Historically black colleges and universities
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Historically black colleges and universities(HBCUs) are institutions ofhigher education in the United Statesthat were established before theCivil Rights Act of 1964with the intention of primarily servingAfrican Americans.[1]Most of these institutions were founded during theReconstruction eraafter the Civil War and are concentrated in theSouthern United States.[2]They were primarily founded by Protestant religious groups, until the SecondMorill Actof 1890 requirededucationally segregatedstates(all in the South) to provide African American, public higher-education schools (i.e. state funded schools) in order to receive the Act's benefits (19, generally larger institutions, fall under this Act).
During the period ofracial segregation in the United States,the majority of American institutions of higher education served predominantly white students, and disqualified or limited black American enrollment.[3][4]Later on some universities, either after expanding their inclusion ofblack peopleand African Americans into their institutions or gaining the status ofminority-serving institution,becamepredominantly black institutions(PBIs).[5]
For a century afterthe abolitionofAmerican slaveryin 1865, almost all colleges and universities in the Southern United States prohibited all African Americans from attending as required byJim Crow lawsin the South, while institutions in other parts of the country regularly employed quotas to limit admissions of black people.[6][7][8][9]HBCUs were established to provide more opportunities to African Americans and are largely responsible for establishing and expanding theAfrican-American middle class.[10][11]In the 1950s and 1960s, enforced racial segregation in education was generally outlawed across the United States.
There are101 HBCUsin the United States (of 121 institutions that existed during the 1930s), representing three percent of the nation's colleges,[12]including public and private institutions.[13]Twenty-seven offer doctoral programs, 52 offer master's programs, 83 offer bachelor's degree programs, and 38 offer associate degrees.[14][15][16]HBCUs currently produce nearly 20% of all African American college graduates and 25% of African AmericanSTEMgraduates.[17]Among the graduates of HBCUs are civil rights leaderMartin Luther King Jr.,United States Supreme Court JusticeThurgood Marshall,and United States Vice PresidentKamala Harris.
History
[edit]![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Institute_for_Colored_Youth_Building_Historical_Marker_915_Bainbridge_St_Philadelphia_PA_%28DSC_2640%29.jpg/220px-Institute_for_Colored_Youth_Building_Historical_Marker_915_Bainbridge_St_Philadelphia_PA_%28DSC_2640%29.jpg)
Private institutions
[edit]HBCUs established prior to the American Civil War includeCheyney University of Pennsylvaniain 1837,[18]University of the District of Columbia(then known as Miner School for Colored Girls) in 1851, andLincoln Universityin 1854.[19]Wilberforce Universitywas also established prior to the American Civil War.[20]The university was founded in 1856 via a collaboration between the African Methodist Episcopal Church of Ohio and the predominantly white Methodist Episcopal Church.[21]
HBCUs were controversial in their early years. At the1847 National Convention of Colored People and Their Friends,the famed black oratorsFrederick Douglass,Henry Highland Garnet,andAlexander Crummelldebated the need for such institutions, with Crummell arguing that HBCUs were necessary to provide freedom from discrimination, and Douglas and Garnet arguing that self-segregation would harm the black community. A majority of the convention voted that HBCUs should be supported.
Most HBCUs were established in theSouthafter theAmerican Civil War,often with the assistance of religious missionary organizations based in the North, especially theAmerican Missionary Association.TheFreedmen's Bureauplayed a major role in financing the new schools.[22][23]
Atlanta University – nowClark Atlanta University– was founded on September 19, 1865, as the first HBCU in the Southern United States. Atlanta University was the first graduate institution to award degrees to African Americans in the nation and the first to award bachelor's degrees to African Americans in the South; Clark College (1869) was the nation's first four-year liberal arts college to serve African-American students. The two consolidated in 1988 to form Clark Atlanta University.[24]Shaw University,founded December 1, 1865, was the second HBCU to be established in the South. The year 1865 also saw the foundation ofStorer College(1865–1955) inHarper's Ferry,West Virginia.[2]Storer's former campus and buildings have since been incorporated intoHarpers Ferry National Historical Park.[25]
Some of these universities eventually became public universities with assistance from the government.
Public institutions
[edit]In 1862,[26]the federal government'sMorrill Actprovided forland grant collegesin each state. Educational institutions established under the Morrill Act in theNorthandWestwere open to blacks. But 17 states, almost all in the South, required their post-Civil war systems to be segregated and excluded black students from their land grant colleges. In the 1870s, Mississippi, Virginia, and South Carolina each assigned one African American college land-grant status: Alcorn University, Hampton Institute, and Claflin University, respectively.[27]In response, Congress passed thesecond Morrill Act of 1890,also known as theAgricultural College Act of 1890,requiring states to establish a separate land grant college for blacks if blacks were being excluded from the existing land grant college. Many of the HBCUs were founded by states to satisfy the Second Morrill Act.[28]These land grant schools continue to receive annual federal funding for their research,extension,and outreach activities.[16]
Predominantly black institutions
[edit]Predominantly black institutions (PBI) are institutions that do not meet the legal definition of HBCUs, but primarily serve African Americans.[29]Some examples of PBIs areGeorgia State University,Chicago State University,Trinity Washington University,and theCommunity College of Philadelphia.[5][30]
Sports
[edit]In the 1920s and 1930s, historically black colleges developed a strong interest in athletics. Sports were expanding rapidly at state universities, but very few black stars were recruited there. Race newspapers hailed athletic success as a demonstration of racial progress. Black schools hired coaches, recruited and featured stellar athletes, and set up their own leagues.[31][32]
Jewish refugees
[edit]In the 1930s, many Jewish intellectuals fleeing Europe after the rise ofHitlerandanti-Jewish legislation in prewar Nazi Germanyfollowing Hitler's elevation to power emigrated to the United States and found work teaching in historically black colleges.[33]In particular, 1933 was a challenging year for many Jewish academics who tried to escape increasingly oppressive Nazi policies,[34]particularly after legislation was passed stripping them of their positions at universities.[34]Jews looking outside of Germany could not find work in other European countries because of calamities like theSpanish Civil Warand general antisemitism in Europe.[35][34]In the US, they hoped to continue their academic careers, but barring a scant few, found little acceptance in elite institutions inDepression-era America,which also had their own undercurrent ofantisemitism.[33][36]
As a result of these phenomena, more than two-thirds of the faculty hired at many HBCUs from 1933 to 1945 had come to the United States to escape from Nazi Germany.[37]HBCUs believed the Jewish professors were valuable faculty that would help strengthen their institutions' credibility.[38]HBCUs had a firm belief in diversity and giving opportunity no matter the race, religion, or country of origin.[39]HBCUs were open to Jews because of their ideas of equal learning spaces. They sought to create an environment where all people felt welcome to study, including women.[39]
World War II
[edit]HBCUs made substantial contributions to the US war effort. One example isTuskegee Universityin Alabama, where theTuskegee Airmentrained and attended classes.[40][41]
Florida's Black junior colleges
[edit]After the landmarkBrown v. Board of Educationdecision of 1954, the legislature of Florida, with support from various counties, opened elevenjunior collegesserving the African-American population. Their purpose was to show thatseparate but equaleducation was working in Florida. Prior to this, there had been only one junior college in Florida serving African Americans,Booker T. Washington Junior College,in Pensacola, founded in 1949. The new ones wereGibbs Junior College(1957),Roosevelt Junior College(1958),Volusia County Junior College(1958),Hampton Junior College(1958),Rosenwald Junior College(1958),Suwannee River Junior College(1959),Carver Junior College(1960),Collier-Blocker Junior College(1960),Lincoln Junior College(1960),Jackson Junior College(1961), andJohnson Junior College(1962).
The new junior colleges began as extensions of black high schools. They used the same facilities and often the same faculty. Some built their own buildings after a few years. After the passage of theCivil Rights Act of 1964mandated an end to school segregation, the colleges were all abruptly closed. Only a fraction of the students and faculty were able to transfer to the previously all-white junior colleges, where they found, at best, an indifferent reception.[42]
Since 1965
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A reauthorization of theHigher Education Act of 1965established a program for direct federal grants to HBCUs, to support their academic, financial, and administrative capabilities.[43][44]Part B specifically provides for formula-based grants, calculated based on each institution's Pell grant eligible enrollment, graduation rate, and percentage of graduates who continue post-baccalaureate education in fields where African Americans are underrepresented. Some colleges with a predominantly black student body are not classified as HBCUs because they were founded (or opened their doors to African Americans) after the implementation of theSweatt v. Painter(1950) andBrown v. Board of Education(1954) rulings by theU.S. Supreme Court(the court decisions which outlawedracial segregationof public education facilities) and the Higher Education Act of 1965.
In 1980,Jimmy Cartersigned an executive order to distribute adequate resources and funds to strengthen the nation's public and private HBCUs. His executive order created the White House Initiative on historically black colleges and universities (WHIHBCU), which is a federally funded program that operates within theU.S. Department of Education.[45]In 1989,George H. W. Bushcontinued Carter's pioneering spirit by signing Executive Order 12677, which created the presidential advisory board on HBCUs, to counsel the government and the secretary on the future development of these organizations.[46]
Starting in 2001, directors of libraries of several HBCUs began discussions about ways to pool their resources and work collaboratively. In 2003, this partnership was formalized as theHBCU Library Alliance,"a consortium that supports the collaboration of information professionals dedicated to providing an array of resources designed to strengthen historically black colleges and Universities and their constituents."[47]
In 2015, the Bipartisan Congressional Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCU)Caucuswas established by U.S. RepresentativesAlma S. AdamsandBradley Byrne.The caucus advocates for HBCUs onCapitol Hill.[48]As of May 2022[update],there are over 100 elected politicians who are members of the caucus.[49]
Current status
[edit]![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/North_Carolina_A%26T_State_University_Springtime.jpg/220px-North_Carolina_A%26T_State_University_Springtime.jpg)
Annually, theU.S. Department of Educationdesignates one week in thefallas "National HBCU Week". During this week, conferences and events are held inWashington, D.C.to discuss and celebrate HBCUs, as well as recognize some notable HBCU scholars and alumni.[50]
As of 2024,Alabamahas the most active HBCUs of any state, with 14.[51]North Carolinais second with 11.[52]
In 2023, the average HBCU 6-year undergraduate graduation rate was 35% while the national average was 64%.Spelman Collegehad the highest graduation rate among HBCUs at 74%.[53]Also in 2023, 73% of students attending HBCUs werePell Granteligible while the national average was 34%.[53][54]Talladega Collegehad the highest percent of Pell Grant eligible students among HBCUs at 95%.[55]
In 2015, the share of black students attending HBCUs had dropped to 9% of the total number of black students enrolled in degree-granting institutions nationwide. This figure is a decline from the 13% of black students who enrolled in an HBCU in 2000 and 17% who enrolled in 1980. This is a result of desegregation, rising incomes and increased access to financial aid, which has created more college options for black students.[13][56]
The percentages of bachelor's and master's degrees awarded to black students by HBCUs has decreased over time. HBCUs awarded 35% of the bachelor's degrees and 21% of the master's degrees earned by blacks in 1976–77, compared with the 14% and 6% respectively of bachelor's and master's degrees earned by blacks in 2014–15. Additionally, the percentage of black doctoral degree recipients who received their degrees from HBCUs was lower in 2014–15 (12%) than in 1976–77 (14%).[57][58][59]
The number of total students enrolled at an HBCU rose by 32% between 1976 and 2015, from 223,000 to 293,000. Total enrollment in degree-granting institutions nationwide increased by 81%, from 11 million to 20 million, in the same period.[57]
Although HBCUs were originally founded to educate black students, their diversity has increased over time. In 2015, students who were either white, Hispanic, Asian or Pacific Islander, or Native American made up 22% of total enrollment at HBCUs, compared with 15% in 1976.[60]
In 2006, theNational Center for Education Statisticsreleased a study showing that HBCUs had a $10.2 billion positive impact on the nation's economy with 35% coming from themultiplier effect.[61]
There are also developments in how African Americans may choose or not choose an HBCU. HBCUs are at risk of losing ground in terms of quality of their applicants as well.[62]The current admission policies of predominately White institutions (PWIs) ensure that qualified applicants of any color are accepted and most top institutions actively recruit minority students.[62]Well qualified minority students are often the target of frenzied competition (Cross, 2007).[62]This competition is reflected in the inducements offered by PWIs to qualified black applicants, most notably monetary incentives, which many students and their parents find too attractive to pass up.[62]For this reason and others, fewer black undergraduates are choosing to attend HBCUs, this figure has gradually declined to 22% as of 2002 (U.S. Department of Education, 2004).[62]This dwindling percentage, coupled with opportunities at PWIs, have led some to speculate whether the HBCU has outlived its purpose and lost its relevance for black youth (Lemelle, 2002; Sowell 1993; Suggs, 1997b).[62]
Racial diversity post-2000
[edit]Following the enactment of Civil Rights laws in the 1960s, many educational institutions in the United States that receive federal funding have undertakenaffirmative actionto increase their racial diversity. Some historically black colleges and universities now have non-black majorities, includingWest Virginia State UniversityandBluefield State University,whose student bodies have had largewhitemajorities since the mid-1960s.[13][63][64]
As many HBCUs have made a concerted effort to maintain enrollment levels and often offer relatively affordable tuition, the percentage of non–African-American enrollment has risen.[65][66][67][68]The following table highlights HBCUs with high non–African American enrollments:
College name | State | Percentage | |
---|---|---|---|
African American |
Non-African American | ||
Bluefield State University[70] | West Virginia | 8 | 92 |
West Virginia State University[71] | West Virginia | 8 | 92 |
Kentucky State University[72] | Kentucky | 46 | 54 |
University of the District of Columbia[73] | District of Columbia | 59 | 41 |
Delaware State University[74] | Delaware | 64 | 36 |
Fayetteville State University[75] | North Carolina | 60 | 40 |
Winston-Salem State University[76] | North Carolina | 71 | 29 |
Elizabeth City State University[77] | North Carolina | 76 | 24 |
Xavier University of Louisiana[78] | Louisiana | 70 | 30 |
North Carolina A&T State University[79] | North Carolina | 80 | 20 |
Lincoln University (Pennsylvania)[80] | Pennsylvania | 84 | 16 |
Other HBCUs with relatively high non–African American student populations
According to theU.S. News & World ReportBest Colleges2011 edition, the proportion of white American students atLangston Universitywas 12%; atShaw University,12%; atTennessee State University,12%; at theUniversity of Maryland Eastern Shore,12%; and atNorth Carolina Central University,10%. TheU.S. News & World Report's statistical profiles indicate that several other HBCUs have relatively significant percentages of non–African American student populations consisting of Asian, Hispanic, white American, and foreign students.[81]
Special academic programs
[edit]HBCU libraries have formed theHBCU Library Alliance.That alliance, together withCornell University,have a joint program to digitize HBCU collections. The project is funded by theAndrew W. Mellon Foundation.[82]Additionally, more historically black colleges and universities are offering online education programs. As of November 23, 2010, nineteen historically black colleges and universities offer online degree programs.[83]The growth in these programs is driven by partnerships with online educational entrepreneurs likeEzell Brown.[citation needed]
Intercollegiate sports
[edit]NCAA Division Ihas two historically black athletic conferences:Mid-Eastern Athletic ConferenceandSouthwestern Athletic Conference.The top football teams from the conferences have played each other in postseason bowl games: thePelican Bowl(1970s), theHeritage Bowl(1990s), and theCelebration Bowl(2015–present). These conferences are home to all Division I HBCUs except forHampton UniversityandTennessee State University.Tennessee State has been a member of theOhio Valley Conferencesince 1986, while Hampton left the MEAC in 2018 for theBig South Conference.In 2021,North Carolina A&T State Universitymade the same conference move that Hampton made three years earlier (MEAC to Big South).[84]Both Hampton and North Carolina A&T later moved their athletic programs to theColonial Athletic Associationand its technically separate football league of CAA Football; Hampton joined both sides of the CAA in 2022,[85]while A&T joined the all-sports CAA in 2022 before joining CAA Football in 2023.[86]
The mostly HBCUCentral Intercollegiate Athletic AssociationandSouthern Intercollegiate Athletic Conferenceare part of theNCAA Division II,whereas the HBCUGulf Coast Athletic Conferenceis part of theNational Association of Intercollegiate Athletics.[87]
Notable HBCU alumni
[edit]![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Kamala_Harris_speaks_with_HBCU_students_-_2019.jpg/220px-Kamala_Harris_speaks_with_HBCU_students_-_2019.jpg)
HBCUs have a rich legacy of matriculating many leaders in the fields of business, law, science, education, military service, entertainment, art, and sports.
- Ralph Abernathy,civil rights activist, minister –Clark Atlanta University,Alabama State University
- Ed Bradley,first blackWhite Housecorrespondent forCBS News-Cheyney University of Pennsylvania
- Toni Braxton,Grammy-winning R&B artist with over 70 million records sold -Bowie State
- Edward Brooke,first African-American elected by popular vote toUnited States Senateand to serve asMassachusetts Attorney General-Howard University
- Roscoe Lee Browne,prolific actor and director -Lincoln University
- James Clyburn,US Congressman fromSouth Carolina's 6th congressional districtandMajority Whipof the116th United States Congress–South Carolina State University
- Medgar Wiley Evers,civil rights leader -Alcorn State University
- NASAmathematicianKatherine JohnsonattendedWest Virginia State University.
- Althea Gibson,the first African American to win aGrand Slamtitle had a full athletic scholarship toFlorida A&M University
- Nikki Giovanni,poet –Fisk University
- Alcee Hastings,US CongressmanfromFlorida's 20th congressional district–Fisk University,Howard University,Florida A&M University
- Randy Jackson,original judge onAmerican Idol-Southern University
- Lonnie Johnson,inventor, NASA engineer –Tuskegee University
- Tom Joyner,first African-American inducted into theNational Radio Hall of Fame-Tuskegee University
- Reginald Lewis,first African-American to build and own abillion dollar company- Virginia State
- Claude McKay,poet,Tuskegee University
- AstronautRonald McNairgraduated fromNorth Carolina A&T State University.
- Rod Paige,first African-American to serve as the U.S. education chief -Jackson State University
- Walter Payton,considered one of the greatestrunning backsin NFL history –Jackson State University
- Anika Noni Rose,the original voice of the first African AmericanDisneyprincess (Tiana) - Florida A&M University
- Jerry Rice,considered the greatestNFLwide receiver of all-time -Mississippi Valley State
- Stephen A. Smith,well-known sports journalist and television personality -Winston-Salem State University
- Megan Thee Stallion,Grammy-winningrapper and actress -Texas Southern
- Leon H. Sullivan,developer of the Sullivan Principles used to endapartheidinSouth Africa,attended West Virginia State University.
- Wanda Sykes,Emmy-winning comedian, novelist, writer, and actress –Hampton University
- André Leon Talley,first African-American editor-at-large ofVogue-Virginia State
- TheTuskegee Airmenwere educated at Tuskegee University.
- Alice Walker,novelist and poet –Spelman College
- Ben Wallace,former 4-timeNBA All-Starand NBA Defensive Player of the Year -Virginia Union University
- Doug Williams,first black NFL quarterback to win aSuper Bowl-Grambling State
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Booker T. Washington,educator, orator, and advisor (Hampton)
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Toni Morrison,acclaimed novelist and Nobel laureate (Howard)
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Jesse Jackson,minister and politician (North Carolina A&T)
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Samuel L. Jackson,actor and film producer (Morehouse)
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Oprah Winfrey,talk show host and media mogul (Tenn State)
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Kamala Harris,Vice President of the United States (Howard)
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Taraji P. Henson,actress (Howard)
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Chadwick Boseman,actor and playwright (Howard)
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Common,rapper and actor (Florida A&M)
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Erykah Badu,singer, entrepreneur, and actress (Grambling State)
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Lionel Richie,singer, songwriter, record producer, and TV personality (Tuskegee)
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Stacey Abrams,voting rights leader, lawyer, and author (Spelman)
Modern presidential and federal support
[edit]Federal funding for HBCUs has notably increased in recent years. Proper federal support of HBCUs has become more of a key issue in modern U.S. presidential elections. [88]
InPresident Barack Obama's eight years in office, he invested more than $4 billion to HBCUs.[89]
In 2019,President Donald Trumpsigned a bipartisan bill that permanently invested more than $250 million a year to HBCUs.[90]
In 2021,President Joe Biden's first year in office, he invested a historic $5.8 billion to support HBCUs.[91]In 2022, Biden's administration announced an additional $2.7 billion through his American Rescue Plan.[92]
HBCU homecomings
[edit]Homecomingis a tradition at almost every American college and university, however homecoming has a more unique meaning at HBCUs. Homecoming plays a significant role in the culture and identity of HBCUs. The level of pageantry and local black community involvement (parade participation, business vendors, etc.) helps make HBCU homecomings more distinctive. Due to higher campus traffic and activity, classes at HBCUs are usually cancelled on Friday and Saturday of homecoming.[93]Millions of alumni, students, celebrity guests, and visitors attend HBCU homecomings every year. In addition to being a highly cherished tradition and festive week, homecomings generate strong revenue for HBCUs and many black owned businesses.[94][95][96]
See also
[edit]- Black Ivy League
- Colleges in the United States
- History of education in the Southern United States
- HBCU Library Alliance
- Honda Battle of the Bands
- Honda Campus All-Star Challenge
- Minority-serving institution
- National Museum of African American History and Culture
- Thurgood Marshall College Fund
- United Negro College Fund
References
[edit]- ^20 U.S. Code sec.1061,[1]ArchivedDecember 20, 2022, at theWayback Machinehttps://USCode.house.govArchivedDecember 20, 2022, at theWayback MachineFor a compact overview of HBCU history, see Walter R. Allen, Joseph O. Jewell, Kimberly A. Griffin, & De'Sha S. Wolf,Historically Black Colleges and Universities: Honoring the Past, Engaging the Present, Touching the Future,76Journal of Negro Education,pp. 263–280 (2007).
- ^abAnderson, J.D. (1988).The Education of Blacks in the South, 1860–1935.University of North Carolina Press.
- ^"White House Initiative on Historically Black Colleges and Universities".U.S. Department of Education. April 11, 2008. Archived fromthe originalon October 5, 2015.RetrievedApril 23,2008.
- ^Wooten, Melissa E. (2016).In the face of inequality.State Univ of New York Press.ISBN978-1-4384-5690-4.OCLC946968175.
- ^abJones, Brandy."Predominantly Black Institutions: Pathways to Black Student Educational Attainment"(PDF).Center for Minority Serving Institutions.
- ^Harris, Leslie M. (March 26, 2015)."The Long, Ugly History of Racism at American Universities".The New Republic.
- ^Marybeth Gasman,Envisioning Black Colleges: A History of the United Negro College Fund(Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2007).
- ^Marybeth Gasman and Felecia Commodore (eds.),Opportunities and Challenges at Historically Black Colleges and Universities(New York: Palgrave Press, 2014).ISBN978-1-349-50267-7
- ^Favors, J. (2020).Shelter in a time of storm: How Black colleges fostered generations of leadership and activism.Chapel Hill, North Carolina: The University of North Carolina Press.ISBN978-1-4696-4833-0
- ^"The story of historically black colleges in the US".BBC News. February 15, 2019.
- ^"Despite Obstacles, Black Colleges Are Pipelines to the Middle Class, Study Finds. Here's Its List of the Best".The Chronicle of Higher Education.September 30, 2019.RetrievedFebruary 15,2022.
- ^"African Americans and College Education by the Numbers".UNCF. November 29, 2018.RetrievedJuly 17,2021.
- ^abc"A look at historically black colleges and universities as Howard turns 150".Pewresearch.org. February 28, 2017.RetrievedOctober 25,2017.
- ^"Historically Black Colleges and Universities – American School Search".American-school-search.RetrievedOctober 25,2017.
- ^Marybeth Gasman,The Changing Face of Historically Black Colleges and Universities.Philadelphia: Penn Center for Minority Serving Institutions, University of Pennsylvania, 2013.[ISBN missing]
- ^abCasey Boland, Marybeth Gasman et al.,Contemporary Public HBCUs: A Four State Comparison,Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: Penn Center for Minority Serving Institutions, University of Pennsylvania, Spring 2014.[ISBN missing]
- ^"The Tide That Binds: Learning from Experience at HBCU's".November 8, 2022.
- ^For detail of the university's early history from its origins as the Institute for Colored Youth, see Milton M. James,The Institute for Colored Youth,21Negro History Bulletinp. 83 (1958)
- ^Initially chartered as the Ashmun Institute, it changed its name in 1866. It was the first degree-granting HBCU. See Lincoln University,History,"Archived copy".Archived fromthe originalon May 31, 2019.RetrievedAugust 11,2022.
{{cite web}}
:CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link).See also Andrew E. Murray,The Founding of Lincoln University,51Journal of Presbyterian Historyp. 392 (1973). - ^Originally proposed as Ohio African University, the founders changed the name to Wilberforce University, to honor the English abolitionistWilliam Wilberforce,before its corporate charter was granted. Frederick Alphonso McGinnis,A History and Interpretation of Wilberforce Universityp. 33 (1941). See also Charles Killian,Wilberforce University: The Reality of Bishop Payne's Dream,34Negro History Bulletinp. 83 (1971).
- ^Marybeth Gasman,Envisioning Black Colleges: A History of the United Negro College Fund(Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2007).ISBN978-0-8018-8604-1
- ^Robert C. Lieberman, "The Freedmen's Bureau and the politics of institutional structure."Social Science History18.3 (1994): 405-437.
- ^Ronald E. Butchart, "Freedmen's education during reconstruction."New Georgia Encyclopedia13 (2016): 4-13online.
- ^Carrillo, Karen Juanita (2012).African American History Day By Day – A Reference Guide To Events.Abc-Clio.ISBN978-1-59884-361-3.
- ^Roy, Lisa (December 18, 2013)."Storer College (1867–1956)".RetrievedDecember 4,2020.
- ^(7 U.S.C. § 301 et seq.)
- ^John W. Davis,The Negro Land-Grant College,2Journal of Negro Educationp. 312 (1933).
- ^See generally, John W. Davis,The Negro Land-Grant College,2Journal of Negro Education(1933).
- ^20 U.S.C.§ 1059e
- ^"List of Minority Serving Institutions: 2022"(PDF).Center for Minority Serving Institutions.
- ^Miller, Patrick B. (1995). "To" Bring the Race along Rapidly ": Sport, Student Culture, and Educational Mission at Historically Black Colleges during the Interwar Years".History of Education Quarterly.35(2): 111–33.doi:10.2307/369629.ISSN0018-2680.JSTOR369629.S2CID147170256.
- ^Miller, Patrick B; Wiggins, David Kenneth, eds. (2004).Sport and the color line: black athletes and race relations in twentieth-century America.Routledge.ISBN978-0-415-94610-0.OCLC53155353.
- ^ab"Jewish Prof's and HBCU's – African American Registry".African American Registry.RetrievedOctober 23,2018.
- ^abcHoch, Paul K. (May 11, 1983). "The reception of central European refugee physicists of the 1930s: USSR, UK, US".Annals of Science.40(3): 217–46.doi:10.1080/00033798300200211.ISSN0003-3790.
- ^Gilligan, Heather (February 10, 2017)."After fleeing the Nazis, many Jewish refugee professors found homes at historically black colleges".Timeline.RetrievedDecember 6,2018.
- ^Marybeth Gasman, "Scylla and Charybdis: Navigating the Waters of Academic Freedom at Fisk University during Charles S. Johnson's Administration (1946–1956)",American Educational Research Journal36, no. 4 (1999): 739–58.
- ^Willie, Charles Vert; Reddick, Richard J.; Brown, Ronald (2006).The Black College Mystique.Rowman & Littlefield.ISBN978-0-7425-4617-2.
jewish refugees teaching in black colleges.
- ^Foster, Lenoar (November 11, 2001). "The Not-So-Invisible Professors".Urban Education.36(5): 611–29.doi:10.1177/0042085901365006.ISSN0042-0859.S2CID145633996.
- ^abJewell, Joseph O. (January 1, 2002). "To Set an Example: The Tradition of Diversity at Historically Black Colleges and Universities".Urban Education.37(1): 7–21.doi:10.1177/0042085902371002.S2CID145115998.
- ^"How HBCUs Contributed to the 1940s War Effort".Journal of Blacks in Higher Education.July 12, 2012.
- ^Philo Hutcheson, Marybeth Gasman, and Kijua Sanders-McMurtry, "Race and Equality in the Academy: Rethinking Higher Education Actors and the Struggle for Equality in the Post-World War II Period",Journal of Higher Education82, no. 2 (2011): 121–53
- ^Smith, Walter L. (1994),The Magnificent Twelve: Florida's Black Junior Colleges,Winter Park, Florida: FOUR-G Publishers,ISBN1-885066-01-5
- ^20 U.S.C. § 1062.
- ^The Act, as amended, defines a "part B institution" as: "...any historically black college or university that was established before 1964, whose principal mission was, and is, the education of black Americans, and that is accredited by a nationally recognized accrediting agency or association determined by the Secretary [of Education] to be a reliable authority as to the quality of training offered or is, according to such an agency or association, making reasonable progress toward accreditation."U.S. Department of Education (January 15, 2008)."HBCUs: A National Resource".White House Initiative on Historically Black Colleges and Universities.Archived fromthe originalon May 13, 2008.RetrievedFebruary 8,2008.
20 U.S.C. § 1061. - ^"About Us – White House Initiative on Historically Black Colleges and Universities".Sites.ed.gov.RetrievedAugust 24,2016.
- ^Gasman, Marybeth; Tudico, Christopher L. (2008).Historically Black Colleges and Universities: triumphs, troubles, and taboos(1st ed.). New York: Palgrave Macmillan. pp.4–5.ISBN978-0-230-61726-1.
- ^"HBCU Library Alliance".Hbuclibraries.org.April 23, 2010.RetrievedMay 15,2010.
- ^"Members of Congress Launch Bipartisan Congressional HBCU Caucus".Byrne.house.gov.April 28, 2015.RetrievedAugust 24,2016.
- ^"Bipartisan Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCU) Caucus".October 11, 2016.
- ^"2015 HBCU Week Conference – White House Initiative on Historically Black Colleges and Universities".Sites.ed.gov.RetrievedAugust 24,2016.
- ^"Gov. Kay Ivey signs proclamation declaring October Alabama HBCU Month".October 13, 2022.
- ^"Historically Black Colleges and Universities in N.C".Spectrumlocalnews. February 23, 2022.RetrievedAugust 4,2022.
- ^abRivera, Heidi (November 15, 2023)."HBCU and MSI Facts and Statistics".Bankrate.
- ^"Pell Grant Statistics [2023]: How Many Receive per Year".
- ^"Analyzing Admissions and Financial Aid Practices at HBCUs".August 9, 2023.
- ^Marybeth Gasman & Thai-Huy Nguyen,Making Black Scientists: A Call to Action.(Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2019).ISBN978-0-674-91658-6
- ^ab"The NCES Fast Facts Tool provides quick answers to many education questions (National Center for Education Statistics)".Nces.ed.gov.RetrievedOctober 25,2017.
- ^Robert Nathenson, Andrés Castro Samayoa, & Marybeth Gasman,Moving Upward & Onward: Income Mobility and Historically Black Colleges and Universities,New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers Center for Minority Serving Institutions, 2019.[ISBN missing]
- ^William Casey Boland, Marybeth Gasman, Andrés Castro Samayoa, and DeShaun Bennett, "The Effect of Enrolling in Minority Serving Institutions on Earnings Compared to Non-Minority Serving Institutions: A College Scorecard Analysis", Research in Higher Education (2019).
- ^"Digest of Education Statistics, 2016".Nces.ed.gov.RetrievedOctober 25,2017.
- ^"Economic Impact of the Nation's Historically Black Colleges and Universities"(PDF).Nces.ed.gov.RetrievedJanuary 21,2017.
- ^abcdef"A JSTOR Time Line",JSTOR,Princeton University Press, December 31, 2012, pp. XXVII–XXXVI,doi:10.1515/9781400843114.xxvii,ISBN978-1-4008-4311-4
- ^Robert Palmer, Robert Shorette, and Marybeth Gasman (Eds.),Exploring Diversity at Historically Black Colleges and Universities: Implications for Policy and Practice(San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2014).ISBN978-1-119-10843-6
- ^Marybeth Gasman and Felecia Commodore (Eds.),Opportunities and Challenges at Historically Black Colleges and Universities(New York: Palgrave Press, 2014).ISBN978-1-349-50267-7
- ^"More Non-Black Students Attending HBCUs"ArchivedJuly 13, 2016, at theWayback Machine.Newsone (2010-10-07). Retrieved on 2013-08-09.
- ^"Why Black Colleges Might Be the Best Bargains".U.S. News & World Report.RetrievedAugust 24,2016.
- ^Marybeth Gasman, Andrés Castro Samayoa, & Michael Nettles (Eds.).The Return on Investment for Minority Serving Institutions.(San Francisco, California: Wiley Press, 2017).[ISBN missing]
- ^Marybeth Gasman, Andrés Castro Samayoa, William Casey Boland, & Paola Esmieu (Eds.),Educational Challenges and Opportunities at Minority Serving Institutions(New York: Routledge Press, 2018)ISBN978-1-138-57261-4.
- ^"Apart No More? HBCUs Heading Into an Era of Change".hbcuconnect.RetrievedAugust 24,2016.
- ^"Bluefield State University: Student Profile Analysis: College Wide Summary: Fall Term 2017 Census"(PDF).Bluefieldstate.edu.RetrievedOctober 25,2017.
- ^"West Virginia State University: Office of Institutional Research and Assessment: 2015–2016 University Factbook"(PDF).Wvstateu.edu.RetrievedOctober 25,2017.
- ^"Kentucky State University: Statistics"(PDF).Kysu.edu.RetrievedOctober 25,2017.
- ^"University of the District of Columbia: Factbook"(PDF).Docs.udc.edu.RetrievedOctober 25,2017.
- ^"Delaware State University: Factbook"(PDF).Desu.edu.RetrievedOctober 25,2017.
- ^"Fayetteville State University: Fact Book: 2016–2017"(PDF).Uncfsu.edu.RetrievedOctober 25,2017.
- ^"Tableau Public".Public.tableau.RetrievedOctober 25,2017.
- ^"Elizabeth City State University: Factbook"(PDF).Ecsu.edu.RetrievedOctober 25,2017.
- ^U.S. News & World ReportBest Colleges, 2011 ed. Directory p. 182
- ^"NCAT IR – University Fast Facts".ir.ncat.edu.RetrievedOctober 25,2017.
- ^"Lincoln University: Factbook"(PDF).Lincoln.edu.RetrievedOctober 25,2017.
- ^U.S. News & World ReportBest Colleges, 2011 ed. Directory p. 129
- ^"HBCU Library Alliance – Cornell University Library Digitization Initiative Update"(PDF).Hbculigraries.org.2006.RetrievedDecember 1,2010.
- ^"Modest Gains for Black Colleges Online".Insidehighered.2010.RetrievedJanuary 4,2012.
- ^"N.C. A&T Announces New Athletics Affiliation: Big South Conference".Ncat.edu.RetrievedDecember 4,2020.
- ^"CAA Welcomes Hampton University, Monmouth University and Stony Brook University as New Members"(Press release). Colonial Athletic Association. January 25, 2022.RetrievedJanuary 25,2022.
- ^"CAA Welcomes North Carolina A&T as Newest Member of the Conference"(Press release). Colonial Athletic Association. February 22, 2022.RetrievedFebruary 22,2022.
- ^"NAIA Conferences".Naia.org.RetrievedDecember 4,2020.
- ^Allen, Tony; Glover, Gelnda."101 HBCUs get nearly 7 times less money than 1 other school. That must change".The Washington Post.
- ^"Fact Sheet: Obama Administration Investments in Historically Black Colleges and Universities | National Center on Safe Supportive Learning Environments (NCSSLE)".safesupportivelearning.ed.gov.
- ^"Trump signs bill restoring funding for black colleges".Associated Press.April 20, 2021.
- ^The White House."FACT SHEET: The Biden-Harris Administration's Historic Investments and Support for Historically Black Colleges and Universities".The White House.Archivedfrom the original on October 25, 2022.RetrievedOctober 25,2022.
- ^"FACT SHEET: State-by-State Analysis of Record $2.7 Billion American Rescue Plan Investment in Historically Black Colleges and Universities".March 7, 2022.
- ^"For the Culture: It's Time for HBCU Homecomings".October 6, 2019.
- ^"Post-Shutdown HBCU Homecomings Bring Much-Needed Boosts to Revenues".US News & World Report.November 1, 2022.RetrievedApril 4,2023.
- ^"Homecoming: A Celebration of HBCUs and Their Legacies".
- ^"3 HBCU Alums on What Makes Homecoming So Meaningful".
Further reading
[edit]- Arnold, Bruce Makoto; Mitchell, Roland;Arnold, Noelle W.(2015)."Massified Illusions of Difference: Photography and the Mystique of the American Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs)".Journal of American Studies of Turkey.41:69–94.RetrievedSeptember 3,2019.
- Betsey, Charles L., ed. (2011).Historically black colleges and universities.Transaction Publishers.ISBN978-1-4128-1219-1.
- Boonshoft, Mark. "Histories of Nineteenth-Century Education and the Civil War Era."Journal of the Civil War Era12.2 (2022): 234–261.
- Brooks, F. Erik; Starks, Glenn L. (2011).Historically Black colleges and universities: an encyclopedia.Greenwood.ISBN978-0-313-39416-4.
- Cohen, Rodney T. (2000).The Black Colleges of Atlanta (College History Series).Arcadia Pub.ISBN978-0-7385-0554-1.Archived fromthe originalon May 22, 2009.RetrievedJanuary 14,2020.
- Favors, Jelani M. (2019).Shelter in a Time of Storm: How Black Colleges Fostered Generations of Leadership and Activism.Chapel Hill, North Carolina: University of North Carolina Press.ISBN978-1-4696-4833-0.OCLC1048660765.
- Gasman, Marybeth; Tudico, Christopher L., eds. (2008).Historically Black colleges and universities: triumphs, troubles, and taboos(1st ed.). Palgrave Macmillan.ISBN978-0-230-60273-1.
- Harris, Adam (2021).The State Must Provide: Why America's Colleges Have Always Been Unequal—and How to Set Them Right.New York: Ecco.ISBN978-0-06-297648-2.OCLC1204635631.
- Lovett, Bobby L. (2015).America's historically Black colleges & universities: a narrative history from the nineteenth century into the twenty-first century(First ed.). Mercer University Press.ISBN978-0-88146-534-1.
- Mays, Benjamin E. (1960). "The Significance of the Negro Private and Church-Related College".The Journal of Negro Education.29(3): 245–51.doi:10.2307/2293639.ISSN0022-2984.JSTOR2293639.
- Minor, James T. (2008). "A Contemporary Perspective on the Role of Public HBCUs: Perspicacity from Mississippi".The Journal of Negro Education.77(4): 323–35.ISSN0022-2984.JSTOR25608702.
- One among the others (March 29, 2018)."Reflections of an HBCU Alumnus (Howard University)".Anuntoldstoryblog.
- Palmer, Robert T.; Hilton, Adriel A.; Fountaine, Tiffany P., eds. (2012).Black graduate education at historically Black colleges and universities trends, experiences, and outcomes.Information Age Pub.ISBN978-1-61735-852-4.
- Provasnik, Stephen; Shafer, Linda L. (2004)."Historically Black Colleges and Universities, 1976 to 2001".National Center for Education Statistics.NCES 2004–062.
- Rascoe, Ayesha, ed. (2024).HBCU Made: A Celebration of the Black College Experience.Chapel Hill, North Carolina: Algonquin Books of Chapel Hill.ISBN978-1-64375-386-7.OCLC1378381766.
- Roebuck, Julian B.; Murty, Komanduri Srinivasa (1993).Historically black colleges and universities: their place in American higher education.Praeger.ISBN978-0-275-94267-0.
- Wright, Stephanie R. (2008). "Self-Determination, Politics, and Gender on Georgia's Black College Campuses, 1875–1900".The Georgia Historical Quarterly.92(1): 93–119.ISSN0016-8297.JSTOR40585040.
Primary sources
[edit]- Negro Education: A Study of the Private and Higher Schools for Colored People in the United States.Bulletin, 1916, No. 38. Vol. I. Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Education, Department of the Interior. 1917.
- Negro Education: A Study of the Private and Higher Schools for Colored People in the United States.Bulletin, 1916, No. 39. Vol. II. Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Education, Department of the Interior. 1917.
External links
[edit]![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png)
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png)
- "Historically Black Colleges and Universities" (2023)
- National Center for Education Statistics' College Navigator information about HBCUs
- Divine Nine
- HBCU Sports history
- National Association for Equal Opportunity in Higher Education(NAFEO)—national membership association of all of the nation's HBCUs and Predominantly Black Institutions (PBIs)