23.7 (74.7) |
| Daily mean °C (°F) | 11.1 (52.0) |
11.7 (53.1) |
13.2 (55.8) |
14.9 (58.8) |
18.1 (64.6) |
22.2 (72.0) |
25.1 (77.2) |
26.0 (78.8) |
23.6 (74.5) |
20.1 (68.2) |
15.3 (59.5) |
12.6 (54.7) |
17.8 (64.0) |
| Mean daily minimum °C (°F) | 5.5 (41.9) |
5.9 (42.6) |
7.1 (44.8) |
8.8 (47.8) |
12.3 (54.1) |
16.1 (61.0) |
18.9 (66.0) |
19.8 (67.6) |
17.6 (63.7) |
14.2 (57.6) |
9.8 (49.6) |
7.2 (45.0) |
11.9 (53.4) |
| Record low °C (°F) | −3.3 (26.1) |
−1.9 (28.6) |
−1.0 (30.2) |
−0.8 (30.6) |
2.6 (36.7) |
5.5 (41.9) |
9.0 (48.2) |
9.5 (49.1) |
8.2 (46.8) |
4.1 (39.4) |
−0.1 (31.8) |
−2.3 (27.9) |
−3.3 (26.1) |
| Averageprecipitationmm (inches) | 81.4 (3.20) |
72.7 (2.86) |
55.0 (2.17) |
58.4 (2.30) |
41.9 (1.65) |
8.5 (0.33) |
4.5 (0.18) |
8.2 (0.32) |
28.3 (1.11) |
58.8 (2.31) |
89.6 (3.53) |
91.0 (3.58) |
598.3 (23.56) |
| Average precipitation days(≥ 0.1 mm) | 11.4 | 10.6 | 9.7 | 9.1 | 7.3 | 2.5 | 1.5 | 2.5 | 5.3 | 8.6 | 11.1 | 12.1 | 91.7 |
| Averagerelative humidity(%) | 71 | 66 | 65 | 62 | 66 | 66 | 67 | 65 | 68 | 66 | 68 | 68 | 67 |
| Mean monthlysunshine hours | 139.5 | 158.2 | 207.7 | 228.0 | 300.7 | 300.0 | 353.4 | 325.5 | 267.0 | 198.4 | 153.0 | 145.7 | 2,777.1 |
| Mean dailysunshine hours | 4.5 | 5.6 | 6.7 | 7.6 | 9.7 | 10.0 | 11.4 | 10.5 | 8.9 | 6.4 | 5.1 | 4.7 | 7.6 |
| Source 1:World Meteorological Organization(average temperatures and precipitation, 1976–2005)[8] | |||||||||||||
| Source 2: Arab Meteorology Book (humidity and sun),[9]Meteo Climat (record highs and lows)[10] | |||||||||||||
| Climate data for Adrar | |||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
| Record high °C (°F) | 31.2 (88.2) |
36.0 (96.8) |
40.7 (105.3) |
43.8 (110.8) |
49.8 (121.6) |
48.9 (120.0) |
51.0 (123.8) |
49.8 (121.6) |
46.8 (116.2) |
43.5 (110.3) |
36.0 (96.8) |
31.8 (89.2) |
51.0 (123.8) |
| Mean daily maximum °C (°F) | 20.6 (69.1) |
24.5 (76.1) |
28.0 (82.4) |
32.1 (89.8) |
36.7 (98.1) |
42.5 (108.5) |
45.0 (113.0) |
44.3 (111.7) |
40.0 (104.0) |
33.1 (91.6) |
26.1 (79.0) |
20.9 (69.6) |
32.8 (91.0) |
| Daily mean °C (°F) | 12.4 (54.3) |
16.0 (60.8) |
19.4 (66.9) |
23.6 (74.5) |
28.1 (82.6) |
33.6 (92.5) |
36.0 (96.8) |
35.4 (95.7) |
31.6 (88.9) |
25.0 (77.0) |
18.2 (64.8) |
12.9 (55.2) |
24.3 (75.7) |
| Mean daily minimum °C (°F) | 4.1 (39.4) |
7.5 (45.5) |
10.7 (51.3) |
15.1 (59.2) |
19.4 (66.9) |
24.7 (76.5) |
26.9 (80.4) |
26.6 (79.9) |
23.2 (73.8) |
16.8 (62.2) |
10.2 (50.4) |
4.9 (40.8) |
15.8 (60.4) |
| Record low °C (°F) | −4.2 (24.4) |
−2.0 (28.4) |
0.5 (32.9) |
4.8 (40.6) |
8.9 (48.0) |
15.2 (59.4) |
18.2 (64.8) |
20.0 (68.0) |
15.2 (59.4) |
6.0 (42.8) |
−1.5 (29.3) |
−4.1 (24.6) |
−4.2 (24.4) |
| Averageprecipitationmm (inches) | 2.3 (0.09) |
1.3 (0.05) |
2.6 (0.10) |
4.1 (0.16) |
0.3 (0.01) |
0.1 (0.00) |
0.0 (0.0) |
0.2 (0.01) |
0.2 (0.01) |
1.5 (0.06) |
0.6 (0.02) |
1.4 (0.06) |
14.6 (0.57) |
| Average precipitation days(≥ 0.1 mm) | 0.4 | 0.4 | 0.2 | 0.2 | 0.1 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.3 | 0.2 | 0.4 | 0.7 | 0.7 | 3.6 |
| Averagerelative humidity(%) | 52 | 52 | 40 | 34 | 30 | 28 | 26 | 29 | 36 | 48 | 59 | 57 | 42 |
| Mean monthlysunshine hours | 269.7 | 257.1 | 310.0 | 318.0 | 325.5 | 333.0 | 344.1 | 328.6 | 288.0 | 279.0 | 261.0 | 263.5 | 3,577.5 |
| Mean dailysunshine hours | 8.7 | 9.1 | 10.0 | 10.6 | 10.5 | 11.1 | 11.1 | 10.6 | 9.6 | 9.0 | 8.7 | 8.5 | 9.8 |
| Source 1: NOAA[11] | |||||||||||||
| Source 2:Deutscher Wetterdienst(extremes, humidity and sun)[12] | |||||||||||||
Terrain[edit]
| Land use | (2014 est.) |
|---|---|
| • Arable land | 18.02% |
| • Permanent crops | 2.34% |
| • Permanent pastures | 79.63% |
| • Forest | 0.82% |
| • Other | 81.80% |
| Irrigated land | 13,600 km2(5,300 sq mi) |
Clearing of land for agricultural use and cutting of timber over the centuries have severely reduced the once bountiful forest wealth.[13]Forest fires have also taken their toll.[13]In the higher and wetter portions of the Tell Atlas, cork oak and Aleppo pine grow in thick soils.[13]At lower levels on thinner soils, drought-resistant shrubs predominate.[13]The grapevine is indigenous to the coastal lowlands, and grasses and scrub cover the High Plateaus.[13]On the Saharan Atlas, little survives of the once extensive forests of Atlas cedar that have been exploited for fuel and timber since antiquity.[13]
The forest reserves in Algeria were severely reduced during the colonial period.[13]In 1967 it was calculated that the country's forested area extended over no more than 24,000 square kilometres (9,300 sq mi) of terrain, of which 18,000 km2(6,900 sq mi) were overgrown with brushwood and scrub.[13]By contrast, woodlands in 1830 had covered 40,000 km2(15,000 sq mi).[13]In the mid-1970s, however, the government embarked on a vast reforestation program to help control erosion, which was estimated to affect 100,000 cubic metres (3,500,000 cu ft) of arable land annually.[13]Among projects was one to create a barrage vert (green barrier) more or less following the ridge line of the Saharan Atlas and extending from Morocco to the Tunisian frontier in a zone 1,500 kilometres (930 mi) long and up to 20 kilometres (12 mi) wide.[13]
The barrage vert consists principally of Aleppo pine, a species that can thrive in areas of scanty rainfall.[13]It is designed to restore a damaged ecological balance and to halt the northern encroachment of the Sahara.[13]By the early 1980s, the desert had already penetrated the hilly gap between the Saharan Atlas and the Aurès Mountains as far as the town of Bou Saâda, a point well within the High Plateaus region.[13]The barrage vert project was ended in the late 1980s because of lack of funds.[13]
Algeria had a 2018Forest Landscape Integrity Indexmean score of 5.22/10, ranking it 106th globally out of 172 countries.[14]
Statistics[edit]
Natural resources:petroleum, natural gas, iron ore, phosphates, uranium, lead, zinc[1]
Natural hazards:mountainous areas subject to severe earthquakes; mudslides and floods in rainy season[1]
Environment – current issues:air pollution in major cities;soil erosionfrom overgrazing and other poor farming practices;desertification;dumping of raw sewage, petroleum refining wastes, and other industrial effluents is leading to the pollution of rivers and coastal waters; Mediterranean Sea, in particular, becoming polluted from oil wastes, soil erosion, and fertilizer runoff; inadequate supplies of potable water[1]
Environment – international agreements: party to:Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Climate Change-Paris Agreement, Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands signed, but not ratified: Nuclear Test Ban[1]
Protected areas[edit]
Algeria has a number of protected areas including National Parks and nature reserves. An example of such a protected area is theDjebel Babor Nature Reservewithin theDjebel Babor Mountains;[15]the Djebel Babor is also one of the few relict habitats for theendangeredBarbary macaque,Macaca sylvanus.[16]
The national parks in Algeria are:Ahaggar,Belezma,Chréa,Djurdjura,El Kala,Gouraya,Tassili n'Ajjer,Taza,Théniet El Had,andTlemcen.
Extreme points[edit]
Elevation extremes:
- Lowest point:Chott Melrhir:−40 metres (−130 ft)[1]
- Highest point:Mount Tahat:2,908 metres (9,541 ft)[1]
Points that are farther north, south, east or west than any other location:[citation needed]
- Northernmost point –Cap Takouch,Annaba ProvinceorCap Bougaroûn,Skikdaprovince
- Easternmost point – thetripointwithNigerandLibya,Djanet Province
- Southernmost point – unnamed location on the border withMalieast of the Malian village ofIn-Abalen,In Guezzam Province
- Westernmost point – the western section of the border withMorocco/Western Sahara,Tindouf Province(Note: Algeria does not have a westernmost point, the border being formed by a line oflongitude)
See also[edit]
References[edit]
- ^abcdefghijklCentral Intelligence Agency (2 June 2020).The CIA World Factbook 2020-2021.Skyhorse. p. 158.ISBN978-1-5107-5826-1.
- ^abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzaaabacadaeafagahaiajakalDeeb, Mary-Jane(1993). "Physical Setting". InMetz, Helen Chapin(ed.).Algeria: a country study.Washington, D.C.:Federal Research Division,Library of Congress.pp. 69–76.OCLC44230753.
This article incorporates text from this source, which is in thepublic domain.{{cite encyclopedia}}:CS1 maint: postscript (link) - ^Ewan W. Anderson, Liam D. Anderson (2013).An Atlas of Middle Eastern Affairs.Routledge. p. 92.ISBN978-1-136-64862-5.
- ^Central Intelligence Agency (2011).The CIA World Factbook 2012.Simon and Schuster.ISBN978-1-62873-181-1.
- ^"Water Resources in Algeria".water.fanack.Fanack Water. July 30, 2019.RetrievedJune 8,2022.
With 1,622 km of coastline, Algeria has begun desalinating seawater to supply drinking water to cities and towns located up to 60 km away from the coast.
- ^ElKhabar (2023-06-26)."دراسة جديدة ترفع طول الساحل الجزائري".elkhabar(in Arabic).Retrieved2023-11-23.
- ^abcdefghijklmnopDeeb, Mary-Jane (1993). "Climate and Hydrology". In Metz, Helen Chapin (ed.).Algeria: a country study.Washington, D.C.:Federal Research Division,Library of Congress.pp. 74–75.OCLC44230753.This article incorporates text from this source, which is in thepublic domain.
{{cite encyclopedia}}:CS1 maint: postscript (link) - ^"World Weather Information Service–Algiers".World Meteorological Organization.Archivedfrom the original on 18 October 2016.Retrieved16 October2016.
- ^"Appendix I: Meteorological Data"(PDF).Springer.Archived(PDF)from the original on 4 March 2016.Retrieved16 October2016.
- ^ "Station Alger"(in French). Meteo Climat.Retrieved16 October2016.
- ^"Adrar Climate Normals 1961–1990".National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.Retrieved21 October2016.
- ^"Klimatafel von Adrar / Algerien"(PDF).Baseline climate means (1961-1990) from stations all over the world(in German). Deutscher Wetterdienst.Retrieved21 October2016.
- ^abcdefghijklmnoDeeb, Mary-Jane (1993). "Terrain". In Metz, Helen Chapin (ed.).Algeria: a country study.Washington, D.C.:Federal Research Division,Library of Congress.pp. 75–76.OCLC44230753.This article incorporates text from this source, which is in thepublic domain.
{{cite encyclopedia}}:CS1 maint: postscript (link) - ^Grantham, H. S.; Duncan, A.; Evans, T. D.; Jones, K. R.; Beyer, H. L.; Schuster, R.; Walston, J.; Ray, J. C.; Robinson, J. G.; Callow, M.; Clements, T.; Costa, H. M.; DeGemmis, A.; Elsen, P. R.; Ervin, J.; Franco, P.; Goldman, E.; Goetz, S.; Hansen, A.; Hofsvang, E.; Jantz, P.; Jupiter, S.; Kang, A.; Langhammer, P.; Laurance, W. F.; Lieberman, S.; Linkie, M.; Malhi, Y.; Maxwell, S.; Mendez, M.; Mittermeier, R.; Murray, N. J.; Possingham, H.; Radachowsky, J.; Saatchi, S.; Samper, C.; Silverman, J.; Shapiro, A.; Strassburg, B.; Stevens, T.; Stokes, E.; Taylor, R.; Tear, T.; Tizard, R.; Venter, O.; Visconti, P.; Wang, S.; Watson, J. E. M. (2020)."Anthropogenic modification of forests means only 40% of remaining forests have high ecosystem integrity - Supplementary Material".Nature Communications.11(1): 5978.doi:10.1038/s41467-020-19493-3.ISSN2041-1723.PMC7723057.PMID33293507.
- ^"Mediterranean conifer and mixed forests".Terrestrial Ecoregions.World Wildlife Fund.
- ^C. Michael Hogan, (2008)Barbary Macaque: Macaca sylvanus,Globaltwitcher, ed. N. Strõmberg.