Germiyanids
Germiyan | |||||||||
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| 1300–1429 | |||||||||
 Beylik of Germiyan (light red) in 1300. | |||||||||
| Capital | Kütahya | ||||||||
| Common languages | Old Anatolian Turkish | ||||||||
| Religion | Muslim | ||||||||
| Government | Monarchy | ||||||||
| Bey | |||||||||
• 1300–1340 | Yakub I | ||||||||
• 1340–1361 | Mehmed | ||||||||
• 1361–1387 | Suleiman | ||||||||
• 1387–1429 | Yakub II | ||||||||
| Historical era | Late Medieval | ||||||||
• Established | 1300 | ||||||||
• Disestablished | 1429 | ||||||||
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TheGermiyanids(Old Anatolian Turkish:كرميان;Turkish:Germiyanoğulları BeyliğiorGermiyan Beyliği) were a prominentAnatolian beylikestablished by theOghuz Turkish tribes[1](probably theAfshartribe)[2]after the decline of theSultanate of Rûm.While thebeylikwas always mentioned as being ethnicallyTurkomanor Oghuz Turkish, the population consisted of Turks andYezidiKurds,brought by theSeljuksfrom the east ofMalatyato western Anatolia as militia guards against the threatening Turkish tribesmen.[3][4][5][6][7]
Origins
According to the historians Agoston and Masters, the Germiyanoğulları wereTurkomanswho had immigrated to the west because ofMongolpressure in the second half of the 13th century.[8]The Germiyanids were of anAfsharbranch of theOghuz Turks.[9]The Germiyanids likely came fromKermanorFars Province,and perhaps headed west with theKhwarazmshahs.After the death ofJalal ad-Din Mingburnu,they remained in theMalatyaarea for a while, then moved toKütahya,where they established thebeylik.[9]
According to the historian Petry, the Germiyanids were a Turco-Kurdish dynasty.[6]However, cultural historian Cemal Kafadar states the ethnic makeup of the dynasty is too complex for a simple straightforward interpretation.[10]
History
Background
During the 11th century, much ofWest Asiawas subject toSeljukrule. A branch of theSeljuk dynastyformed theSultanate of Rum,an Islamic state inAnatolia,which saw its height from the late 12th century to 1237.[11]The Germiyan first appeared in 1239 underKaykhusraw II's rule of the Sultanate of Rum. Muzaffar al-Din, Yakub I's paternal grandfather,[12]was tasked with subduingBaba Ishak's rebellion in the area aroundMalatya.[13]Kaykhusraw II faced a major defeat by theMongol Empireat theBattle of Köse Dağin 1243, which resulted in the vassalization of Rum, which was forced to pay a major annual tax. With thedivision of the Mongol Empire,Anatolia came under the influence of theIlkhanate,which was founded byHulegu Khan(r. 1256–65). During the chaos caused by the Anatolian campaign of theMamluk SultanBaibarsofEgyptin 1277, Ala al-Din Siyavush, commonly known asJimri,who was a pretender to the Seljuk legacy, revolted against the Mongols.[11]Husam al-Din, a member of the Germiyanids,[a]fought against Jimri andMehmedofKaramanin western Anatolia.[13]Although Jimri and Mehmed were eliminated, the Karamanids' presence in Anatolia persisted, signaling further division in the region, which was symptomatic of the downfall of the Seljuks.[11]
Yakub I (c. 1300 – c. 1340)
The Germiyan attempted to declare independence from the Sultanate of Rum whenMesud IIbecame thesultanfollowing the execution of his father,Kaykhusraw III,by the Mongols in 1283. The conflict between the Germiyanids and the Seljuks went dormant upon Mesud II's death, and Yakub agreed to become a vassal of the new ruler,Kayqubad III.At that time, Yakub's realm extended as east asAnkara.His domain includedDenizliandKarahisar,according toNicephorus Gregoras,andTripolis on the Meander,according toGeorge Pachymeres.[13]
Contemporary historianal-Umaridescribed Yakub as the most powerful Turkishemir,being the suzerain of many of his neighbors, with theByzantine Empirepaying him 100,000 pieces of gold each year.[13]Al-Umari further relayed the observations of travelers Haydar al-Uryan and Balaban, that Yakub's domains included about 700 settlements. He possessed 40,000 cavalry and was able to raise 200,000 troops in times of war, although historian Varlık considers this number exaggerated.[14]
Yakub eventually conquered the regions ofSimavandKula,which were later regained by theCatalan Company.Similarly,Philadelphia(later known as Alaşehir), which he had earlier taken over, was lost to the Catalans in the spring of 1304, but the town started paying himjizyaby 1314.[13]Yakub had hostile relations with theOttoman state,and provoked theTatarsof theChavdartribe nearKaracahisarto attack them in 1313. After having eliminated theHamididandEshrefidbegs in 1325,Timurtash,the Ilkhanid governor of Anatolia, attempted to enact authority over the rulers of western Anatolia and seize the territory of Germiyan, Philadephila, Denizli, and Menteshe. Yakub's son-in-law, who was the lord ofAfyonkarahisar,fled toKütahyafromEretna,who was an officer under Timurtash tasked to capture the city. When Yakub was about to engage in a battle with Eretna, the latter was called back by Timurtash in 1327.[14]
The region under Yakub was economically prosperous[13]and saw an increase in literary and scientific patronage.[15]Rumi's grandson Ulu Arif Chelebi visited the region by 1312 and maintained spiritual authority over Yakub.[14]
Yakub struck a single type of coin late into his reign.[16]An unnamed coin minted in 1307 mentioning the titleKhan-i Germiyanis identified with Yakub I. In the inscriptions of the castle ofSandıklı,which were later moved to a nearby fountain, he was referred to asSultan al-Germiyaniyya Chelebi al-Azam azzamallahu kadrehu.Yakub owned awaqf(charitable endowment) for themevlevihane(congregational place for theMevlevi Order) of Karahisar. According toİsmail Hakkı Uzunçarşılı,he possibly owned anotherwaqfat thezawiyaof the village of Hacim nearUşak,which dates to 1321. However, there the owner's father was recorded as Mehmed.[17]
Yakub is known to have exchanged letters with theMamluk Sultanatein 1340; these are the latest known records of his life, and his exact year of death is unknown.[14]According to the 17th-century travelerEvliya Çelebi,who wrote three centuries after Yakub's death, he was buried at the hill of Hıdırlık near Kütahya.[15]
Mehmed (c. 1340 – 1361) and Suleiman (1361 – 1387)
Mehmed, nicknamedChakhshadan,retook Kula and Angir from the Catalan Company.[14]Suleiman was the elder son of Mehmed Chakhshadan, the second Bey of Germiyan. He ascended to the throne upon the death of his father.[14]Suleiman Shah's reign was initially peaceful. However, when Husam al-Din Ilyas ofHamidtook refuge at his court fromAla al-Dinof Karaman, Suleiman Shah assisted the Hamidids in recovering their lands lost to the Karamanids. This initiated a rivalry between Ala al-Din and Suleiman Shah.[18]
Suleiman Shah sought new alliances as protection from the neighboring Karamanids and the ever-expandingOttomans.He arranged a marriage between his daughterDevletşah HatunandMurad I's sonBayezid.Murad I accepted the offer, hoping to expand the Ottoman influence over Anatolia. He sent thekadiofBursa,Mehmed Efendi,emir-i alemAksungur Agha, as well as their consorts,ChavushbashiDemirhan, and the nanny of Bayezid toKütahyato formally request marriage with Suleiman's daughter. Suleiman Shah dispatched the Islamic scholar Ishak Fakih to the Ottoman capital, who returned with a gift from the Ottomans including the famous Germiyanatlas,Denizliclothes, silver, and gold. Moreover, Suleiman gave Kütahya,Simav,Eğrigöz,andTavşanlıto the Ottomans as part of thedowry.[19][13]Apart from these towns, many smaller settlements were annexed by a force of 2–3,000 Ottoman troops escorting the wedding convoy.[20][b]The exact reason why he left the capital to the Ottomans is a matter of dispute. Ottoman chroniclers explained it through the rivalry between Karaman and Germiyan and the latter's preference for Ottoman protection. The wedding took place in 1381 in Kütahya,[21]after which Bayezid became the governor of Kütahya, and Suleiman Shah had to retreat toKula.[22]Suleiman died in early 1387 before April[23]and was buried in Gürhane Medrese.[24]
Yakub II (1387–1429)
Early life and first reign (1387–1390)
Yakub's parents were Suleiman Shah and a daughter ofUmur,the ruler of theAydinidsin western Anatolia.[25]Yakub was thewali(governor) ofUşakandŞuhutduring his father's reign.[26]He inherited the throne when his father died in 1387 and maintained peace in the realm until 1390. He supported theOttoman Sultanateat theBattle of Kosovoalong with the beyliks of Kastamonu,Saruhan,Aydın,Menteshe,andHamid.However, when the Ottoman Sultan Murad I died in battle and was succeeded by his son Bayezid I, Yakub, as well asKadi Burhan al-Dinand the heads of Saruhan, Hamid, and Menteshe, sided with theKaramanidsin a war against the Ottomans with the hopes that they could reclaim their land. While Karaman seizedBeyşehir,Yakub started capturing some of the former possessions of Germiyan that his father had given to the Ottomans as part of Devletşah Hatun's dowry.
Before returning to Anatolia from theBalkans,Bayezid first ensured stability in the latter region by making peace withSerbiaand concluding internal conflicts within theByzantine Empirein his favor. Intimidated by Bayezid's seizure of Saruhan, Aydın, and Menteshe, Yakub attempted to return to good terms with him through various gifts but was nevertheless imprisoned and kept in the castle ofIpsala.In 1390, the entire realm of Germiyan came under Ottoman control, with Yakub no longer as its ruler.[27]Sari Timurtash Pasha was appointed as thebeylerbey(governor) ofAnatolia Eyalet.[28]
Restoration of rule
Yakub sought the protection ofTimur(r. 1370–1405) in 1399, having escaped from prison and traveled toSyriain disguise through theMediterranean Seapresumably the same year.[13]He allied with Timur against the Ottomans with the guarantee that his rule would be restored, and fought for him at theBattle of Ankarain 1402. The former troops of Germiyan, Aydın, and Menteshe were initially under Bayezid's command, but switched sides when it became clear that their leaders had sided with Timur. Yakub recognized the sultan during the skirmish and had him captured. The Ottomans were ultimately defeated, and Timur restored the former Germiyan possessions to Yakub. Timur stayed in Kütahya for some time, subjecting the inhabitants to a one-time tax and confiscating the treasury of Sari Timurtash Pasha.[29]
Second and third reigns (1402–1411, 1414–1429)
During theOttoman Interregnum(1402–1413), Yakub allied himself with the future Ottoman sultanMehmed Chelebi(r. 1413–21), one of the sons of Bayezid, against his brothers. As a result, Germiyan–Karaman relations gradually transitioned into hostility, as the latter's rivalry against the Ottomans ensued. This escalated to a war between the two in September 1410, and Kütahya fell toMehmed II of Karaman(r. 1398–99, 1402–20) the next year, which effectively ended Yakub's second reign.[30]Mehmed II further laid siege toBursafor 31 days in 1413 and set the city on fire, which prompted Mehmed Chelebi to quickly return to Anatolia after having defeated his brother,Musa Chelebi,inRumelia.When Musa's remains were brought to Bursa, signaling the defeat, Mehmed II of Karaman retreated in a hurry and left the territories he had taken from Germiyan. Mehmed Chelebi reinstated Yakub's rule in Germiyan in 1414. Yakub accommodated and supplied the Ottoman army during the following campaigns against Karaman. His rule until 1421 was largely free of threats.[31]
When Mehmed Chelebi's sonMurad IIrose to the Ottoman throne, Yakub's relations with the Ottomans took a new turn. Murad's younger brother andgovernor of Hamid,Mustafa Chelebiwas sponsored by Yakub, Karaman, and the Turghudlu tribe of Turkmens as a claimant to the Ottoman throne. Mustafa besieged and gained control ofIznik,and declared himself ruler, taking advantage of Murad's investment in theSiege of Constantinople (1422).However, the local Ottoman guardians did not allow Mustafa to depart from the city, on the orders of the sultan.[32]Murad swiftly reclaimed control of the city and executed Mustafa. Yakub then reverted to friendly interactions with Murad, realizing that he had no other choice to survive. Even though Aydın and Menteshe were already under direct Ottoman control, Murad did not attempt to enact his sovereignty in Germiyan. By then, it had become subordinate to the Ottomans with their constant military involvement in the region. Likewise, Yakub bequeathed his domains to Murad, as he had no sons and did not want to hand over the rule to his sister's children, who were Murad II's half-uncles.[33]In 1428, at an old age, he traveled to Bursa and paid respects to the graves ofOsman IandOrhan.[33]He was later welcomed by Murad in a lavish ceremony inEdirneand formally declared his will there. Sometime after returning to Germiyan, he fell sick, dying in January 1429.[34]Murad annexed Germiyan as requested by Yakub, which brought the history of Germiyan to an end.[33]
Culture
Architecture
Yakub's architectural legacy included the Yakub ChelebiKülliye(building complex) in Kütahya. It was built in 1411–12 and is composed of animaret,masjid,türbe(tomb),madrasa(school), and library. After five months of operation, the Karamanid occupation forced the imaret to close for two and a half years. In 1414, when the region was regained by the Ottoman Sultan Mehmed I on behalf of Yakub, the building returned to use, and inscriptions (vakfiye), 2 by 3.70 meters in size, were added to the building, detailing its history. The inscriptions indicate that the imaret was owned by Mehmed I. It was later destroyed and the building was restored in accordance with its original form by itswaqf(endowment) trustee Ishak Fakih bin Halil in 1440–41. In 1803, the Ottoman governor ofAnatolia,Gurju Osman Pasha, commissioned its reparation and merged the imaret and the masjid. The tomb includes the sarcophagi of Yakub II and his wife Pasha Kerime Hatun, which are ornamented withencaustic tiles.The building was restored again in 1999 and reopened as the Encaustic Tile Museum.[35]
Literature
Suleiman Shah was described as a generous ruler, and many literary works were produced under him. Suleiman hadShaykh-oghlu Mustafa,who was thenishanji,defterdar, and treasurer at Suleiman's court, translate severalPersianworks toTurkish,Ḳābūs-name(kept by theEgyptian National Library and Archives[36]) andMarzbān-nāme.Shaykh-oghlu has also authored a prose,Kanz al-kubarāʾ,and a verse romance,Khurshīdnāme,dedicated to Suleiman Shah. Manuscripts of these works are kept inIstanbul,London,andParis.[13]The poetAhmedifirst devoted hisIskendernameto Suleiman Shah but after his death, added a part about the Ottomans and Bayezid I's sonSuleiman Chelebi,finalizing the work in February 1390.[24]
The Germiyanid palace became a center of science and literature during Yakub II's reign. Poet Sheikhi Sinan was known as amusahib(compatriot) of Yakub. ThePersianworkTabirnamewas translated intoTurkishbyAhmed-i Daion the orders of Yakub II.[37]
Notes
- ^Husam al-Din was the brother of Yakub I according to İsmail Hakkı Uzunçarşılı.[12]
- ^These settlements were:
- In thenahiyahof Kütahya: Kızılca-viran, Seydi-köy, Eriklü, Şeyh-ömer, İne-gâzi, Elma-ağacı, Kara-ağaç, Süle-oğlu, Timürcü-viran, Hoca-oğlu, Çomar ve çöplü
- Yoncalı: Kara-ağaç, Uç-ağacı, Sele-oğlu;
- Sazanos: Hisar çavdar, Ağar;
- Tavşanlı: Çukur-viran;
- Altıntaş: Virancık, Çakır-sazı, Sevdiğin;
- Simav: Yenice, Kara-abdal;
- Kula: Akça-in, Balçıklu;
- Aslan-apa: Kulaksuz, and Güğüm.[20]
References
- ^İnalcık, Halil (1993).The Middle East and the Balkans under the Ottoman Empire: essays on economy and society.Bloomington: Indiana University Turkish Studies. p. 97.ISBN9781878318046.
- ^Leiser, Gary; Koprulu, Fuat (1992).Origins of the Ottoman Empire.p. 37.ISBN9781438410432.
- ^Ducas, Harry J. Magoulias, Ducas, 1975,Decline and fall of Byzantium to the Ottoman Turks,p. 265, Wayne State University Press, University of VirginiaISBN0-8143-1540-2,ISBN978-0-8143-1540-8,The Germiyan were probably Kurdish and Turkish half-breeds who came from east of Malatya.
- ^Peter Malcolm Holt, 1986,The Age of the Crusades: the Near East from the eleventh century to 1517,p. 176, Longman, University of Michigan,ISBN0-582-49303-X,9780582493032 The second of the eastern principalities, Germiyan, developed from a group, probably of mixed Kurdish and Turkish origin
- ^Marios Philippides,Biblioteca apostolica vaticana - 1990, Byzantium, Europe, and the early Ottoman sultans, 1373-1513: an anonymous Greek chronicle of the seventeenth century,p. 6, A.D. Caratzas, University of Michigan,ISBN0-89241-430-8,ISBN978-0-89241-430-7,Near Byzantine borders in Phrygia, the emirate of Germiyan was formed by a mixed population of Turks and Kurds, who had come from east of Malatya
- ^abCarl F. Petry, 1998,The Cambridge History of Egypt,Vol. 1, p. 527, Cambridge University PressISBN0-521-63313-3,ISBN978-0-521-63313-0,An Anatolian Turco-Kurdish dynasty, with its capital at Kutahya
- ^Bruinessen, Martin van (1992).Agha, Shaikh and State: The Social and Political Structures of Kurdistan.Bloomsbury Academic. p. 161.ISBN978-1-85649-018-4.
- ^Gabor Agoston-Bruce Masters,Encyclopaedia of the Ottoman Empire,p. 41ISBN978-0-8160-6259-1
- ^abMehmet Fuat Köprülü,(1937),The Origins of the Ottoman Empire,p. 37
- ^Kafadar 2007,p. 22.
- ^abcPeacock 2000.
- ^abUzunçarşılı 1969,p. 54.
- ^abcdefghiMélikoff 1965.
- ^abcdefVarlık 1996,pp. 33–35.
- ^abVarlık 2013,p. 279.
- ^Foss 2022,p. 210.
- ^Uzunçarşılı 1969,pp. 43–44.
- ^Uzunçarşılı 1969,p. 45.
- ^Varlık 1974,p. 61.
- ^abVarlık 1974,pp. 61–63.
- ^Varlık 1974,pp. 59–60.
- ^Varlık 1974,p. 65.
- ^Varlık 1974,p. 66.
- ^abUzunçarşılı 1969,p. 46.
- ^Varlık 1974,p. 67.
- ^Uzunçarşılı 1969,p. 47.
- ^Varlık 1974,pp. 68–69.
- ^Varlık 1974,p. 72.
- ^Varlık 1974,pp. 71–72.
- ^Varlık 1974,p. 75.
- ^Varlık 1974,pp. 75–76.
- ^Varlık 1974,pp. 76–77.
- ^abcVarlık 1974,pp. 78–79.
- ^Uzunçarşılı 1969,p. 51.
- ^Bilecik 2013,pp. 279–280.
- ^Sadettin Buluç (1969). "Eski Anadolu Türkçesiyle Bir Kabus-name Çevirisi".Belleten(in Turkish).Turkish Language Association.p. 195.
- ^Varlık 1996,p. 35.
Bibliography
- Bilecik, Gülberk (2013)."Yâkub Çelebi Külliyesi".TDV Encyclopedia of Islam, Vol. 43 (Vekâlet – Yûsî)(in Turkish). Istanbul:Turkiye Diyanet Foundation,Centre for Islamic Studies. pp. 279–280.ISBN978-975-389-754-9.
- Bosworth, Clifford Edmund(1996).New Islamic Dynasties: A Chronological and Genealogical Manual.Edinburgh University Press.
- Foss, Clive (2022).The Beginnings of the Ottoman Empire.Oxford Studies in Byzantium. Oxford University Press.ISBN9780198865438.
- Kafadar, Cemal (2007). "A Rome of One's Own: Reflections on Cultural Geography and Identity in the Lands of Rum".Muqarnas.24.Brill: 7–25.
- (limited preview)Mehmet Fuat Köprülü(1992).The Origins of the Ottoman Empire.Translated by Gary Leiser. State University of New York Press.ISBN0-7914-0819-1.
- Mélikoff, I.(1965)."Germiyān-Og̲h̲ullari̊̊".InLewis, B.;Pellat, Ch.&Schacht, J.(eds.).The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition.Volume II:C–G.Leiden: E. J. Brill.OCLC495469475.
- Peacock, Andrew Christian Spencer(2000)."Saljuqs iii. Saljuqs of Rum".InYarshater, Ehsan(ed.).Encyclopædia Iranica, Online Edition.Encyclopædia Iranica Foundation.Retrieved2 March2024.
- Uzunçarşılı, İsmail Hakkı(1969).Anadolu Beylikleri Ve Akkoyunlu, Karakoyunlu Devletleri[Anatolian Beyliks and Aq Qoyunlu, Qara Qoyunlu States] (in Turkish). Turkish Historical Society Press.ISBN9751624576.OCLC563553149.Retrieved8 January2024.
- Varlık, Mustafa Çetin (1974).Germiyan-oğulları tarihi (1300-1429)(in Turkish). Ankara: Atatürk University Press.OCLC6807984.Retrieved8 January2024.
- Varlık, Mustafa Çetin (1996)."Germiyanoğulları".TDV Encyclopedia of Islam, Vol. 14 (Geli̇bolu – Haddesenâ)(in Turkish). Istanbul:Turkiye Diyanet Foundation,Centre for Islamic Studies. pp. 33–35.ISBN978-975-389-441-8.
- Varlık, Mustafa Çetin (2013)."Yâkub Bey".TDV Encyclopedia of Islam, Vol. 43 (Vekâlet – Yûsî)(in Turkish). Istanbul:Turkiye Diyanet Foundation,Centre for Islamic Studies. pp. 278–279.ISBN978-975-389-754-9.
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