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Ghadar Mutiny

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TheGhadar Mutiny,also known as theGhadar Conspiracy,was a plan to initiate a pan-Indiamutinyin theBritish Indian Armyin February 1915 to end theBritish Rajin India. The plot originated at the onset ofWorld War I,between theGhadar Partyin the United States, theBerlin Committeein Germany, theIndian revolutionary undergroundin British India and the German Foreign Office through the consulate in San Francisco. The incident derives its name from the North AmericanGhadar Party,whose members of the Punjabi community in Canada and the United States were among the most prominent participants in the plan. It was the most prominent amongst a number of plans of the much largerHindu–German Mutiny,formulated between 1914 and 1917 to initiate a Pan-Indian rebellion against theBritish Rajduring World War I.[1][2][3]The mutiny was planned to start in the key state ofPunjab,followed by mutinies in Bengal and rest of India. Indian unitsas far as Singaporewere planned to participate in the rebellion. The plans were thwarted through a coordinated intelligence and police response. British intelligence infiltrated the Ghadarite movement in Canada and in India, and last-minute intelligence from a spy helped crush the planned uprising in Punjab before it started. Key figures were arrested, and mutinies in smaller units and garrisons within India were also crushed.

Intelligence about the threat of the mutiny led to a number of important war-time measures introduced in India, including the passages of the Foreigners Ordinance, 1914, theIngress into India Ordinance, 1914,and theDefence of India Act 1915.The conspiracy was followed by theFirst Lahore Conspiracy TrialandBenares Conspiracy Trialwhich saw death sentences awarded to a number of Indian revolutionaries, and the exile of a number of others. After the end of the war, fear of a second Ghadarite uprising led to the passage of theRowlatt Act,followed by theJallianwala Bagh massacre.

Background

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Main article:Hindu–German Conspiracy

World War I began with an unprecedented outpouring of loyalty and goodwill towards the United Kingdom from within the mainstream political leadership. Contrary to initial British fears of an Indian revolt, India contributed massively to the British war effort by providing men and resources. About 1.3 million Indian soldiers and labourers served in Europe, Africa, and the Middle East, while both the Indian government and the princes sent large supplies of food, money, and ammunition.

However,BengalandPunjabremained hotbeds ofanti colonial activities.Militancy in Bengal, increasingly closely linked with the unrest in Punjab, was significant enough to nearly paralyse the regional administration.[4][5]Also, from the beginning of the war, an expatriate Indian population, notably from the United States, Canada, and Germany, headed by the Berlin Committee and the Ghadar Party, attempted to trigger insurrections in India along the lines of the1857 uprisingwithIrish Republican,German and Turkish help in a massive conspiracy that has since come to be called theHindu–German Mutiny[2][3][6]This conspiracy also attempted to rally Afghanistan against British India.[7]

A number of failed attempts were made at mutiny, of which theFebruary mutiny planand theSingapore Mutinyremain most notable. This movement was suppressed by means of a massive international counter-intelligence operation and draconian political acts (including theDefence of India Act 1915) that lasted nearly ten years.[8][9]

Indian nationalism in US

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Early works towards Indian nationalism in the United States dates back to the first decade of the 20th century, when, following the example of London'sIndia House,similar organisations were opened in the United States and in Japan through the efforts of the then growing Indian student population in the country.[10]Shyamji Krishna Varma,the founder of India House, had built close contacts with theIrish Republican movement.The first of the nationalist organisations was the Pan-Aryan Association, modelled after Krishna Varma'sIndian Home Rule Society,opened in 1906 through the joint Indo-Irish efforts of S.L. Joshi andGeorge Freeman.[11]

The American branch of the association also invited Madame Cama—who at the time was close to the works of Krishna Varma—to give a series of lectures in the United States. An "India House" was founded in Manhattan in New York in January 1908 with funds from a wealthy lawyer of Irish descent calledMyron Phelps.Phelps admiredSwami Vivekananda,and theVedantaSociety(established by the Swami) in New York was at the time underSwami Abhedananda,who was considered "seditionist"by the British.[10]In New York, Indian students and ex-residents of London India House took advantage of liberal press laws to circulateThe Indian Sociologistand other nationalist literature.[10]New York increasingly became an important centre for the global Indian movement, such thatFree Hindustan,a political revolutionary journal published byTarak Nath Dasclosely mirroringThe Indian Sociologist,moved from Vancouver and Seattle to New York in 1908. Das collaborated extensively with theGaelic Americanwith help from George Freeman beforeFree Hindustanwas proscribed in 1910 under British diplomatic pressure.[12]After 1910, the American east coast activities began to decline and gradually shifted to San Francisco. The arrival ofHar Dayalaround this time bridged the gap between the intellectual agitators and the predominantly Punjabi labour workers and migrants, laying the foundations of theGhadar movement.[12]

Ghadar party

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The Pacific coast of North America saw large scale Indian immigration in the 1900s, especially from Punjab which was facing aneconomic depression.The Canadian government met this influx with a series of legislations aimed at limiting the entry of South Asians into Canada, and restricting the political rights of those already in the country. The Punjabi community had hitherto been an important loyal force for theBritish Empireand theCommonwealth,and the community had expected, to honour its commitment, equal welcome and rights from the British and Commonwealth governments as extended to British and white immigrants. These legislations fed growing discontent, protests and anti-colonial sentiments within the community. Faced with increasingly difficult situations, the community began organising itself into political groups. A large number of Punjabis also moved to the United States, but they encountered similar political and social problems.[13]

Meanwhile, nationalist work among Indians on the east coast began to gain momentum from around 1908 when Indian students of the likes ofP S Khankhoje,Kanshi Ram,and Tarak Nath Das founded the Indian Independence League inPortland, Oregon.Khankhoje's works also brought him close to Indian nationalists in the United States at the time, including Tarak Nath Das. In the years preceding World War I, Khankhoje was one of the founding members of the Pacific Coast Hindustan Association, and subsequently founded the Ghadar Party. He was at the time one of the most influential members of the party. He metLala Har Dayalin 1911. He also enrolled at one point in a West Coast military academy.

The Ghadar Party, initially the Pacific Coast Hindustan Association, was formed in 1913 in the United States under the leadership of Baba Sohan Singh Bhakna as its president. It drew members fromIndian immigrants,largely fromPunjab.[13]Many of its members were also from theUniversity of California at Berkeleyincluding Dayal,Tarak Nath Das,Kartar Singh SarabhaandV. G. Pingle.The party quickly gained support from Indian expatriates, especially in the United States, Canada, and Asia. Ghadar meetings were held in Los Angeles, Oxford, Vienna, Washington, D.C., and Shanghai.[14]

Ghadar's ultimate goal was to overthrow British colonial authority in India by means of an armed revolution. It viewed theCongress-ledmainstream movementfordominion statusmodest and the latter's constitutional methods as soft. Ghadar's foremost strategy was to enticeIndian soldiersto revolt.[13]To that end, in November 1913 Ghadar established theYugantar Ashrampress in San Francisco. The press produced theHindustan Ghadarnewspaper and other nationalist literature.[14]

Ghadar conspiracy

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See also:Komagata Maru incident
Punjabi Sikhs aboard theSSKomagata Maruin Vancouver'sBurrard Inlet,23 May 1914. Most of the passengers were not allowed to land in Canada and the ship was forced to return to India. The events surrounding theKomagata Maru incidentserved as a catalyst for the Ghadarite cause.

Har Dayal's contacts with erstwhile members of India House in Paris andin Berlinallowed early concepts of Indo-German collaboration to take shape. Towards the end of 1913, the party established contact with prominent revolutionaries in India, includingRash Behari Bose.An Indian edition of theHindustan Ghadaressentially espoused the philosophies ofanarchismandrevolutionary terrorismagainst British interests in India. Political discontent and violence mounted in Punjab, and Ghadarite publications that reachedBombayfrom California were deemed seditious and banned by the Raj. These events, compounded by evidence of prior Ghadarite incitement in theDelhi-Lahore Conspiracyof 1912, led the British government to pressure the American State Department to suppress Indian revolutionary activities and Ghadarite literature, which emanated mostly from San Francisco.[15][16]

1912

Rashbehari Bose and Sachin Sanyal staged a spectacular bomb attack on Viceroy Hardinge while he was making official entry into the new Capital of Delhi in a processing through Chandni Chowk in December 1912. Hardinge was injured, but not killed.

1914

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During World War I, the British Indian Army contributed significantly to the British war effort. Consequently, a reduced force, estimated to have been as low as 15,000 troops in late 1914, was stationed in India.[17]It was in this scenario that concrete plans for organising uprisings in India were made.

In September 1913, Mathra Singh, a Ghadarite, visited Shanghai and promoted the Ghadarite cause within the Indian community there. In January 1914, Singh visited India and circulated Ghadar literature amongst Indian soldiers through clandestine sources before leaving for Hong Kong. Singh reported that the situation in India was favourable for a revolution.[18][19]

In May 1914, the Canadian government refused to allow the 400 Indian passengers of the shipKomagata Maruto disembark atVancouver.The voyage had been planned as an attempt to circumvent Canadian exclusion laws that effectively prevented Indian immigration. Before the ship reached Vancouver, its approach was announced on German radio, andBritish Columbianauthorities were prepared to prevent the passengers from entering Canada. The incident became a focal point for the Indian community in Canada which rallied in support of the passengers and against the government's policies. After a 2-month legal battle, 24 of them were allowed to immigrate. The ship was escorted out of Vancouver by the protected cruiser HMCSRainbowand returned to India. On reachingCalcutta,the passengers were detained under theDefence of India ActatBudge Budgeby the British Indian government, which made efforts to forcibly transport them to Punjab. This caused rioting at Budge Budge and resulted in fatalities on both sides.[20]A number of Ghadar leaders, like Barkatullah and Tarak Nath Das, used the inflammatory passions surrounding theKomagata Maru incidentas a rallying point and successfully brought many disaffected Indians in North America into the party's fold.[19]

Outlines of mutiny

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By October 1914, a large number of Ghadarites had returned to India and were assigned tasks like contacting Indian revolutionaries and organisations, spreading propaganda and literature, and arranging to get arms into the country that were being arranged to be shipped infrom United Stateswith German help.[21]The first group of 60 Ghadarites led by Jawala Singh, left San Francisco forCantonaboard the steamshipKoreaon 29 August. They were to sail on to India, where they would be provided with arms to organise a revolt. At Canton, more Indians joined, and the group, now numbering about 150, sailed for Calcutta on a Japanese vessel. They were to be joined by more Indians arriving in smaller groups. During the September–October time period, about 300 Indians left for India in various ships like SSSiberia,Chinyo Maru,China,Manchuria,SSTenyo Maru,SSMongoliaand SSShinyo Maru.[18][21][22]The SSKorea's party was uncovered and arrested on arrival at Calcutta. In spite of this, a successful underground network was established between the United States and India, through Shanghai,Swatow,andSiam.Tehl Singh, the Ghadar operative in Shanghai, is believed to have spent $30,000 for helping the revolutionaries to get into India.[23]

Amongst those who returned wereVishnu Ganesh Pingle,Kartar Singh,Santokh Singh,Pandit Kanshi Ram,Bhai Bhagwan Singh,who ranked amongst the higher leadership of theGhadar Party.Pingle had known Satyen Bhushan Sen (Jatin Mukherjee's emissary) in the company of Gadhar members (such asKartar Singh Sarabha) at the University of Berkeley. Tasked to consolidate contact with theIndian revolutionary movement,as part of theGhadar Conspiracy,Satyen Bhushan Sen,Kartar Singh Sarabha,Vishnu Ganesh Pingleand a batch of Sikh militants sailed from America by the SSSalaminin the second half of October 1914. Satyen and Pingle halted in China for a few days to meet the Gadhar leaders (mainly Tahal Singh) for future plans. They met DrSun Yat-senfor co-operation. Dr. Sun was not prepared to displease the British. After Satyen and party left for India, Tahal sent Atmaram Kapur, Santosh Singh and Shiv Dayal Kapur to Bangkok for necessary arrangements.[24][25][26][27]In November, 1914, Pingle, Kartar Singh and Satyen Sen arrived in Calcutta. Satyen introduced Pingle and Kartar Singh to Jatin Mukherjee. "Pingle had long talks with Jatin Mukherjee, who sent them to Rash Behari" in Benares with necessary information during the third week of December.[28]Satyen remained in Calcutta at 159 Bow Bazar [Street]. Tegart was informed of an attempt to tamper with some Sikh troops at the Dakshineswar gunpowder magazine. "A reference to the Military authorities shows that the troops in question were the 93rd Burmans" sent to Mesopotamia.Jatin Mukherjeeand Satyen Bhushan Sen were seen interviewing these Sikhs.[29]The Ghadarites rapidly established contact with the Indian revolutionary underground, notably that in Bengal, and the plans began to be consolidated by Rash Behari Bose and Jatin Mukherjee and the Ghadarites for a coordinated general uprising.

Early attempts

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Indian revolutionaries underLokamanya Tilak's inspiration, had turned Benares into a centre for sedition since the 1900s. Sundar Lal (b. 1885, son of Tota Ram, Muzaffarnagar) had given a very objectionable speech in 1907 on Shivaji Festival in Benares. Follower of Tilak,Lala Lajpat RaiandSri Aurobindo,in 1908 this man had accompanied Lala in his UP lecture tour. His organ, theSwarajyaof Allahabad, was warned in April 1908 against sedition. On 22 August 1909, Sundar Lal and Sri Aurobindo delivered "mischievous speeches" in College Square, Calcutta. TheKarmayogiin Hindi was issued in Allahabad since September 1909: controlled by Sri Aurobindo, the CalcuttaKarmagoginwas edited byAmarendra Chatterjeewho had introduced Rash Behari to Sundar Lal. In 1915, Pingle will be received in Allahabad by theSwarajyagroup.[30]Rash Behari Bose had been in Benares since early 1914. Large number of outrages were committed there between October 1914 and September 1915, 45 of them before February was over. On 18 November 1914, while examining two bomb caps, he andSachin Sanyalhad been injured. They shifted to a house in Bangalitola, where Pingle visited him with a letter fromJatin Mukherjeeand reported that some 4000 Sikhs of the Gadhar had already reached Calcutta. 15.000 more were waiting to join the rebellion.[31]Rash Beharisent Pingle and Sachin to Amritsar, to discuss withMula Singhwho had arrived from Shanghai. Behari's man of confidence, Pingle, led a hectic life in UP and Punjab for several weeks.[32]

During theKomagata Maruaffray in Budge Budge, near Calcutta, on 29 September 1914,Baba Gurmukh Singhhad contactedAtulkrishna Ghoshand Satish Chakravarti, two eminent associates of Jatin Mukherjee, who actively assisted them. Since then, angry letters from US-based Indians had reached India expressing hopes for a German victory; one of the emigrant leaders warned that his associates were in touch with the Bengal revolutionary party. It was at this juncture, in December 1914, that Pingle arrived in the Punjab, promising Bengali co-operation to the malcontent emigrants. A meeting demanded revolution, plundering of Government treasuries, seduction of Indian troops, collection of arms, preparation of bombs and the commission ofdacoities.Rash Behari planned collecting gangs of villagers for the rebellion. Simultaneous outbreaks at Lahore,Ferozepore&Rawalpindiwere organised while risings at Dacca, Benares, and Jubbalpur would be further extended.[33]

Preparing bombs was a definite part of the Gadhar programme. The Sikh conspirators – knowing very little about it – decided to call in a Bengali expert, as they had known in California Professor Surendra Bose, associate ofTaraknath Das.Towards the end of December 1914, at a meeting atKapurthala,Pingle announced that a Bengalibabuwas ready to co-operate with them. On 3 January 1915, Pingle and Sachindra in Amritsar received Rs 500 from the Ghadar, and returned to Benares.[34]

Coordination

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Pingle returned to Calcutta with Rash Behari's invitation to theJugantarleaders to meet him at Benares for co-ordinating and finalising their plans. Jatin Mukherjee,Atulkrishna Ghosh,Naren Bhattacharyaleft for Benares (early January 1915). In a very important meeting, Rash Behari announced the rebellion, proclaiming: "Die for their country." Though through Havildar Mansha Singh, the 16th Rajput Rifles atFort Williamwas successfully approached, Jatin Mukherjee wanted two months for the army revolt, synchronising with the arrival of the German arms. He modified the plan according to the impatience of the Gadhar militants to rush to action. Rash Behari and Pingle went to Lahore. Sachin tampered with the 7th Rajputs (Benares) and the 89th Punjabis at Dinapore. Damodar Sarup [Seth] went to Allahabad. Vinayak Rao Kapile conveyed bombs from Bengal to Punjab. Bibhuti [Haldar, approver] and Priyo Nath [Bhattacharya?] seduced the troops at Benares; Nalini [Mukherjee] at Jabalpur. On 14 February, Kapile carried from Benares to Lahore a parcel containing materials for 18 bombs.[35][36]

By the middle of January, Pingle was back in Amritsar with "the fat babu" (Rash Behari); to avoid too many visitors, Rash Behari moved to Lahore after a fortnight. In both the places he collected materials for making bombs and ordered for 80 bomb cases to a foundry at Lahore. Its owner out of suspicion refused to execute the order. Instead, inkpots were used as cases in several of the dacoities. Completed bombs were found during house searches, while Rash Behari escaped. "By then effective contact had been established between the returned Gadharites and the revolutionaries led by Rash Behari, and a large section of soldiers in the NW were obviously disaffected." "It was expected that as soon as the signal was received there would be mutinies and popular risings from Punjab to Bengal." "48 out of the 81 accused in the Lahore conspiracy case, including Rash Behari's close associates like Pingle, Mathura Singh & Kartar Singh Sarabha, recently arrived from North America."[37]

Along withRash Behari Bose,Sachin SanyalandKartar Singh Sarabha,Pingle became one of the main coordinators of the attempted mutiny in February 1915. Under Rash Behari, Pingle issued intensive propaganda for revolution from December 1914, sometimes disguised as Shyamlal, a Bengali; sometimes Ganpat Singh, a Punjabi.[38]

Setting a date

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Confident of being able to rally the Indiansepoy,the plot for the mutiny took its final shape. The 23rd Cavalry in Punjab was to seize weapons and kill their officers while on roll call on 21 February. This was to be followed by mutiny in the 26th Punjab, which was to be the signal for the uprising to begin, resulting in an advance on Delhi and Lahore. The Bengal revolutionaries contacted the Sikh troops stationed at Dacca through letters of introduction sent by Sikh soldiers of Lahore, and succeeded in winning them over.[39]The Bengal cell was to look for thePunjab Mailentering theHowrah Stationthe next day (which would have been cancelled if Punjab was seized) and was to strike immediately.

1915 Indian mutiny

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See also:1915 Singapore Mutiny
The public executions of convicted sepoy mutineers atOutram Road,Singapore,c. March 1915

By the start of 1915, a large number of Ghadarites (nearly 8,000 in the Punjab province alone by some estimates) had returned to India.[4][40][41]However, they were not assigned a central leadership and begun their work on anad hocbasis. Although some were rounded up by the police on suspicion, many remained at large and began establishing contacts with garrisons in major cities likeLahore,FerozepurandRawalpindi.Various plans had been made to attack the military arsenal at Mian Meer, near Lahore and initiate a general uprising on 15 November 1914. In another plan, a group ofSikhsoldiers, themanjha jatha,planned to start a mutiny in the 23rd Cavalry at the Lahore cantonment on 26 November. A further plan called for a mutiny to start on 30 November fromFerozepurunder Nidham Singh.[42]In Bengal, the Jugantar, throughJatin Mukherjee,established contacts with the garrison atFort Williamin Calcutta.[4][43]In August 1914, Mukherjee's group had seized a large consignment of guns and ammunition from the Rodda company, a major gun manufacturing firm in India. In December, a number of politically motivatedarmed robberiesto obtain funds were carried out in Calcutta. Mukherjee kept in touch with Rash Behari Bose through Kartar Singh and V.G. Pingle. These rebellious acts, which were until then organised separately by different groups, were brought into a common umbrella under the leadership of Rash Behari Bose in North India, V. G. Pingle inMaharashtra,andSachindranath SanyalinBenares.[4][43][44]A plan was made for a unified general uprising, with the date set for 21 February 1915.[4][43]

February 1915

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In India, confident of being able to rally the Indiansepoy,the plot for the mutiny took its final shape. Under the plans, the 23rd Cavalry in Punjab was to seize weapons and kill their officers while on roll call on 21 February.[19]This was to be followed by mutiny in the 26th Punjab, which was to be the signal for the uprising to begin, resulting in an advance on Delhi and Lahore. The Bengal cell was to look for thePunjab Mailentering theHowrah Stationthe next day (which would have been cancelled if Punjab was seized) and was to strike immediately.

However, the Punjab CIDsuccessfully infiltratedthe conspiracy at the last moment throughKirpal Singh:a cousin of the trooper Balwant Singh (23rd Cavalry), US-returned Kirpal, a spy, visited Rash Behari's Lahore headquarters near the Mochi Gate, where over a dozen leaders including Pingle met on 15 February 1915. Kirpal informed the police.[45]Sensing that their plans had been compromised, the D-day was brought forward to 19 February, but even these plans found their way to the Punjab CID. Plans for revolt by the 130th Baluchi Regiment atRangoonon 21 February were thwarted. On 15 February, the 5th Light Infantry stationed atSingaporewas among the few units to actually rebel. About half of the eight hundred and fifty troops comprising the regiment mutinied on the afternoon of the 15th,[46]along with nearly a hundred men of theMalay States Guides.This mutiny lasted almost seven days, and resulted in the deaths of forty-seven British soldiers and local civilians. The mutineers also released the interned crew of theSMSEmden.The mutiny was only put down after French, Russian and Japanese ships arrived with reinforcements.[47][48]Of nearly two hundred tried at Singapore, forty-seven were shot in a public execution,. Most of the rest were deported for life or given jail terms ranging between seven and twenty years.[47]Some historians, includingHew Strachan,argue that although Ghadar agents operated within the Singapore unit, the mutiny was isolated and not linked to the conspiracy.[49]Others deem this as instigated by theSilk Letter Movementwhich became intricately related to the Ghadarite conspiracy.[50]Plans for revolt in the 26th Punjab, 7th Rajput, 24th Jat Artillery and other regiments did not go beyond the conspiracy stage. Planned mutinies inFirozpur,Lahore,andAgrawere also suppressed and many key leaders of the conspiracy were arrested, although some managed to escape or evade arrest. A last-ditch attempt was made by Kartar Singh and Pingle to trigger a mutiny in the 12th Cavalry regiment atMeerut.[51]Kartar Singhescaped from Lahore, but was arrested inBenares,and V. G. Pingle was apprehended from the lines of the 12th Cavalry at Meerut, in the night of 23 March 1915. He carried "ten bombs of the pattern used in the attempt to assassinate Lord Hardinge in Delhi," according to Bombay police report.[39]It is said that it was enough to blow up an entire regiment.[52]Mass arrests followed as the Ghadarites were rounded up in Punjab and theCentral Provinces.Rash Behari Bose escaped from Lahore and in May 1915 fled to Japan. Other leaders, includingGiani Pritam Singh,Swami Satyananda Puriand others fled toThailandor other sympathetic nations.[19][51]

Later efforts

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Other related events include the1915 Singapore Mutiny,theAnnie Larsen arms plot,Christmas Day Plot,events leading up to the death of Bagha Jatin,as well as theGerman mission to Kabul,the mutiny of theConnaught Rangersin India, as well as, by some accounts, theBlack Tom explosionin 1916. The Indo-Irish-German alliance and the conspiracy were the target of a worldwide British intelligence effort, which was successful in preventing further attempts. American intelligence agencies arrested key figures in the aftermath of the Annie Larsen affair in 1917. The conspiracy led to criminal conspiracy trials like theLahore Conspiracy Case trialin India and theHindu–German Conspiracy Trialin the United States, the latter being the longest and most expensive trial in the country at that date.[1]

Trials

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Main articles:Lahore Conspiracy Case trialandHindu–German Conspiracy Trial

The conspiracy led to a number of trials in India, most famous among them being theLahore Conspiracy Case trial,which opened in Lahore in April 1915 in the aftermath of the failed February mutiny. Other trials included the Benares, Simla, Delhi, and Ferozepur conspiracy cases, and the trials of those arrested at Budge Budge.[52]At Lahore, a special tribunal was constituted under theDefence of India Act 1915and a total of 291 conspirators were put on trial. Of these 42 were awarded the death sentence, 114transported for life,and 93 awarded varying terms of imprisonment. A number of these were sent to theCellular Jailin theAndaman.Forty-two defendants in the trial were acquitted. The Lahore trial directly linked the plans made in United States and the February mutiny plot. Following the conclusion of the trial, diplomatic effort to destroy the Indian revolutionary movement in the United States and to bring its members to trial increased considerably.[53][54][55]

Influence

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TheHindu–German Conspiracyas a whole, as well as the intrigues of the Ghadar Party in Punjab during the war, were among the main stimuli for the enactment of theDefence of India Act,appointment of theRowlatt Committee,and the enactment of theRowlatt Acts.TheJallianwala Bagh massacreis also linked[specify]intimately with the Raj's fears of a Ghadarite uprising in India especially Punjab in 1919.

See also

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References

[edit]
  1. ^abPlowman 2003,p. 84
  2. ^abHoover 1985,p. 252
  3. ^abBrown 1948,p. 300
  4. ^abcdeGupta 1997,p. 12
  5. ^Popplewell 1995,p. 201
  6. ^Strachan 2001,p. 798
  7. ^Strachan 2001,p. 788
  8. ^Hopkirk 2001,p. 41
  9. ^Popplewell 1995,p. 234
  10. ^abcFischer-Tiné 2007,p. 333
  11. ^Fischer-Tiné 2007,p. 334
  12. ^abFischer-Tiné 2007,p. 335
  13. ^abcStrachan 2001,p. 795
  14. ^abDeepak 1999,p. 441
  15. ^Sarkar 1983,p. 146
  16. ^Deepak 1999,p. 439
  17. ^Strachan 2001,p. 793
  18. ^abDeepak 1999,p. 442
  19. ^abcdStrachan 2001,p. 796
  20. ^Ward 2002,pp. 79–96
  21. ^abSarkar 1983,p. 148
  22. ^Hoover 1985,p. 251
  23. ^Brown 1948,p. 303
  24. ^Bose 1971,pp. 87–88, 132
  25. ^Statement of Pingle and Mula Singh to Cleveland, d/31-3-1915, H.P. 1916, May 436-439B. Notes on Tahal, Roll 6, RG 118.
  26. ^Rowlatt Report§110, §121 and §138.
  27. ^Majumdar 1967,p. 167.
  28. ^Bose 1971,pp. 161–162
  29. ^Terrorism in Bengal,Government of West Bengal, Vol. III, p505
  30. ^Ker 1917,pp. 373–375
  31. ^Rowlatt,§121, §132-§138
  32. ^Terrorism in Bengal,Vol. V, p170
  33. ^Rowlatt,§138
  34. ^Ker 1917,p. 367
  35. ^Rowlatt,§121
  36. ^Ker 1917,pp. 377–378
  37. ^Bose 1971,pp. 124–125
  38. ^Majumdar 1967,p. 167
  39. ^abMajumdar 1967,p. 169
  40. ^Chhabra 2005,p. 597
  41. ^Jain, Phūlacanda (1998).Svatantratā senānī granthamālā: Krāntikārī āndolana, suprasiddha prasanga.India. p. 7.ISBN9788170227519.{{cite book}}:CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  42. ^Deepak 1999,p. 443
  43. ^abcGupta 1997,p. 11
  44. ^Puri 1980,p. 60
  45. ^Ker 1917,p. 369
  46. ^Philip Mason, pages 426–427A Matter of Honour,ISBN0-333-41837-9
  47. ^abSareen 1995,p. 14,15
  48. ^Kuwajima 1988,p. 23
  49. ^Strachan 2001,p. 797
  50. ^Qureshi 1999,p. 78
  51. ^abGupta 1997,p. 3
  52. ^abChhabra 2005,p. 598
  53. ^Talbot 2000,p. 124
  54. ^"History of Andaman Cellular Jail".Andaman Cellular Jail heritage committee. Archived fromthe originalon 13 January 2007.Retrieved8 December2007.
  55. ^Khosla, K (23 June 2002)."Ghadr revisited".The Tribune.Chandigarh.Retrieved8 December2007.

Further reading

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