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Guan Yu

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In thisChinese name,thefamily nameisGuan.
Guan Yu
Quan Vũ
A portrait of Guan Yu in theSancai Tuhui
General of the Vanguard (Trước tướng quân)
In office
219(219)–220(220)
MonarchsLiu Bei(King of Hanzhong) /
Emperor Xian(Han dynasty)
General Who Defeats Bandits (Đãng khấu tướng quân)
(underLiu Bei)
In office
c.211(c.211)–219(219)
MonarchEmperor Xian of Han
Administrator of Xiangyang (Tương Dương thái thú)
(underLiu Bei)
In office
c.211(c.211)–219(219)
MonarchEmperor Xian of Han
Lieutenant-General (Thiên tướng quân)
(underCao Cao,thenLiu Bei)
In office
200(200)–c.211(c.211)
MonarchEmperor Xian of Han
Personal details
BornUnknown
Xie County,Hedong Commandery,Han Empire(present-dayYuncheng,Shanxi)
DiedJanuary or February 220[a]
Linju County, Xiangyang Commandery, Han Empire (present-dayNanzhang County,Hubei)
Children
OccupationGeneral
Courtesy nameYúncháng (Vân trường)
Posthumous nameMarquis Zhuàngmóu (Tráng mâu hầu)
PeerageMarquis of Hànshòu Village
(Hán thọ đình hầu)
Deity names
  • Guān Dì (Quan đế;"DivusGuan ")
  • Guān Gōng (Quan Công;"Lord Guan" )
  • Guān Shèng Dì Jūn (Quan thánh đế quân;"Holy Ruler Deity Guan" )
  • Sangharama Bodhisattva (Già Lam Bồ Tát)
Other names
  • Guān Èr Yé (Quan nhị gia;"Lord Guan the Second" )
  • Kwan Yee Gor (Cantonese Yale:Gwāan Yih Gō;Pinyin:Guān Èr Gē;Quan nhị ca;"Guan the Second Brother" )
  • Měi Rán Gōng (Mỹ râu công;"Lord of the Magnificent Beard" )
  • Chángshēng (Trường sinh)
  • Shòucháng (Thọ trường)
  • Seethis sectionfor more posthumous titles
Guan Yu
Guan's name inTraditional(top) andSimplified(bottom) Chinese characters
Traditional ChineseQuan Vũ
Simplified ChineseQuan Vũ
Hanyu PinyinGuān Yǔⓘ
Transcriptions
Standard Mandarin
Hanyu PinyinGuān Yǔⓘ
Bopomofoㄍㄨㄢ ㄩˇ
Gwoyeu RomatzyhGuan Yeu
Wade–GilesKuan1Yü3
Yale RomanizationGwān Yǔ
IPA[kwán ỳ]
Wu
SuzhouneseKue Yû
Yue: Cantonese
Yale RomanizationGwāan Yúh
JyutpingGwaan1 Jyu5
IPA[kʷan˥ jy˩˧]
Southern Min
HokkienPOJKoan Ú
Tâi-lôKuan Ú

Guan Yu([kwán ỳ]ⓘ;d. January or February 220[a]),courtesy nameYunchang,was a Chinese military general serving under the warlordLiu Beiduring the lateEastern Han dynastyof China. Along withZhang Fei,he shared a brotherly relationship with Liu Bei and accompanied him on most of his early exploits. Guan Yu played a significant role in the events leading up to theend of the Han dynastyand the establishment of Liu Bei's state ofShu Handuring theThree Kingdomsperiod. While he is remembered for his loyalty towards Liu Bei, he is also known for repayingCao Cao's kindness by slayingYan Liang,a general under Cao Cao's rivalYuan Shao,at theBattle of Boma.After Liu Bei gained control ofYi Provincein 214, Guan Yu remained inJing Provinceto govern and defend the area for about seven years. In 219, while he was away fightingCao Cao's forces at theBattle of Fancheng,Liu Bei's allySun Quanbroke the Sun–Liu alliance and sent his generalLü Mengtoconquer Liu Bei's territories in Jing Province.By the time Guan Yu found out about the loss of Jing Province after his defeat at Fancheng, it was too late. He was subsequently captured in an ambush by Sun Quan's forces and executed.[2]

Guan Yu's life was lionised and his achievements were glorified to such an extent after his death that he was deified during theSui dynasty.Through generations of storytelling, culminating in the 14th-century historical novelRomance of the Three Kingdoms,his deeds and moral qualities have been given immense emphasis, making Guan Yu one of East Asia's most popular paradigms of loyalty and righteousness. He is remembered as aculture heroin Chinese culture and is still worshipped by many people of Chinese descent in China, Taiwan, and other countries today. In religious devotion, he is reverentially called the "Emperor Guan" (Guān Dì) or "Lord Guan" (Guān Gōng). He is a deity worshipped inChinese folk religion,popularConfucianism,Taoism,andChinese Buddhism,and small shrines to him are almost ubiquitous in traditional Chinese shops and restaurants.

Historical sources

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The authoritative historical source on Guan Yu's life is theRecords of the Three Kingdoms(Sanguozhi) written byChen Shouin the third century. During the fifth century,Pei Songzhiannotated theSanguozhiby incorporating information from other sources to Chen Shou's original work and adding his personal comments. Some alternative texts used in the annotations to Guan Yu's biography include:Shu Ji(Records of Shu), by Wang Yin;Wei Shu(Book of Wei), byWang Chen,Xun YiandRuan Ji;Jiang Biao Zhuan,by Yu Pu;Fu Zi,byFu Xuan;Dianlue,byYu Huan;Wu Li(History of Wu), by Hu Chong; andChronicles of Huayang,byChang Qu.

Physical appearance

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Woodblock print of Guan Yu found in Khara-Khoto. One of the earliest illustrations of Guan Yu discovered.

No explicit descriptions of Guan Yu's physical appearance exist in historical records. However, theSanguozhirecorded thatZhuge Liangonce referred to Guan Yu as having a "peerless beard".[b]

Traditionally, Guan Yu is portrayed as a red-faced warrior with a long, lush beard. The idea of his red face may have been derived from a description of him in Chapter 1 of the 14th-century historical novelRomance of the Three Kingdoms,where the following passage appears:[3]

"Xuandetook a look at the man, who stood at a height of ninechi,[c]and had a twochi[d]long beard; his face was of the colour of a darkzao,[e]with lips that were red and plump; his eyes were like those of a crimson phoenix,[f]and his eyebrows resembled recliningsilkworms.[g]He had a dignified air and looked quite majestic. "

Alternatively, the idea of his red face could have been borrowed from opera representation, where red faces represented loyalty and righteousness.[citation needed]In illustrations ofRomance of the Three Kingdoms,Guan Yu is traditionally depicted wearing a green robe over his body armour.

InRomance of the Three Kingdoms,Guan Yu's weapon was aguandaonamedGreen Dragon Crescent Blade,which resembled aglaiveand was said to weigh 82catties(about 49 kg or 108 lbs).[7]

Early life and career

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Liu Bei (left), Guan Yu (back), and Zhang Fei (right) in an illustration by Japanese painter Sakurai Sekkan (1715–90)

Guan Yu was from Xie County (Giải huyện),Hedong Commandery,which is present-dayYuncheng,Shanxi.His originalcourtesy namewas Changsheng (Trường sinh).[Sanguozhi 1]He was very studious, and was interested in the ancient history bookZuo zhuanand could fluently recite lines from it.[Sanguozhi others 1][Sanguozhi zhu 1]He fled from his hometown for unknown reasons[h]and went toZhuo Commandery.When theYellow Turban Rebellionbroke out in the 180s, Guan Yu andZhang Feijoined a volunteer militia formed byLiu Bei,and they assisted a colonelZou Jingin suppressing the revolt.[Sanguozhi 2][Sanguozhi others 2]Guan Yu and Zhang Fei were known as stalwart and strong men; which made them talented fighters.[9]

When Liu Bei was appointed as the Minister (Tương) ofPingyuan,Guan Yu and Zhang Fei were appointed as Majors of Separate Command (Đừng bộ Tư Mã), each commanding detachments of soldiers under Liu Bei. Liu Bei cherished them as if they were his own brothers and the three of them were as close as brothers to the point of sharing the same room, sleeping on the same mat and eating from the same pot.[10]Zhang Fei and Guan Yu protected Liu Bei whenever there were large crowds of people and also stood guard beside him when he sat down at meetings all day long. They followed him on his exploits and were always ready to face any danger and hardship.[Sanguozhi 3]And for their military prowess were appraised as "enemy of ten-thousand".[Sanguozhi 4]Guan Yu was noted for his kindness towards his soldiers and fealty to Liu Bei akin to family, but had no respect for the gentry and treated them without courtesy.[Sanguozhi others 3][Sanguozhi 5][Sanguozhi others 4]

Short service under Cao Cao

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Background

[edit]

Liu Beiand his men followedCao Caoback to the imperial capitalXuafter their victory overLü Buat theBattle of Xiapiin 198. About a year later, Liu Bei and his followers escaped from Xu under the pretext of helping Cao Cao lead an army to attackYuan Shu.Liu Bei went toXu Province,killed the provincial inspector Che Zhou (Xe trụ), and seized control of the province. He moved toXiaopeiand left Guan Yu in charge of the provincial capitalXiapi.[Sanguozhi 6][Sanguozhi others 5][Sanguozhi zhu 2]

In 200, Cao Cao led his forces to attack Liu Bei, defeated him and retook Xu Province. Liu Bei fled to northern China and found refuge under Cao Cao's rivalYuan Shao,while Guan Yu was captured by Cao Cao's forces and brought back to Xu. Cao Cao treated Guan Yu respectfully and askedEmperor Xianto appoint Guan Yu as a Lieutenant-General (Thiên tướng quân).[Sanguozhi 7][Sanguozhi others 6]

Battle of Boma

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Main article:Battle of Boma

Later that year, Yuan Shao sent his generalYan Liangto lead an army to attack Cao Cao's garrison at Boma (Bạch mã;near present-dayHua County,Henan), which was defended by Liu Yan (Lưu duyên). Cao Cao sentZhang Liaoand Guan Yu to lead the vanguard to engage the enemy. In the midst of battle, Guan Yu recognised Yan Liang's parasol so he charged towards Yan Liang, decapitated him and returned with his head. Yan Liang's men could not stop him. With Yan Liang's death, the siege on Boma was lifted. On Cao Cao's recommendation, Emperor Xian awarded Guan Yu the peerage of "Marquis[i]of Hanshou Village "(Hán thọ đình hầu).[Sanguozhi 8]

Leaving Cao Cao

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Although Cao Cao admired Guan Yu's character, he also sensed that Guan Yu had no intention of serving under him for long. He told Zhang Liao, "Why don't you make use of your friendship with Guan Yu to find out what he wants?" When Zhang Liao asked him, Guan Yu replied, "I am aware that Lord Cao treats me very generously. However, I have also received many favours from General Liu and I have sworn to follow him until I die. I cannot break my oath. I will leave eventually, so maybe you can help me convey my message to Lord Cao." Zhang Liao did so, and Cao Cao was even more impressed with Guan Yu.[Sanguozhi 9]TheFu Zigave a slightly different account of this incident. It recorded that Zhang Liao faced a dilemma of whether or not to convey Guan Yu's message to Cao Cao: if he did, Cao Cao might execute Guan Yu; if he did not, he would be failing in his service to Cao Cao. He sighed, "Lord Cao is my superior and he is like a father to me, while Guan Yu is like a brother to me." He eventually decided to tell Cao Cao. Cao Cao said, "A subject who serves his lord but doesn't forget his origins is truly a man of righteousness. When do you think he will leave?" Zhang Liao replied, "Guan Yu has received favours from Your Excellency. He will most probably leave after he has repaid your kindness."[Sanguozhi zhu 3]

After Guan Yu slew Yan Liang and lifted the siege on Baima, Cao Cao knew that he would leave soon so he gave Guan Yu greater rewards. Guan Yu sealed up all the gifts he received from Cao Cao, wrote a farewell letter, and headed towards Yuan Shao's territory to find Liu Bei. Cao Cao's subordinates wanted to pursue Guan Yu, but Cao Cao stopped them and said, "He's just doing his duty to his lord. There's no need to pursue him."[Sanguozhi 10]

Pei Songzhicommented on this as follows: "Cao Cao admired Guan Yu's character even though he knew that Guan Yu would not remain under him. He did not send his men to pursue Guan Yu when Guan Yu left, so as to allow Guan Yu to fulfil his allegiance (to Liu Bei). If he was not as magnanimous as a great warlord should be, how would he allow this to happen? This was an example of Cao Cao's goodness."[Sanguozhi zhu 4]

Returning to Liu Bei

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A mural of Guan Yu's "Riding Alone for Thousands of Miles" (Ngàn dặm đi đơn kỵ) in theSummer Palace,Beijing.

WhenCao CaoandYuan Shaoclashed at theBattle of Guanduin 200, Yuan sentLiu Beito contact Liu Pi (Lưu tích), aYellow Turban rebelchief inRunan(Nhữ Nam), and assist Liu Pi in attacking the imperial capital Xu while Cao Cao was away at Guandu. Guan Yu reunited with Liu Bei around this time. Liu Bei and Liu Pi were defeated by Cao Cao's generalCao Ren,after which Liu Bei returned to Yuan Shao. Liu Bei secretly planned to leave Yuan Shao, so he pretended to persuade Yuan Shao to form an alliance withLiu Biao,the Governor ofJing Province.Yuan Shao sent Liu Bei to contact another rebel leader, Gong Du (Cộng đều / Cung đều), in Runan, where they gathered a few thousand soldiers. Cao Cao turned back and attacked Runan after scoring a decisive victory over Yuan Shao at Guandu. Liu Bei fled south and found shelter under Liu Biao, who put him in charge ofXinyeat the northern border of Jing Province. Guan Yu followed Liu Bei to Xinye.[Sanguozhi others 7][Sanguozhi 11]

Battle of Red Cliffs and aftermath

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See also:Battle of Red CliffsandBattle of Jiangling (208)

Liu Biaodied in 208 and was succeeded by his younger son,Liu Cong,who surrenderedJing ProvincetoCao Caowhen the latter started a campaign that year with the aim of wiping out opposing forces in southern China.Liu Beievacuated Xinye together with his followers and they headed towardsXiakou,which was guarded by Liu Biao's elder sonLiu Qiand independent of Cao Cao's control. Along the journey, Liu Bei divided his party into two groups – one led by Guan Yu which would sail along the river towardsJiangling;another led by Liu Bei which would travel on land. Cao Cao sent 5,000 elite cavalry to pursue Liu Bei's group and they caught up with them at Changban, where theBattle of Changbanbroke out. Liu Bei and his remaining followers managed to escape from Cao Cao's forces and reach Han Ford (Hán tân), where Guan Yu's group picked them up and they sailed to Xiakou together.[Sanguozhi others 8][Sanguozhi 12]

In 208, Liu Bei allied withSun Quanand they defeated Cao Cao at the decisiveBattle of Red Cliffs.Cao Cao retreated north after his defeat and leftCao Renbehind to defend Jing Province.[Sanguozhi 13]During theBattle of Jiangling,Guan Yu was stationed at the northern routes to block Cao Ren's supply lines via infiltration. Li Tong engaged Guan Yu, attempting to support Cao Ren's forces, but died from illness during the campaign.[Sanguozhi others 9]Xu Huang and Man Chong also engaged with Guan Yu in Hanjin(Hán tân) in order support Cao Ren against Zhou Yu.[Sanguozhi others 10]Finally, Yue Jin, stationed in Xiangyang, defeated Guan Yu and Su Fei (Tô phi) and drove them away.[Sanguozhi others 11]After seizing and pacifying the various commanderies in southern Jing Province, Liu Bei appointed Guan Yu as the Administrator (Thái thú) of Xiangyang and General Who Defeats Bandits (Đãng khấu tướng quân), and ordered him to station at the north of theYangtze River.[Sanguozhi 13]

Guarding Jing Province

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Between 212 and 214,Liu Beistarteda campaignto seize control ofYi Provincefrom the provincial governorLiu Zhang.Most of Liu Bei's subordinates participated in the campaign, while Guan Yu remained behind to guard and oversee Liu Bei's territories inJing Province.[Sanguozhi 14]

Sun-Liu territorial dispute

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Main article:Sun–Liu territorial dispute

During the mid 210s, a territorial dispute broke out between Liu Bei andSun Quanin southern Jing Province. According to an earlier arrangement, Liu Bei "borrowed" southern Jing Province from Sun Quan to serve as a temporary base; he would have to return the territories to Sun Quan once he found another base. After Liu Bei seized control of Yi Province, Sun Quan asked him to return three commanderies but Liu Bei refused. Sun Quan then sent his generalLü Mengto lead his forces to seize the three commanderies. In response, Liu Bei ordered Guan Yu to lead troops to stop Lü Meng.[Sanguozhi others 12]Gan Ning,one of Lü Meng's subordinates, managed to deter Guan Yu from crossing the shallows nearYiyang.The shallows were thus named 'Guan Yu's Shallows' (Quan Vũ lại).[Sanguozhi others 13]Lu Su(the overall commander of Sun Quan's forces in Jing Province) later invited Guan Yu to attend a meeting to settle the territorial dispute. Around 215, after Cao Cao seized control ofHanzhong Commandery,Liu Bei saw that as a strategic threat to his position in Yi Province so he decided to make peace with Sun Quan and agreed to divide southern Jing Province between his and Sun Quan's domains along theXiang River.Both sides then withdrew their forces.[Sanguozhi others 14]

Battle of Fancheng

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Main article:Battle of Fancheng
Guan Yu capturesPang De,as depicted in aMing dynasty paintingby Shang Xi,c.1430.

In 219,Liu Beiemerged victorious in theHanzhong CampaignagainstCao Cao,after which he declared himself "King of Hanzhong" (Hán Trung vương). He appointed Guan Yu as General of the Vanguard (Trước tướng quân) and bestowed upon him a ceremonial axe. In the same year, Guan Yu led his forces to attackCao RenatFanchengand besiege the fortress. Cao Cao sentYu Jinto lead reinforcements to help Cao Ren. It was in autumn and there were heavy showers so theHan Riveroverflowed. The flood destroyed Yu Jin's seven armies. Guan Yu had prepared his navy to advance during the flood, and Yu Jin surrendered to Guan Yu while his subordinatePang Derefused and was executed by Guan Yu. Various local officials such as Administrator of Nanxiang Fu Fang and Inspector Jing Province Hu Xiu defected to Guan Yu. Angered by Cao Cao's forced labor put upon them, rebel peasants and bandits in Liang(Lương), Jia(Giáp) and Luhun(Lục hồn) also submitted to Guan Yu and received official seals to work as his raiders. Guan Yu's fame spread throughout China.[Sanguozhi 15][11]

TheShu Jirecorded that before Guan Yu embarked on the Fancheng campaign, he dreamt about a boar biting his foot. He told his sonGuan Ping,"I am growing weaker this year. I might not even return alive."[Sanguozhi zhu 5]

Belittling Sun Quan

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WithLiu Beigaining Hanzhong as well as the northwest commanderies of Jing: Fangling, Shangyong and Xicheng; and now after Yu Jin's defeat, Cao Cao contemplated relocating the imperial capital from Xu further north intoHebeito avoid Guan Yu, butSima YiandJiang Jitold him thatSun Quanwould become restless when he heard of Guan Yu's victory. They suggested to Cao Cao to ally with Sun Quan and get him to help them hinder Guan Yu's advances; in return, Cao Cao would recognise the legitimacy of Sun Quan's claim over the territories inJiangdong.In this way, the siege on Fancheng would automatically be lifted. Cao Cao heeded their suggestion. Previously, Sun Quan had sent a messenger to meet Guan Yu and propose a marriage between his son andGuan Yu's daughter.However, Guan Yu not only rejected the proposal, but also scolded and humiliated the messenger. Sun Quan was enraged.[Sanguozhi 16]

Encounter with Xu Huang

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Cao Cao later sentXu Huangto lead another army to reinforce Cao Ren at Fancheng. Xu Huang broke through Guan Yu's encirclement and routed Guan Yu's forces on the battlefield, thus lifting the siege on Fancheng.[Sanguozhi others 15]Guan Yu withdrew his forces after seeing that he could not capture Fancheng.[Sanguozhi 17]TheShu Jirecorded an incident about Xu Huang encountering Guan Yu on the battlefield. Xu Huang was previously a close friend of Guan Yu. They often chatted about other things apart from military affairs. When they met again at Fancheng, Xu Huang gave an order to his men: "Whoever takes Guan Yu's head will be rewarded with 1,000jinof gold. "A shocked Guan Yu asked Xu Huang," Brother, what are you talking about? "Xu Huang replied," This is an affair of the state. "[Sanguozhi zhu 6]

Losing Jing Province

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Wooden statue of Guan Yu in mountain pattern armour, 16th c.Ming dynasty
Main article:Lü Meng's invasion of Jing Province

Although Guan Yu defeated and capturedYu Jinat Fancheng, his army found itself lacking food supplies, so he seized grain from one ofSun Quan's granaries at Xiang Pass (Tương quan). By then, Sun Quan had secretly agreed to an alliance withCao Caoand sentLü Mengand others to invadeJing Provincewhile he followed behind with reinforcements. At Xunyang (Tìm dương), Lü Meng ordered his troops to hide in vessels disguised as civilian and merchant ships and sail towards Jing Province. Along the way, Lü Meng infiltrated and disabled the watchtowers set up by Guan Yu along the river, so Guan Yu was totally unaware of the invasion.[Sanguozhi others 16]

When Guan Yu embarked on the Fancheng campaign, he leftMi FangandShi Renbehind to defend his key bases in Jing Province –Nan CommanderyandGong'an.Guan Yu had constantly treated them with contempt. During the campaign, after Mi Fang and Shi Ren sent insufficient supplies to Guan Yu's army at the frontline, an annoyed Guan Yu said, "I will deal with them when I return." Mi Fang and Shi Ren felt uneasy about this. When Sun Quan invaded Jing Province, Lü Meng showed understanding towards Mi Fang and successfully induced him into surrendering whileYu Fanalso persuaded Shi Ren to give up resistance. With the exceptions of the northwest, Liu Bei's territories in Jing Province fell under Sun Quan's control after the surrenders of Mi Fang and Shi Ren.[Sanguozhi 18]

Dubious account from theDianlue

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TheDianluerecorded:

When Guan Yu was besieging Fancheng, Sun Quan sent a messenger to Guan Yu to offer aid while secretly instructing the messenger to take his time to travel there. He then sent a registrar ahead to meet Guan Yu first. Guan Yu was unhappy that Sun Quan's offer came late because he had already capturedYu Jinby then. He scolded the messenger, "Youraccoon dogsdare to behave like this! If I can conquer Fancheng, what makes you think I can't destroy you? "Although Sun Quan felt insulted by Guan Yu's response, he still wrote a letter to Guan Yu and pretended to apologise and offer to allow Guan Yu to pass through his territory freely.[Sanguozhi zhu 7]

Pei Songzhi commented on theDianlueaccount as follows:

Although Liu Bei and Sun Quan appeared to get along harmoniously, they were actually distrustful of each other. When Sun Quan later attacked Guan Yu, he dispatched his forces secretly, as mentioned in Lü Meng's biography: '[...] elite soldiers hid in vessels disguised as civilian and merchant ships.' Based on this reasoning, even if Guan Yu did not seek help from Sun Quan, the latter would not mention anything about granting Guan Yu free passage in his territory. If they genuinely wished to help each other, why would they conceal their movements from each other?[Sanguozhi zhu 8]

Death

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Bronze statue of Guan Yu in mountain pattern armour,Ming dynasty

By the time Guan Yu retreated from Fancheng,Sun Quan's forces had occupied Jiangling and captured the families of Guan Yu's soldiers.Lü Mengordered his troops to treat the civilians well and ensure that they were not harmed.[j]Most of Guan Yu's soldiers lost their fighting spirit and deserted and went back to Jing Province to reunite with their families. Guan Yu knew that he had been isolated so he withdrew to Maicheng (Mạch thành;in present-dayDangyang,Hubei) and headed west to Zhang District (Chương hương), where his remaining men deserted him and surrendered to the enemy. Sun Quan sentZhu RanandPan Zhangto block Guan Yu's retreat route. Guan Yu, along with his sonGuan Pingand subordinate Zhao Lei (Triệu mệt), were captured alive by Pan Zhang's deputy Ma Zhong (Mã trung) in an ambush. Guan Yu and Guan Ping were later executed by Sun Quan's forces in Linju (Lâm tự;in present-dayNanzhang County,Hubei).[Sanguozhi 19][Sanguozhi others 17][Sanguozhi others 18]

Alternate account from theShu Ji

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TheShu Jimentioned that Sun Quan initially wanted to keep Guan Yu alive in the hope of using Guan Yu to help him counter Liu Bei and Cao Cao. However, his followers advised him against doing so by saying, "A wolf shouldn't be kept as a pet as it'll bring harm to the keeper. Cao Cao made a mistake when he refused to kill Guan Yu and landed himself in deep trouble. He even had to consider relocating the imperial capital elsewhere. How can Guan Yu be allowed to live?" Sun Quan then ordered Guan Yu's execution.[Sanguozhi zhu 9]

Pei Songzhi disputed this account as follows:

According to (Wei Zhao's)Book of Wu,when Sun Quan sent Pan Zhang to block Guan Yu's retreat route, Guan Yu was executed after he was captured. Linju was about 200 to 300liaway from Jiangling, so how was it possible that Guan Yu was kept alive while Sun Quan and his subjects discussed whether to execute him or not? The claim that 'Sun Quan wanted to keep Guan Yu alive for the purpose of using him to counter Liu Bei and Cao Cao' does not make sense. It was probably meant to silence smart people.[Sanguozhi zhu 10]

Posthumous honours

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Sun Quan sent Guan Yu's head to Cao Cao, who arranged a noble's funeral for Guan Yu and had his head properly buried with full honours.[Sanguozhi zhu 11]In October or November 260,Liu Shangranted Guan Yu theposthumous title"Marquis Zhuangmou" (Tráng mâu hầu).[Sanguozhi 20][Sanguozhi others 19]According to posthumous naming rules in theYi Zhou Shu,"mou" was meant for a person who failed to live up to his reputation.[12]

Anecdotes

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Baling Qiao, mural illustration of Guan Yu StudyingSpring and Autumn AnnalsofConfucius

Request to take Qin Yilu's wife

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See also:Qin Yilu

During theBattle of Xiapiin late 198, when the allied forces ofCao CaoandLiu Beifought againstLü Bu,Guan Yu sought permission from Cao Cao to marryQin Yilu's wife Lady Du (Đỗ thị) after they won the battle. After Cao Cao agreed, Guan Yu still repeatedly reminded Cao Cao about his promise before the battle ended. After Lü Bu's defeat and death, Cao Cao was so curious about why Guan Yu wanted Lady Du so badly and he guessed that she must be very beautiful, so he had her brought to him. Cao Cao ultimately broke his promise as he took Lady Du as his concubine and adopted her sonQin Lang(whom she had with Qin Yilu).[Sanguozhi zhu 12][Sanguozhi zhu 13]

Advice to Liu Bei

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TheShu Jirecorded an incident as follows:

WhenLiu Beiwas in the imperial capital Xu, he once attended a hunting expedition together withCao Cao,during which Guan Yu urged him to kill Cao Cao but he refused. Later, when Liu Bei reached Xiakou (after his defeat at theBattle of Changban), Guan Yu complained, "If you heeded my advice during the hunting expedition in Xu, we wouldn't end up in this troubling situation." Liu Bei replied, "I didn't do so then for the sake of the Empire. If Heaven still helps those who are righteous, it might be possible that this may turn out to be a blessing in disguise!"[Sanguozhi zhu 14]

Pei Songzhicommented on theShu Jiaccount as follows:

When Liu Bei,Dong Chengand others plotted against Cao Cao, their plan failed because it was leaked out. If he did not want to kill Cao Cao for the sake of the Empire, what did he mean when he said this? If Guan Yu did urge Liu Bei to kill Cao Cao during the hunting expedition and Liu Bei did not do so, it was probably because Cao Cao's close aides and relatives were present at the scene and they outnumbered him. Besides, there was a lack of careful planning so Liu Bei had to wait for another opportunity. Even if Liu Bei succeeded in killing Cao Cao, he would not have been able to escape alive, so Liu Bei did not heed Guan Yu's words. There was nothing to regret. The hunting expedition event happened in the past, so it was used to justify that Guan Yu had given Liu Bei "valued advice", which the latter ignored.[Sanguozhi zhu 15]

Asking Zhuge Liang about Ma Chao

[edit]

In 214,Ma Chaodefected fromZhang Lu's side to Liu Bei's forces, and he assisted Liu Bei in pressuring Liu Zhang to surrender and yield Yi Province to Liu Bei. When Guan Yu received news that Ma Chao (whom he was unfamiliar with) had recently joined them, he wrote toZhuge Liangin Yi Province and asked him who was comparable to Ma Chao. Zhuge Liang knew that Guan Yu was defending the border (so he should not displease Guan Yu). He replied: "Mengqi is proficient in both civil and military affairs. He is fierce and mighty, and a hero of his time. He is comparable toQing BuandPeng Yue.He can compete withYide,but he is not as good as the peerless beard. "[b][Sanguozhi 22]

Guan Yu was very pleased when he received Zhuge Liang's reply and he welcomed Ma Chao.[Sanguozhi 23]

Arm injury

[edit]

Guan Yu was once injured in the left arm by a stray arrow which pierced through his arm. Although the wound healed, he still experienced pain in the bone whenever there was a heavy downpour. A physician told him, "The arrowhead had poison on it and the poison had seeped into the bone. The way to get rid of this problem is to cut open your arm and scrape away the poison in your bone." Guan Yu then stretched out his arm and asked the physician to heal him. He then invited his subordinates to dine with him while the surgery was being performed. Blood flowed from his arm into a container below. Throughout the operation, Guan Yu feasted, consumed alcohol and chatted with his men as though nothing had happened.[Sanguozhi 24]

Family

[edit]

Guan Yu had two known sons –Guan PingandGuan Xing.Guan Xing inherited his father's title "Marquis of Hanshou Village" (Hán thọ đình hầu) and served in the state ofShuduring theThree Kingdomsperiod.[Sanguozhi 25]Guan Yu also had a daughter. Sun Quan once proposed a marriage between his son and Guan Yu's daughter, but Guan Yu rejected the proposal. Her name was not recorded in history, but she was known as "Guan Yinping"(Quan màn hình) or "Guan Feng" (Quan phượng) in folktales andChinese opera,as well as in theDynasty Warriorsvideo game series (as Guan Yinping). Guan Yu allegedly had a third son,Guan Suo,who is not mentioned in historical texts and appears only in folklore, theRomance of the Three Kingdomsnovel, and inDynasty Warriors.

Guan Xing's son, Guan Tong (Quan thống), married a princess (one ofLiu Shan's daughters) and served as a General of the Household (Trung lang tướng) among the imperial guards. Guan Tong had no son when he died, so he was succeeded by his younger half-brother Guan Yi (Quan di).[Sanguozhi 26]

According to theShu Ji,after thefall of Shuin 263,Pang Hui(Pang De's son) massacred Guan Yu's family and descendants to avenge his father, who was executed by Guan Yu after theBattle of Fanchengin 219.[Sanguozhi zhu 16]

In 1719, theKangxi Emperorof theQing dynastyawarded the hereditary title "Wujing Boshi"(Ngũ kinh tiến sĩ;"Professor of theFive Classics") to Guan Yu's descendants living inLuoyang.The bearer of the title is entitled to an honorary position in theHanlin Academy.[13][14]

Appraisal

[edit]
illustration of Guan Yu byYashima Gakuteiin the Chester Beatty Library

Chen Shou,who wrote Guan Yu's biography in theSanguozhi,commented on the latter as such: "Guan Yu and Zhang Fei were praised as mighty warriors capable of fighting ten thousand of enemies ( vạn người địch ). They were like tigers among (Liu Bei's) subjects. Guan Yu and Zhang Fei both had the style of aguoshi.[k]Guan Yu repaid Cao Cao's kindness while Zhang Fei releasedYan Yanout of righteousness. However, Guan Yu was unrelenting and conceited while Zhang Fei was brutal and heartless. These shortcomings resulted in their downfalls. This was not something uncommon. "[Sanguozhi 27]

InRomance of the Three Kingdoms

[edit]
Portrait of Guan Yu (behind) from aQing dynastyedition ofRomance of the Three Kingdoms.
A 19th-century Japanesewoodcutof Guan Yu byUtagawa Kuniyoshi.In this scene, he is being attended to by the physicianHua Tuowhile playingweiqi.Seeherefor a large version of the full picture.

The 14th-century historical novelRomance of the Three Kingdomsglorifies Guan Yu by portraying him as a righteous and loyal warrior. Guan Yu is one of the most altered and aggrandised characters in the novel,[citation needed]which accounts for his popular image in Chinese society.

See the following for some fictitious stories inRomance of the Three Kingdomsinvolving Guan Yu:

Worship of Guan Yu

[edit]
Multi-story-high statue of Guan Yu atJinguashi

Guan Yu was deified as early as theSui dynasty(581–618), and is still worshipped today as abodhisattvainBuddhisttradition and as a guardian deity in Chinese folk religion andTaoism.[15]He is also held in high esteem inConfucianismand in new religious movements such asYiguandao.

In Chinese religion

[edit]
Guan Yu (lower left) as a subject onWater-Land Ritual paintingsof martyred generals
Cart for Shinto procession with Guan Yu statue from theKanda Shrine,now preserved at theEdo-Tokyo Museum.

InChinese folk religion,Guan Yu is widely referred to as "Emperor Guan" (QuanĐế;Guāndì;dìimplies deified status) and "Lord Guan" (QuanCông;Guān Gōng), while his Taoist title is "Holy Emperor Lord Guan" (Quan thánh đế quân;Guān Shèng Dì Jūn).Martial templesand shrines dedicated exclusively to Guan Yu can be found across mainland China, Hong Kong, Macau, Taiwan, and other places with Chinese influence such as Vietnam, South Korea and Japan. Some of these temples, such as the Guandi Temple in Xiezhou (Giải châu),Shanxi,were built exactly in the layout of an imperial residence, befitting his status as a "ruler". Other examples of Guan Yu temples in China include theGuandi TempleofJinanand the Guanlin Temple ofLuoyang.[16]

Historical veneration

[edit]

The apotheosis of Guan Yu occurred in stages, as he was given ever higherposthumous titles.Liu Shan,the second emperor ofShu,gave Guan Yu the posthumous title of "Marquis Zhuangmou" (Tráng mâu hầu) four decades after his death. During theSong dynasty,Emperor Huizongbestowed upon Guan Yu the title "Duke Zhonghui" (Trung huệ công), and later the title of a prince. In 1187,Emperor Xiaozonghonoured Guan Yu as "Prince Zhuangmou Yiyong Wu'an Yingji" (Tráng mâu nghĩa dũng võ an anh Tế Vương). During theYuan dynasty,Emperor Wenzongchanged Guan Yu's title to "Prince of Xianling Yiyong Wu'an Yingji" (Hiển linh nghĩa dũng võ an anh Tế Vương).

In 1614, theWanli Emperorbestowed on Guan Yu the title "Holy Emperor Guan, the Great God Who Subdues Demons in the Three Worlds and Whose Awe Spreads Far and Moves Heaven" (Tam giới phục ma đại thần uy xa rung trời tôn quan thánh đế quân). During theQing dynasty,theShunzhi Emperorgave Guan Yu the title of "Guan, the Loyal and Righteous God of War, the Holy Great Emperor" (Trung nghĩa thần võ quan thánh đại đế) in 1644. This title was expanded to "Guan the Holy Great Emperor; God of War Manifesting Benevolence, Bravery and Prestige; Protector of the Country and Defender of the People; Proud and Honest Supporter of Peace and Reconciliation; Promoter of Morality, Loyalty and Righteousness" (Nhân dũng uy hiện hộ quốc bảo dân chân thành bình định dực tán Tuyên Đức trung nghĩa thần võ quan thánh đại đế), a total of 24Chinese characters,by the mid-19th century. It is often shortened to "Saint of War" (Võ Thánh;Wǔ Shèng), which is of the same rank asConfucius,who is honoured the "Saint of Culture" (Văn thánh;Wén Shèng). The Qing dynasty promoted the worship of Guan Yu among the Mongol tribes, making him one of their most revered religious figures, second only to theirlamas.[17]

Altar of Guan Yu inOsaka.

Throughout history, Guan Yu has also been credited with many military successes. In the 14th century, his spirit was said to have aidedZhu Yuanzhang,the founder of theMing dynasty,at theBattle of Lake Poyang.In 1402, whenZhu Dilaunched a coup d'état and successfully deposed his nephew, theJianwen Emperor,Zhu Di claimed that he was blessed by the spirit of Guan Yu. During the last decade of the 16th century, Guan Yu was also credited with the repulse ofJapanese invasion of KoreabyToyotomi Hideyoshi.TheManchuimperial clanof theQing dynastywas also associated with Guan Yu's martial qualities. During the 20th century, Guan Yu was worshipped by the warlordYuan Shikai,president and later a short-lived emperor of China.

Guan Yu's messages were received by mediums throughspirit writing,later calledFuji (planchette writing)(Lên đồng viết chữ / lên đồng viết chữ), since the late 17th century. "By the mid-Qianlong period (1736–96) the number of 'sacred edicts' issued by Guandi ordering people to do good and help those in need became increasingly frequent." In the 19th century, Guandi's messages received through spirit writing assumed a millennialist character. Dates were announced for the end of the world, followed by messages indicating that Guandi had "prevented the apocalypse" and was indeed "the savior of endtimes." In 1866, the Ten Completions Society (Shiquanhui thập toàn sẽ ) was established to propagate the messages of Guandi and promote the charitable work his spirit had ordered to perform. The tradition of Guandi spirit writing continued in Chinese folk Religion well into the 20th century.[18]

Contemporary veneration

[edit]
Altar of Guan Yu at a restaurant inBeijing.

Today, Guan Yu is still widely worshipped by the Chinese; he may be worshipped inMartial templesandWen Wu temples,and small shrines devoted to him are also found in homes, businesses and fraternal organisations. In Hong Kong, a shrine to Guan Yu can be found in every police station. Though by no means mandatory, Chinese police officers worship and pay respect to him. Although seemingly ironic, members of thetriadsandHeaven and Earth Societyworship Guan Yu as well. Statues used by triads tend to hold the halberd in the left hand, and statues in police stations tend to hold the halberd in the right hand. This signifies which side Guan Yu is worshipped, by the righteous people or vice versa. The appearance of Guan Yu's face for the triads is usually more stern and threatening than the usual statue. In Hong Kong, Guan Yu is often referred to as "Yi Gor" (Nhị ca;Cantonese for "second elder brother" ) for he was second toLiu Beiin their fictional sworn brotherhood. Guan Yu is also worshipped by Chinese businessmen in Shanxi, Hong Kong, Macau and Southeast Asia as an alternative wealth god, since he is perceived to bless the upright and protect them from the wicked. Another reason is related to the release of Cao Cao during the Huarong Trail incident, in which he let Cao and his men pass through safely. For that, he was perceived to be able to extend the lifespan of people in need. AmongChinese Filipinosin thePhilippines,Guan Yu is also sometimes known as"Santo Santiago"(St. James) or in Hokkien as "Te Ya Kong "(HokkienChinese:Đế gia công;Pe̍h-ōe-jī:Tè-iâ-kong) or "Kuan Kong "(HokkienChinese:Quan Công;Pe̍h-ōe-jī:Koan-kong).[19]

Among theCantonese peoplewho emigrated to California during the mid-19th century, the worship of Guan Yu was an important element. Statues and tapestry images of the god can be found in a number of historical California joss houses (a local term forChinese folk religiontemples), where his name may be given with various Anglicised spellings, including:Kwan Dai,Kwan TaiorKuan TiforGuandi(Emperor Guan);Kuan KungforGuan Gong(Lord Guan),Wu TiorMo DaiforWu Di(War Deity),Kuan Yu,Kwan Yu,orQuan Yufor Guan Yu. TheMendocino Joss House,a historical landmark also known as Mo Dai Miu (Wudimiao,i.e. the Temple of the Deity of War), or Temple of Kwan Tai, built in 1852, is a typical example of the small shrines erected to Guan Yu in the United States.

Guan Yu is also worshipped as adoor godinChineseandTaoist temples,with portraits of him being pasted on doors to ward off evil spirits, usually in pairings withZhang Fei,Guan Ping,Guan ShengorZhou Cang.

Apart from general worship, Guan Yu is also commemorated in China with colossal statues such as the 1,320-tonne sculpture inJingzhou City,Hubei Province,standing at 58 metres.[20]

In Taoism

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Guan Yu is revered as "Holy Ruler Deity Guan" (Quan thánh đế quân;Guān Shèng Dì Jūn) and a leading subduer of demons in Taoism. Taoist worship of Guan Yu began during theSong dynasty.Legend has it that during the second decade of the 12th century, the saltwater lake in Xiezhou gradually ceased to yield salt.Emperor Huizongthen summoned Zhang Jixian (Trương kế trước), a 30th-generation descendant ofZhang Daoling,to investigate the cause. The emperor was told that the disruption was the work ofChi You,a deity of war. Zhang Jixian then recruited the help of Guan Yu, who battled Chi You over the lake and triumphed, whereupon the lake resumed salt production. Emperor Huizong then bestowed upon Guan Yu the title "Immortal of Chongning" (Sùng Ninh chân quân;Chóngníng Zhēnjūn), formally introducing the latter as a deity into Taoism.[citation needed]

In the earlyMing dynasty,the 42nd Celestial Master, Zhang Zhengchang (Trương bình thường), recorded the incident in his bookLineage of the Han Celestial Masters(Hán thiên sư thế gia), the first Taoist classic to affirm the legend. Today, Taoist practices are predominant in Guan Yu worship. Many temples dedicated to Guan Yu, including the Emperor Guan Temple in Xiezhou County, show heavy Taoist influence. Every year, on the 24th day of the sixth month on thelunar calendar(Guan Yu's birthday in legend), a street parade in Guan Yu's honour would also be held.[citation needed]

In Buddhism

[edit]
Imperialthangkaof theQianlong period(1736–95) depicting Guan Yu as Sangharama Bodhisattva.

InChinese Buddhism,Guan Yu is revered by most Chinese Mahayana Buddhists as SangharamaBodhisattva(Già Lam Bồ Tát;Già Lam Bồ Tát;Qiélán Púsà) a heavenly protector of the Buddhistdharma.SangharamainSanskritmeans 'community garden' (sangha,community +arama,garden) and thus 'monastery'. The termSangharamaalso refer to thedharmapalaclass of devas and spirits assigned to guard the Buddhist monastery, the dharma, and the faith itself. Over time and as an act of syncreticism, Guan Yu was seen as the representative guardian of the temple and the garden in which it stands. His statue traditionally is situated in the far left of the main altar, opposite his counterpartSkanda.[citation needed]

According to Buddhist legends, in 592, Guan Yu manifested himself one night before theChanmasterZhiyi,the founder of theTiantaischool of Buddhism, along with a retinue of spiritual beings. Zhiyi was then in deep meditation onJade Spring Hill(Ngọc Tuyền Sơn) when he was distracted by Guan Yu's presence. Guan Yu then requested the master to teach him about the dharma. After receiving Buddhist teachings from the master, Guan Yu took refuge in the triple gems and also requested theFive Precepts.Henceforth, it is said that Guan Yu made a vow to become a guardian of temples and the dharma. Legends also claim that Guan Yu assisted Zhiyi in the construction of theYuquan Temple,which still stands today.[citation needed]

Notable Guandi temples worldwide (outside mainland China)

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Chinese opera

[edit]
A Qing dynasty opera mask of Guan Yu.

Guan Yu appears inChinese operassuch asHuarong Trail,Red Cliffs,and other excerpts fromRomance of the Three Kingdoms.His costume is a green military opera uniform with armour covering his right arm and the knees of his pants. The actor's face is painted red with a few black lines, to represent honour and courage. He also wears a long three-section black beard made of yak hair and carries theGreen Dragon Crescent Blade.Traditionally, after the show ends, the actor has to wash his face, burn joss paper, light incense, and pray to Chinese deities.[citation needed]

Film and television

[edit]

Notable actors who have portrayed Guan Yu in film and television include:[citation needed]Lu ShuminginRomance of the Three Kingdoms(1994); Wang Yingquan inThe Legend of Guan Gong(2004);Ti LunginThree Kingdoms: Resurrection of the Dragon(2008);Ba SeninRed Cliff(2008–2009);Yu RongguanginThree Kingdoms(2010);Donnie YeninThe Lost Bladesman(2011);Au Sui-WaiinThree Kingdoms RPG(2012);Han GenginDynasty Warriors(2019).

Films which make references to Guan Yu include:Stephen Chow's comedy filmFrom Beijing with Love(1994), which, in one scene, refers to the story ofHua Tuoperforming surgery on Guan Yu's arm;[citation needed]Zhang Yimou'sRiding Alone for Thousands of Miles(2005), in which the fictional story of Guan Yu slaying six generals and crossing five passes forms a major part of the narrative;[citation needed]the horror comedy filmMy Name Is Bruce(2007), where Guan Yu'svengeful spiritis accidentally set free by a group of teenagers and he begins to terrorise their town.[citation needed]

Games

[edit]

Guan Yu appears as a playable character in many video games based onRomance of the Three Kingdomswhich are produced byKoei,including: thestrategy game series of the same title as the novel;the action game seriesDynasty WarriorsandWarriors Orochi.Other non-Koei titles in which he also appears include:Total War: Three Kingdoms;[21]Puzzle & Dragons;[22]Sango Fighter;Destiny of an Emperor;andAtlantica Online.He is also referenced inEmperor: Rise of the Middle Kingdom,Titan Quest,andKoihime Musō.

Guan Yu is referenced in thePortal Three Kingdomsof the card gameMagic: The Gatheringon a playable card.[citation needed]

The hero Jiang Jun that appears in an add-on for the gameFor Honor,developed byUbisoft Montreal,is heavily based on Guan Yu.[citation needed]He is introduced in the 2018 DLCMarching Fire Expansion,along with the other characters from the Chinese Wulin faction. The Jiang Jun wields Guan Yu's signatureGuandaoweapon and is portrayed as a wise older general.

Guan Yu is referenced in the 2020 gameHadesbySupergiant Games.The final "aspect", or form, unlocked for the Eternal Spear weapon is the Aspect of Guan Yu, theFrost Fair Blade,which resembles an ornamentedGuandao.The Eternal Spear is said to be the same spear wielded by Guan Yu in the future, taking this form.[23]

Coinage

[edit]

Guan Yu is a popular motif in collector coins series featuring Ancient warriors. ThePolish Mintissued a 2oz silver coin featuring him in 2019,[24]and another one in 2021.[25]

In modern politics

[edit]

During the course of price liberalization debates as part of China'sreform and opening up,Deng Xiaopinginvoked the fictitious story of Guan Yu crossing five passes and slaying six generals (as described in the novelRomance of the Three Kingdoms) as part of his rhetoric.[26]"To the Chinese audience familiar with the famous tale of Lord Guan, there could have been no doubt of Deng's determination to push ahead with radical price reforms."[27]As Deng explained in 1986 to a North Korean delegation:[27]

Only once prices have been straightened out will be able to step up reform... Doesn't China have the tale of Lord Guan 'Slaying Six Generals to Force Through Five Passes?' We might have to pass through even more 'passes' than Lord Guan, slaying even more 'generals.' To force a pass is not at all easy and requires taking great risks.

See also

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Notes

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  1. ^abTheZizhi Tong gianrecorded that Guan Yu was captured and executed in the 12th month of the 24th year of the Jian'an era of the reign ofEmperor Xian of Han.[1]This month corresponds to 23 January to 21 February 220 in the Julian and the proleptic Gregorian calendars.
  2. ^abThe "peerless beard" referred to Guan Yu because Guan Yu had a beautiful beard.[Sanguozhi 21])
  3. ^In the Eastern Han dynasty, onechiwas approximately 23.1 cm, ninechiwas approximately 2.079 metres (6 feet, 9.85 inches).[4][5][6]
  4. ^In the Eastern Han dynasty, onechiwas approximately 23.1 cm, twochiwas approximately 46.2 cm (≈18 inches)
  5. ^His face had a dark red hue to it, like the colour of dark jujube fruit.
  6. ^The corners of his eyes were upturned
  7. ^They were long and tapered.
  8. ^While the termBỏ mạng(wáng mìng) implies criminal activity in modern use, during the Eastern Han dynasty it merely referred to someone who cancelled his registration in the local registers by fleeing his county of origin.[8]
  9. ^The peerage of marquis was divided into three grades during theHan dynastyandThree Kingdomsperiod. These are, in ascending order of prestige,tinghou(Đình hầu;village marquis),xianghou(Hương hầu;district marquis) andxianhou(Huyện hầu;county marquis). Guan Yu's was the first.
  10. ^SeeLü Meng#Invasion of Jing Provincefor details.
  11. ^Guoshi(Quốc sĩ) could loosely translated as "gentleman of the state". It referred to persons who had made very outstanding contributions to their countries. See thedictionary definition ofQuốc sĩ.

References

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Citations from volume 36 of theSanguozhi

[edit]
  1. ^(Quan Vũ tự vân trường, bản tự trường sinh, Hà Đông người am hiểu cũng.)Sanguozhivol. 36.
  2. ^(Bỏ mạng bôn Trác quận. Trước chủ với quê nhà hợp đồ chúng, mà vũ cùng Trương Phi vì này chống ngoại xâm.)Sanguozhivol. 36.
  3. ^(Trước chủ vì bình nguyên tướng, lấy vũ, phi vì đừng bộ Tư Mã, phân thống bộ khúc. Trước chủ cùng hai người tẩm tắc cùng sàng, ân nếu huynh đệ. Mà trù người quảng ngồi, hầu lập suốt ngày, tùy trước chủ chu toàn, không ngại gian nguy.)Sanguozhivol. 36.
  4. ^(Gia ngôn với Thái Tổ rằng: “Bị có hùng mới mà cực đến chúng tâm. Trương Phi, Quan Vũ giả, toàn vạn người chi địch cũng, vì này chết dùng.)Sanguozhivol. 14.
  5. ^(Vũ đối xử tử tế tốt ngũ mà kiêu với sĩ phu.)Sanguozhivol. 36.
  6. ^(Trước chủ chi tập sát Từ Châu thứ sử xe trụ, sử vũ thủ Hạ Bi thành, hành thái thú sự, mà thân còn nhỏ phái.)Sanguozhivol. 36.
  7. ^(Kiến An 5 năm, tào công đông chinh, trước chủ bôn Viên Thiệu. Tào công cầm vũ lấy về, bái vì thiên tướng quân, lễ chi thật dầy.)Sanguozhivol. 36.
  8. ^(Thiệu khiển đại tướng quân nhan lương công đông quận thái thú Lưu duyên với bạch mã, tào công sứ trương liêu cập vũ vì tiên phong đánh chi. Vũ trông thấy lương huy cái, giục ngựa thứ lương với vạn chúng bên trong, trảm này đầu còn, Thiệu chư tướng mạc có thể đương giả, toại giải bạch mã vây. Tào công tức biểu phong vũ vì hán thọ đình hầu.)Sanguozhivol. 36.
  9. ^(Sơ, tào công tráng vũ làm người, mà sát này tâm thần vô cửu lưu chi ý, gọi trương liêu rằng: “Khanh thí lấy tình hỏi chi.” Ký mà liêu lấy hỏi vũ, vũ than rằng: “Ngô cực biết tào công đãi ta hậu, nhiên ngô chịu Lưu tướng quân ân trọng, thề lấy cộng tử, không thể bối chi. Ngô chung không lưu, ngô phải làm lập hiệu để báo tào công nãi đi.” Liêu lấy vũ ngôn báo tào công, tào công nghĩa chi.)Sanguozhivol. 36.
  10. ^(Cập vũ sát nhan lương, tào công biết này tất đi, trọng thêm ban thưởng. Vũ tẫn phong này ban tặng, bái thư cáo từ, mà bôn trước chủ với Viên quân. Tả hữu muốn đuổi theo chi, tào công rằng: “Bỉ các vì này chủ, chớ truy cũng.”)Sanguozhivol. 36.
  11. ^(Trước chủ liền Lưu biểu.)Sanguozhivol. 36.
  12. ^(Biểu tốt, tào công định Kinh Châu, trước chủ tự phàn đem nam độ giang, đừng khiển vũ đi thuyền mấy trăm con sẽ Giang Lăng. Tào công truy đến đương dương trường phản, trước chủ nghiêng thú hán tân, thích cùng vũ thuyền tương giá trị, cộng đến hạ khẩu.)Sanguozhivol. 36.
  13. ^ab(Tôn Quyền khiển binh tá trước chủ cự tào công, tào công dẫn quân lui về. Trước chủ thu Giang Nam chư quận, nãi phong bái nguyên huân, lấy vũ vì Tương Dương thái thú, đãng khấu tướng quân, trú Giang Bắc.)Sanguozhivol. 36.
  14. ^(Trước chủ tây định Ích Châu, bái vũ đổng đốc Kinh Châu sự.)Sanguozhivol. 36.
  15. ^(24 năm, trước chủ vì Hán Trung vương, bái vũ vì trước tướng quân, giả tiết việt. Là tuổi, vũ suất chúng công tào nhân với phàn. Tào công khiển với cấm trợ nhân. Thu, đại mưa dầm, sông Hán phiếm dật, cấm sở đốc bảy quân toàn không. Cấm hàng vũ, vũ lại trảm tướng quân bàng đức. Lương giáp, lục hồn quần trộm hoặc dao chịu vũ ấn hào, vì này chi đảng, vũ uy chấn Hoa Hạ.)Sanguozhivol. 36.
  16. ^(Tào bàn luận tập thể tỉ hứa đều để tránh này duệ, Tư Mã tuyên vương, Tưởng tế cho rằng Quan Vũ đắc chí, Tôn Quyền tất không muốn cũng. Nhưng khiển người khuyên quyền niếp sau đó, hứa cắt Giang Nam lấy phong quyền, tắc phàn vây tự giải. Tào công từ chi. Đầu tiên là, quyền khiển sử vì tử tác vũ nữ, vũ mắng nhục này sử, không được hôn, quyền giận dữ.)Sanguozhivol. 36.
  17. ^(Mà tào công khiển từ hoảng cứu tào nhân, vũ không thể khắc, dẫn quân trở về.)Sanguozhivol. 36.
  18. ^(Lại Nam Quận thái thú mi phương ở Giang Lăng, tướng quân phó sĩ nhân truân công an, tố toàn ngại vũ tự nhẹ mình. Vũ chi ra quân, phương, nhân cung cấp quân tư không tất cứu giúp. Vũ ngôn “Còn đương trị chi”, phương, nhân hàm hoài sợ bất an. Thế là quyền âm dụ phương, nhân, phương, nhân khiến người nghênh quyền.)Sanguozhivol. 36.
  19. ^(Quyền đã theo Giang Lăng, tẫn lỗ vũ sĩ chúng thê tử, vũ quân toại tán. Quyền khiển đem nghịch đánh vũ, trảm vũ cập tử bình với lâm tự.)Sanguozhivol. 36.
  20. ^(Truy 謚 vũ rằng tráng mâu hầu.)Sanguozhivol. 36.
  21. ^(Vũ mỹ cần râu, cố lượng gọi chi râu.)Sanguozhivol. 36.
  22. ^(Vũ nghe mã siêu tới hàng, cũ phi cố nhân, vũ thư cùng Gia Cát Lượng, hỏi siêu nhân mới nhưng ai so loại. Lượng biết vũ hiếu thắng, nãi đáp chi rằng: “Mạnh khởi kiêm tư văn võ, hùng liệt hơn người, một đời chi kiệt, xăm, Bành đồ đệ, đương cùng ích đức ngang nhau tranh tiên, hãy còn chưa kịp râu chi tuyệt luân dật quần cũng.”)Sanguozhivol. 36.
  23. ^(Vũ tỉnh thư đại 恱, lấy kỳ khách khách.)Sanguozhivol. 36.
  24. ^(Vũ thường vì tên lạc sở trung, quán này cánh tay trái, sau sang tuy khỏi, mỗi chí âm vũ, cốt thường đau đớn, y rằng: “Thỉ thốc có độc, độc nhập với cốt, đương phá cánh tay làm sang, quát cốt đi độc, sau đó này hoạn nãi trừ nhĩ.” Vũ liền duỗi cánh tay lệnh y phách chi. Khi vũ thích thỉnh chư tướng ẩm thực tương đối, cánh tay huyết lưu ly, doanh với bàn khí, mà vũ cắt nướng dẫn rượu, nói cười tự nhiên.)Sanguozhivol. 36.
  25. ^(Tử hưng tự. Hưng tự An quốc, ít có lệnh hỏi, thừa tướng Gia Cát Lượng thâm khí dị chi. Nhược quán vì hầu trung, trung giám quân, mấy tuổi tốt.)Sanguozhivol. 36.
  26. ^(Tử thống tự, thượng công chúa, quan đến Hổ Bí trung lang tướng. Tốt, không con, lấy hưng con vợ lẽ di tục phong.)Sanguozhivol. 36.
  27. ^(Bình rằng: Quan Vũ, Trương Phi toàn xưng vạn người chi địch, vì thế hổ thần. Vũ đền đáp tào công, phi nghĩa thích nghiêm nhan, cũng có quốc sĩ chi phong. Nhiên vũ mới vừa mà khoe khoang, phi bạo mà vô ân, lấy đoản lấy bại, lý số chi thường cũng.)Sanguozhivol. 36.

Citations from elsewhere in theSanguozhi

[edit]
  1. ^(Tư người trường mà hiếu học, đọc Tả Truyện lược toàn đọc thuộc lòng [...])Sanguozhivol. 54.
  2. ^(Linh đế mạt, khăn vàng khởi, châu quận các cử nghĩa binh, trước chủ suất này thuộc từ giáo úy Trâu tĩnh thảo giặc Khăn Vàng có công, trừ an hỉ úy.)Sanguozhivol. 32.
  3. ^(Quan Vũ cùng bị, nghĩa vì quân thần, ân hãy còn phụ tử.)Sanguozhivol. 14.
  4. ^(Quan, trương oai hùng, xuất thân khuông thế, đỡ cánh huề thượng, hùng tráng hổ liệt. Phiên bình tả hữu, tung bay điện phát, tế với gian nan, tán chủ hồng nghiệp, mâu tích Hàn, cảnh, cùng kêu lên song đức. Giao đãi vô lễ, cũng trí gian thắc, điệu duy nhẹ lự, vẫn thân khuông quốc.)Sanguozhivol. 45.
  5. ^(Trước chủ theo Hạ Bi. Linh chờ còn, trước chủ nãi sát Từ Châu thứ sử xe trụ, lưu Quan Vũ thủ Hạ Bi, mà thân còn nhỏ phái.)Sanguozhivol. 32.
  6. ^(5 năm, tào công đông chinh trước chủ, trước chủ bại tích. Tào công thu hết này chúng, lỗ trước chủ thê tử, cũng cầm Quan Vũ lấy về.)Sanguozhivol. 32.
  7. ^(Tào công cùng Viên Thiệu tương cự với quan độ, Nhữ Nam khăn vàng Lưu tích chờ phản bội tào công ứng Thiệu. Thiệu khiển trước chủ tướng binh cùng tích chờ lược ưng thuận. Quan Vũ vong về trước chủ. Tào công khiển tào nhân binh tướng đánh trước chủ, trước chủ còn Thiệu quân, âm dục ly Thiệu, nãi nói Thiệu nam liền Kinh Châu mục Lưu biểu. Thiệu khiển trước chủ tướng bổn binh phục đến Nhữ Nam, cùng tặc Cung đều chờ hợp, chúng mấy nghìn người.... Tào công ký phá Thiệu, tự nam đánh trước chủ. Trước chủ khiển mi 笁, tôn càn cùng Lưu biểu tượng nghe, biểu tự giao nghênh, trở lên khách lễ đãi chi, ích này binh, sử truân tân dã.)Sanguozhivol. 32.
  8. ^(Nghe trước chủ đã qua, tào công đem tinh kỵ 5000 mau chóng đuổi chi, một ngày một đêm hành 300 dặm hơn, cập với đương dương chi trường bản.)Sanguozhivol. 32.
  9. ^( Lưu Bị cùng Chu Du vây tào nhân với Giang Lăng, đừng khiển Quan Vũ tuyệt bắc nói. Thông suất chúng đánh chi, xuống ngựa rút sừng hươu nhập vây, thả chiến thả trước, lấy nghênh nhân quân, dũng quan chư tướng. Thông đạo nhiễm bệnh hoăng, khi năm 42. )Sanguozhivol. 18.
  10. ^( tòng chinh Kinh Châu, đừng truân phàn, thảo trung lư, lâm tự, nghi thành tặc. Lại cùng mãn sủng thảo Quan Vũ với hán tân, cùng tào nhân đánh Chu Du với Giang Lăng. )Sanguozhivol. 17.
  11. ^(Sau từ bình Kinh Châu, lưu truân Tương Dương, đánh Quan Vũ, tô phi chờ, toàn đi chi,...)Sanguozhivol. 17.
  12. ^(Cập vũ cùng túc lân giới, số sinh hồ nghi, bờ ruộng phân sai, túc thường lấy hoan hảo vỗ chi. Bị ký định Ích Châu, quyền cầu Trường Sa, linh, quế, bị không thừa chỉ, quyền khiển Lã Mông suất chúng tiến thủ. Bị nghe, tự còn công an, khiển vũ tranh tam quận.)Sanguozhivol. 54.
  13. ^(Vũ hào có tam vạn người, tự chọn tuyển duệ sĩ 5000 người, đầu huyện thượng lưu mười dặm hơn thiển lại, vân dục đêm thiệp độ. Túc cùng chư tướng nghị.... Túc liền tuyển ngàn binh ích ninh, ninh nãi đêm hướng. Vũ nghe chi, trụ không độ, mà kết sài doanh, nay toại danh nơi này vì Quan Vũ lại.)Sanguozhivol. 55.
  14. ^(Bị toại cắt sông Tương vì giới, thế là bãi quân.)Sanguozhivol. 54.
  15. ^(Tặc vây đầu có truân, lại đừng truân bốn trủng. Hoảng giương giọng đương công vây đầu truân, mà mật công bốn trủng. Vũ thấy bốn trủng dục hư, tự đem bước kỵ 5000 xuất chiến, hoảng đánh chi, rút đi, toại truy hãm cùng đều nhập vây, phá chi, hoặc tự đầu miện thủy chết.)Sanguozhivol. 17.
  16. ^(Vũ quả tin chi, hơi triệt binh ứng phó phàn. Ngụy sử với cấm cứu phàn, vũ tẫn cầm cấm chờ, nhân mã mấy vạn, thác lấy lương mệt, thiện lấy Tương quan mễ. Quyền nghe chi, toại hành, tiền trạm mông ở phía trước. Mông đến tìm dương, tẫn phục này tinh binh [][] trung, sử bạch y diêu lỗ, làm thương nhân người phục, ngày đêm kiêm hành, đến vũ sở trí bờ sông truân chờ, thu hết trói chi, là cố vũ không nghe thấy biết. Toại đến Nam Quận, sĩ nhân, mi phương toàn hàng.)Sanguozhivol. 54.
  17. ^(Sẽ quyền tìm đến, vũ tự biết cô nghèo, nãi đi mạch thành, tây đến Chương hương, chúng toàn ủy vũ mà hàng. Quyền sử chu nhiên, Phan chương đoạn này kính lộ, tức phụ tử đều hoạch, Kinh Châu toại định.)Sanguozhivol. 54.
  18. ^(Quyền chinh Quan Vũ, chương cùng chu nhiên đoạn vũ đường đi, đến lâm tự, trụ kẹp thạch. Chương bộ hạ Tư Mã mã trung cầm vũ, cũng vũ tử bình, đô đốc Triệu mệt chờ.)Sanguozhivol. 55.
  19. ^([ cảnh diệu ] ba năm thu chín tháng, truy 謚 cố tướng quân Quan Vũ, Trương Phi, mã siêu, Bàng Thống, hoàng trung.)Sanguozhivol. 33. The month corresponds to 23 Oct to 20 Nov 260 in the Julian calendar.

Citations from theSanguozhi zhu

[edit]
  1. ^(Khu vực phía nam Trường Giang truyền vân: Vũ hảo tả thị truyền, ngâm nga lược toàn đọc thuộc lòng.)Jiang Biao Zhuanannotation inSanguozhivol. 36.
  2. ^(Ngụy thư vân: Lấy vũ lãnh Từ Châu.)Wei Shuannotation inSanguozhivol. 36.
  3. ^(Phó tử rằng: Liêu dục bạch Thái Tổ, khủng Thái Tổ sát vũ, không bạch, phi sự đạo làm vua, nãi than rằng: “Công, quân phụ cũng; vũ, huynh đệ nhĩ.” Toại bạch chi. Thái Tổ rằng: “Sự quân không quên này bổn, thiên hạ nghĩa sĩ cũng. Độ khi nào có thể đi?” Liêu rằng: “Vũ chịu công ân, tất lập hiệu báo công rồi sau đó đi cũng.”)Fu Ziannotation inSanguozhivol. 36.
  4. ^(Thần tùng chi cho rằng tào công biết vũ không lưu mà tâm gia ý chí, đi không khiển truy lấy thành này nghĩa, tự phi có Vương Bá chi độ, ai có thể đến nỗi này chăng? Tư thật Tào thị chi hưu mỹ.) Pei Songzhi's annotation inSanguozhivol. 36.
  5. ^(Thục nhớ rằng: Vũ sơ ra quân vây phàn, mộng heo ngão này đủ, ngữ tử bình rằng: “Ngô năm nay suy rồi, nhiên không được còn!”)Shu Jiannotation inSanguozhivol. 36.
  6. ^(Thục nhớ rằng: Vũ cùng hoảng túc yêu nhau, dao cộng ngữ, nhưng nói bình sinh, không kịp quân sự. Giây lát, hoảng xuống ngựa tuyên lệnh: “Đến Quan Vân Trường đầu, tiền thưởng ngàn cân.” Vũ kinh sợ, gọi hoảng rằng: “Đại huynh, ra sao ngôn tà!” Hoảng rằng: “Này quốc việc nhĩ.”)Shu Jiannotation inSanguozhivol. 36.
  7. ^(Điển lược rằng: Vũ vây phàn, quyền khiển sử xin giúp đỡ chi, lai sử mạc tốc tiến, lại khiển chủ bộ trước trí mạng với vũ. Vũ phẫn này yêm muộn, lại tự mình đến với cấm chờ, nãi mắng rằng: “狢 tử dám ngươi, như sử Phàn Thành rút, ngô không thể diệt nhữ tà!” Quyền nghe chi, biết này nhẹ mình, ngụy thư tay lấy tạ vũ, hứa lấy tự hướng.)Dianlueannotation inSanguozhivol. 36.
  8. ^(Thần tùng chi cho rằng kinh, Ngô tuy ngoại mục, mà nội tương đoán phòng, cố quyền chi tập vũ, tiềm sư mật phát. Ấn Lã Mông truyền vân: “Phục tinh binh với [][] bên trong, sử bạch y diêu lỗ, làm thương nhân phục.” Lấy lời này chi, vũ không cầu trợ với quyền, quyền tất không nói vũ đương hướng cũng. Nếu hứa tương viện trợ, cớ gì nặc này bộ dạng chăng?) Pei Songzhi's annotation inSanguozhivol. 36.
  9. ^(Thục nhớ rằng: Quyền khiển tướng quân đánh vũ, hoạch vũ cập tử bình. Quyền dục sống vũ lấy địch Lưu, tào, tả hữu rằng: “Lang tử không thể dưỡng, sau tất làm hại. Tào công không tức trừ chi, tự rước họa lớn, nãi nghị tỉ đều. Nay há nhưng sinh!” Nãi trảm chi.)Shu Jiannotation inSanguozhivol. 36.
  10. ^(Thần tùng chi án Ngô thư: Tôn Quyền khiển đem Phan chương nghịch đoạn vũ đi đường, vũ đến tức trảm, thả lâm tự đi Giang Lăng hai ba trăm, há dung thỉnh thoảng sát vũ, phương nghị này sinh tử chăng? Lại vân “Quyền dục sống vũ lấy địch Lưu, tào”, này chi bằng không, có thể tuyệt trí giả chi khẩu.) Pei Songzhi's annotation inSanguozhivol. 36.
  11. ^(Ngô lịch rằng: Quyền đưa vũ đầu với tào công, lấy chư hầu lễ táng này thi hài.)Wu Liannotation inSanguozhivol. 36.
  12. ^(Thục nhớ rằng: Tào công cùng Lưu Bị vây Lữ Bố với Hạ Bi, Quan Vũ khải công, bố sử Tần Nghi Lộc hành cầu cứu, khất cưới này thê, công hứa chi. Lâm phá, lại nhiều lần khải với công. Công nghi này có dị sắc, tiền trạm nghênh xem, nhân giữ lại cho mình chi, vũ tâm không tự an. Này cùng Ngụy thị xuân thu theo như lời vô dị cũng.)Shu Jiannotation inSanguozhivol. 36.
  13. ^(Sơ, vũ tùy trước chính và phụ công vây Lữ Bố với bộc dương, khi Tần Nghi Lộc vì bố cầu cứu với trương dương. Vũ khải công: “Thê không con, hạ thành, khất nạp Nghi Lộc thê.” Công hứa chi. Cho đến cửa thành, phục bạch. Công nghi này có sắc, Lý bổn làm hắn. Tự nạp chi.)Huayang Guo Zhivol. 6.
  14. ^(Thục nhớ rằng: Sơ, Lưu Bị ở hứa, cùng tào công cộng săn. Săn trung, chúng tán, vũ khuyên bị sát công, bị không từ. Cập ở hạ khẩu, phiêu diêu giang chử, vũ giận rằng: “Ngày xưa săn trung, nếu từ vũ ngôn, nhưng vô hôm nay chi vây.” Bị rằng: “Là khi cũng vì quốc gia tích chi nhĩ; nếu Thiên Đạo phụ chính, an biết này không vì phúc tà!”)Shu Jiannotation inSanguozhivol. 36.
  15. ^(Thần tùng chi cho rằng bị sau cùng đổng thừa chờ kết mưu, nhưng sự tiết không thể hài nhĩ, nếu vì quốc gia tích tào công, này như thế ngôn gì! Vũ nếu quả có này khuyên mà bị không chịu từ giả, đem lấy tào công tim gan thân thích, thật phồn có đồ, sự không túc cấu, phi lỗ mãng sở hành; tào tuy nhưng sát, thân tất không khỏi, cố lấy kế mà ngăn, gì tích chi có chăng! Ký hướng việc, cố thác vì nhã ngôn nhĩ.) Pei Songzhi's annotation inSanguozhivol. 36.
  16. ^(Thục nhớ rằng: Bàng đức tử sẽ, tùy chung, Đặng phạt Thục, Thục phá, diệt hết quan thị gia.)Shu Jiannotation inSanguozhivol. 36.

Other citations

[edit]
  1. ^([ Kiến An 24 năm ] 12 tháng, chương Tư Mã mã trung hoạch vũ và tử bình với chương hương, trảm chi, toại định Kinh Châu.)Zizhi Tong gianvol. 68.
  2. ^Perkins (1999),p. 192.
  3. ^RotK,"ch. 1". quote: (Huyền đức xem một thân, chiều cao chín thước, râu trường nhị thước; mặt như trọng táo, môi nếu đồ chi; đơn phượng nhãn, lông mày ngọa tằm; tướng mạo đường đường, uy phong lẫm lẫm.)
  4. ^Hulsewé (1961),pp. 206–207.
  5. ^Dubs (1938),pp. 276–280.
  6. ^Dubs (1938),p. 160.
  7. ^RotK,ch. 1. quote: (Vân trường tạo Thanh Long Yển Nguyệt Đao, lại danh lãnh diễm cưa, trọng 82 cân.)
  8. ^ter Haar (2017),p. 3, note 4.
  9. ^( Hà Đông Quan Vũ vân trường, cùng quận Trương Phi ích đức, cũng lấy lừng lẫy, chống ngoại xâm. )Huayang Guo Zhivol. 6.
  10. ^( trước chủ cùng nhị tử tẩm tắc cùng giường, thực tắc cộng khí, ân nếu huynh đệ. Nhiên với đám đông trung, hầu lập suốt ngày. )Huayang Guo Zhivol. 6.
  11. ^《Tư trị thông giam · cuốn 68》: Lục hồn dân tôn lang chờ tác loạn, sát huyện chủ bộ, nam phụ Quan Vũ. Vũ thụ lang ấn, cấp binh, còn vì khấu tặc, tự hứa lấy nam, thường thường dao ứng vũ, vũ uy chấn Hoa Hạ.Zizhi Tong gianvol.68
  12. ^(Danh cùng thật sảng rằng mâu.)Yizhoushuvol. 6. ch. 54.
  13. ^Brunnert & Hagelstrom (2013),p. 494.
  14. ^Yan (2006),p. 277.
  15. ^You (2010).
  16. ^"Guanlin Temple China | The Temple Trail".2020-09-22. Archived from the original on 2020-09-22.Retrieved2023-01-13.{{cite web}}:CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
  17. ^Roberts (1991),p. 970.
  18. ^Wang Chien-ch’uan, “Spirit Writing Groups in Modern China (1840–1937): Textual Production, Public Teachings, and Charity.” InModern Chinese Religion II 1850–2015,edited by Vincent Goossaert, Jan Kiely and John Lagerwey, Leiden: Brill, vol. 2, 651–684 (652–668).
  19. ^Chu, Richard T. (2012).Chinese and Chinese Mestizos of Manila: Family, Identity, and Culture, 1860s–1930s.BRILL. p. 191.ISBN978-9047426851.
  20. ^"Monumental 1,320-Ton Sculpture of Chinese War God Watches Over the City".2016-07-19.Retrieved2016-07-20.
  21. ^Borrull, Celia."Three Kingdoms".Total War.
  22. ^MonsterArchived2014-05-31 at theWayback Machine
  23. ^Achilles. Imagediscordapp
  24. ^"Guan Yu silver 2 ounces coin 2019".
  25. ^"Guan Yu silver 2 ounces coin 2021".
  26. ^Weber, Isabella(2021).How China escaped shock therapy: the market reform debate.Abingdon, Oxon:Routledge.pp. 249–250.ISBN978-0429490125.OCLC1228187814.
  27. ^abWeber, Isabella (2021).How China escaped shock therapy: the market reform debate.Abingdon, Oxon:Routledge.p. 250.ISBN978-0429490125.OCLC1228187814.

Bibliography

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