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Gnaeus Julius Agricola

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Gnaeus Julius Agricola
A statue of Agricola erected at theRoman Bathsat Bath in 1894
Born13 June 40
Forum Julii,Gallia Narbonensis(nowFréjus,France)
Died23 August 93 (aged 53)
Gallia Narbonensis(nowLanguedocandProvence,France)
AllegianceRoman Empire
Years of service58–85
RankProconsul
Commands heldLegio XXValeria Victrix
Gallia Aquitania
Britannia
Battles/warsBattle of Watling Street
Battle of Mons Graupius
AwardsOrnamenta triumphalia

Gnaeus Julius Agricola(/əˈɡrɪkələ/;13 June 40 – 23 August 93) was a Roman general and politician responsible for much of theRoman conquest of Britain.Born to a political family ofsenatorialrank, Agricola began his military career as amilitary tribuneunder governorGaius Suetonius Paulinus.In his subsequent career, he served in a variety of political positions inRome.In 64, he was appointedquaestorinAsia province.Two years later, he was appointedPlebeian Tribune,and in 68, he was madepraetor.During theYear of the Four Emperorsin 69, he supportedVespasian,general of theSyrianarmy, in his bid for the throne.

When Vespasian becameemperor,Agricola was made apatricianand appointed governor ofGallia Aquitania.In 77, he was madeconsulandgovernor of Britannia.As governor, he completed the conquest of what is todayWalesandnorthern England,and led his army to the far north ofScotland,establishing forts across much of thelowlands.In 85, Agricola was recalled from Britain after an unusually lengthy service by EmperorDomitian.After his return, he retired from military and public life and died in 93. Most of what is known about Agricola and his governorship was written in theDe vita et moribus Iulii Agricolae,[1]aprimary source,written byTacitus,Agricola's son-in-law, and detailed archaeological evidence from northern Britain.[2]

Early life[edit]

Agricola was born in thecoloniaofForum Julii,Gallia Narbonensis(nowFréjus,France). Agricola's parents were from noted political families ofsenatorialrank inRoman Gaul.Both of his grandfathers served as imperial governors. His father, Lucius Julius Graecinus, was apraetorand had become a member of theRoman Senatein the year of Agricola's birth. Graecinus had become distinguished by his interest in philosophy. Between August 40 and January 41, the emperorCaligulaordered his death, because he refused to prosecute the emperor's second cousinMarcus Junius Silanus.[3]

His mother was Julia Procilla. The Roman historianTacitusdescribes her as "a lady of singular virtue" who had a fond affection for her son. Agricola was educated in Massilia (Marseille), and showed what was considered an unhealthy interest in philosophy.

Political career[edit]

He began his career in Roman public life as a militarytribune,and served in Britain underGaius Suetonius Paulinusfrom 58 to 62. He was probably attached to theLegio II Augusta,but was chosen to serve on Suetonius's staff[4]and thus almost certainly participated in the suppression ofBoudica's uprising in 61.

Returning from Britain toRomein 62, he marriedDomitia Decidiana,a woman of noble birth. Their first child was a son. Agricola was appointed asquaestorin 64, which he served in theprovince of Asiaunder the corrupt proconsulLucius Salvius Otho Titianus.While he was there, his daughter, Julia Agricola, was born, but his son died shortly afterwards. He wastribuneof the plebs in 66 andpraetorin June 68, during which time he was ordered by the Governor of SpainGalbato take an inventory of the temple treasures.

During that time, the emperorNerowas declared a public enemy by the Senate and committed suicide, and the period of civil war known as theYear of the Four Emperorsbegan. Galba succeeded Nero, but was murdered in early 69 byOtho,who took the throne. Agricola's mother was murdered on her estate inLiguriaby Otho's marauding fleet. Hearing ofVespasian's bid for the empire, Agricola immediately gave him his support. Otho meanwhile committed suicide after being defeated byVitellius.

After Vespasian had established himself as emperor, Agricola was appointed to the command of theLegio XX Valeria Victrix,stationed in Britain, in place ofMarcus Roscius Coelius,who had stirred up a mutiny against the governor,Marcus Vettius Bolanus.Britain had revolted during the year of civil war, and Bolanus was a mild governor. Agricola reimposed discipline on the legion and helped to consolidate Roman rule. In 71, Bolanus was replaced by a more aggressive governor,Quintus Petillius Cerialis,and Agricola was able to display his talents as a commander in campaigns against theBrigantesin northern England.

When his command ended in 73, Agricola was enrolled as apatricianand appointed to governGallia Aquitania.There he stayed for almost three years. In 76 or 77, he was recalled to Rome and appointed suffectconsul,[5]and betrothed his daughter toTacitus.The following year, Tacitus and Julia married; Agricola was appointed to theCollege of Pontiffs,and returned to Britain for a third time, as itsgovernor(Legatus Augusti pro praetore).

Governor of Britain[edit]

Arriving in midsummer of 77, Agricola discovered that theOrdovicesof north Wales had virtually destroyed the Roman cavalry stationed in their territory. He immediately moved against them and defeated them. His campaign then moved ontoAngleseywhere hesubjugated the entire island.Almost two decades earlier, GovernorGaius Suetonius Paulinushad attempted the same but Roman forces had to withdraw in 60CE because of the outbreak of theBoudican rebellion.

Agricola also expanded Roman rule north intoCaledonia(modernScotland). In the summer of 79, he pushed his armies to the estuary of the river Taus, usually interpreted as theFirth of Tay,virtually unchallenged, and established some forts. Though their location is left unspecified, the close dating of the fort atElginhaughin Midlothian makes it a possible candidate. He established himself as a good administrator by reforming the widely corrupt corn levy as well as through his military successes. He introduced Romanising measures, encouraging communities to build towns on the Roman model and gave a Roman education to sons of native nobility; albeit, as Tacitus notes, for the cynical reason of pacifying the aggressive tribes in Britannia for the servitude of Rome.[6]

Hibernia[edit]

In 81, Agricola "crossed in the first ship" and defeated peoples unknown to the Romans until then. Tacitus, in Chapter 24 ofAgricola,does not tell us what body of water he crossed.[7]Modern scholarship favours either theFirth of ClydeorFirth of Forth.Tacitus also mentionsHibernia,so southwest Scotland is perhaps to be preferred.[8]The text of theAgricolahas been amended here to record the Romans "crossing into trackless wastes", referring to the wilds of the Galloway peninsula.[9]Agricola fortified the coast facing Ireland, and Tacitus recalls that his father-in-law often claimed the island could be conquered with a singlelegionandauxiliaries.He had given refuge to an exiled Irish king whom he hoped he might use as the excuse for conquest. This conquest never happened, but some historians believe the crossing referred to was in fact a small-scale exploratory orpunitive expeditionto Ireland,[10]though no Roman camps have been identified to confirm such a suggestion.[11]

Irish legendprovides a striking parallel.Tuathal Teachtmhar,a legendaryHigh King,is said to have been exiled from Ireland as a boy, and to have returned from Britain at the head of an army to claim the throne. The traditional date of his return is between 76 and 80, andarchaeologyhas found Roman or Romano-British artefacts in several sites associated with Tuathal.[12]

The invasion of Caledonia (Scotland)[edit]

Agricola among Roman generals and emperors in this frieze from the Great Hall of the National Galleries Scotland by William Brassey Hole 1897

The following year, Agricola raised a fleet and encircled the tribes beyond the Forth, and theCaledoniansrose in great numbers against him. They attacked the camp of theLegio IX Hispanaatnight,but Agricola sent in his cavalry and they were put to flight. The Romans responded by pushing further north. Another son was born to Agricola this year, but died before his first birthday.

In the summer of 83, Agricola faced the massed armies of the Caledonians, led byCalgacus,at theBattle of Mons Graupius.[13]Tacitus estimates their numbers at more than 30,000.[14]Agricola put his auxiliaries in the front line, keeping the legions in reserve, and relied on close-quarters fighting to make the Caledonians' unpointed slashing swords useless as they were unable to swing them properly or utilise thrusting attacks.[15]Even though the Caledonians were put to rout and therefore lost this battle, two thirds of their army managed to escape and hide in the Highlands or the "trackless wilds" as Tacitus calls them. Battle casualties were estimated by Tacitus to be about 10,000 on the Caledonian side and 360 on the Roman side.

A number of authors have reckoned the battle to have occurred in theGrampianMounthwithin sight of theNorth Sea.[16]In particular, Roy,[17]Surenne, Watt, Hogan[18]and others have advanced notions that the site of the battle may have beenKempstone Hill,Megray Hillor other knolls near theRaedykesRoman camp;these points of high ground are proximate to theElsick Mounth,an ancienttrackwayused by Romans and Caledonians for military manoeuvres. However, following the discovery of theRoman campatDurnoin 1975, most scholars now believe that the battle took place on the ground aroundBennachiein Aberdeenshire.[19]

Satisfied with his victory, Agricola extracted hostages from the Caledonian tribes. He may have marched his army to the northern coast of Britain,[20]as evidenced by the probable discovery of a Roman fort atCawdor(nearInverness).[21]

He also instructed theprefectof the fleet to sail around the north coast, confirming (allegedly for the first time) that Britain was in fact an island.

Findings[edit]

In 2019, GUARD Archaeology team led by Iraia Arabaolaza uncovered a marching camp dating to the 1st century AD inAyr,used by Roman legions during the invasion of Roman General Agricola. According to Arabaolaza, the fire pits were split 30 meters apart into two parallel lines. The findings also included clay-domed ovens and 26 fire pits dated to between 77- 86 AD and 90 AD loaded with burnt material and charcoal contents. Archaeologists suggested that this site had been chosen as a strategic location for the Roman conquest ofAyrshire.[22][23]

Later years[edit]

Agricola was recalled from Britain in 85, after an unusually long tenure as governor. Tacitus claimsDomitianordered his recall because Agricola's successes outshone the emperor's own modest victories in Germany. He re-entered Rome unobtrusively, reporting as ordered to the palace at night.

The relationship between Agricola and the emperor is unclear; on the one hand, Agricola was awarded triumphal decorations and a statue (the highest military honours apart from an actualtriumph); on the other, Agricola never again held a civil or military post, in spite of his experience and renown. He was offered the governorship of the province of Africa, but declined it, whether due to ill health or (as Tacitus claims) the machinations of Domitian.

In 93, Agricola died on his family estates in Gallia Narbonensis aged fifty-three. Rumours circulated attributing the death to a poison administered by the emperor Domitian, but no positive evidence for this was ever produced.

See also[edit]

References[edit]

  1. ^Tacitus,Agricola;Dio Cassius(Roman History66.20) and three inscriptions found in Britain (including theVerulamium Forum inscription) also make reference to Agricola.
  2. ^Hanson, W.S. (1991),Agricola and the conquest of the north(2nd edn), London: Batsford.
  3. ^Birley, Anthony R.(1996), "Iulius Agricola, Cn.", in Hornblower, Simon (ed.),Oxford Classical Dictionary,Oxford:Oxford University Press
  4. ^Agricola5
  5. ^Duncan B. Campbell, "The consulship of Agricola",Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik63 (1986), pp. 197-200, for the possible dates.JSTOR20186374
  6. ^Tacitus,Agricola21
  7. ^Tacitus,Agricola24
  8. ^Hanson, W.S. (1991).Agricola and the conquest of the north(2nd ed.). Batsford, London. pp. 93–96.
  9. ^Campbell, Duncan B. (2010).Mons Graupius AD 83: Rome's battle at the edge of the world.Oxford: Osprey.ISBN9781846039263.
  10. ^Di Martino, Vittorio (2006).Roman Ireland.Cork: Collins.ISBN9781905172191.
  11. ^See, in general,Campbell, Duncan B. (2014). "Did the Romans invade Ireland?".Ancient Warfare.8(2): 48–52.
  12. ^Warner, R. B. (1995)."Tuathal Techtmar: a myth or ancient literary evidence for a Roman invasion?".Emania(13).
  13. ^On the battle in general, see Duncan B. Campbell,Mons Grapius AD 83(2010), pp. 57-83.
  14. ^Tacitus,Agricola29
  15. ^"Cornelius Tacitus, The Life of Cnæus Julius Agricola, chapter 36".perseus.tufts.edu.Retrieved12 April2018.
  16. ^On the battle's location, see Duncan B. Campbell, "Search for a lost battlefield",Ancient WarfareVol. 8 issue 1 (2014), pp. 47-51.
  17. ^William Roy,The Military Antiquities of the Romans in Britain,1793
  18. ^C. Michael Hogan,Elsick Mounth,The Megalithic Portal, ed. A. BurnhamMegalithic.co.uk
  19. ^St Joseph, J.K. (1978). "The camp at Durno, Aberdeenshire, and the site of Mons Graupius".Britannia.9:271–287.doi:10.2307/525942.JSTOR525942.S2CID162345615.
  20. ^Wolfson, Stan (2002)."The Boresti: The creation of a myth".Tacitus, Thule and Caledonia.Archived fromthe originalon 2018-07-23.Retrieved2007-12-17.In the manuscript of Agricola 38.2:In finis Borestorum exercitum deducit- He led his army down into the territory of the Boresti "may be emended to:in finis boreos totum exercitum deducit- He led his entire army down into the northern extremities "
  21. ^"Excavations at Cawdor 1986"(PDF).Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 2012-02-19.Retrieved2009-07-11.
  22. ^"New evidence uncovered for Roman conquest of Scotland".HeritageDaily - Archaeology News.2019-05-24.Retrieved2020-09-13.
  23. ^"Lost Roman marching camp sheds new light on invasion of Scotland".scotsman.Retrieved2020-09-13.

Sources[edit]

  • Anthony Birley(1996), “Iulius Agricola, Cn.”, in Hornblower, Simon,Oxford Classical Dictionary,Oxford: Oxford University Press
  • Duncan B Campbell,Mons Graupius AD 83,Oxford: Osprey Publishing, 2010. 96pp.
  • "Agricola's Campaigns", special issue ofAncient Warfare,1/1 (2007)
  • Wolfson, Stan.Tacitus, Thule and Caledonia: the achievements of Agricola's navy in their true perspective.Oxford, England: Archaeopress, 2008. 118pp. (BAR British series; 459).

External links[edit]

Wikisourcehas original text related to this article:
Political offices
Preceded byas Suffect consul Suffect Consulof theRoman Republic
77
withignotus 		Succeeded by
Preceded by Roman governors of Britain
78–85 		Succeeded by
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