Hand-to-hand combat

Pankratiastsportrayed on a Roman relief. 2nd or 3rd century A.D.

Hand-to-hand combat(sometimes abbreviated asHTHorH2H) is a physical confrontation between two or more persons at short range (grapplingdistance or within the physical reach of a handheld weapon) that does not involve the use ofranged weapons.The phrase "hand-to-hand" sometimes include use ofmelee weaponssuch asknives,swords,clubs,spears,axes,orimprovised weaponssuch asentrenching tools.While the term "hand-to-hand combat" originally referred principally to engagements bycombatantson thebattlefield,it can also refer to any personal physical engagement by two or more people, includinglaw enforcement officers,civilians,andcriminals.

Combatwithin close quarters, to a range just beyond grappling distance, is commonly termedclose combator close-quarters combat. It may include lethal andnon-lethal weaponsand methods depending upon the restrictions imposed bycivilian law,militaryrules of engagement,orethical codes.Close combat using firearms or other distance weapons by military combatants at thetactical levelis referred to in contemporary parlance asclose-quarters battle.TheUnited States Armyuses the termcombativesto describe various military fighting systems used in hand-to-hand combat training, systems which may incorporateeclectictechniques from several differentmartial artsandcombat sports.

History

See also:History of physical training and fitness

Hand-to-hand combat is the most ancient form of fighting known. A majority of cultures have their own particular histories related to close combat, and their own methods of practice. Thepankration,which was practiced inAncient GreeceandRome,is an example of a form which involved nearly all strikes and holds, with biting and gouging being the only exceptions (although allowed inSparta).Many modern varieties ofmartial artsand combat sports, such as some bo xing styles,wrestlingandMMA,were also practiced historically. For example, Celtic wrestling is mentioned in theTailteann Gamesdating back from somewhere between 1839 BC to 632 BC (academics disagree) to the 12th century AD when the Normans invaded. Other historical forms of close combat include thegladiatorspectacles of ancient Rome andmedieval tournamentevents such asjoustingormedieval martial arts.

Militaryorganizations have always taught some sort of unarmed combat for conditioning and as a supplement to armed combat. Soldiers inChinawere trained in unarmed combat as early as theZhou dynasty(1022 BCE to 256 BCE).

Despite major technological changes such as the use of gunpowder, the machine gun in theRusso-Japanese Warand thetrench warfareofWorld War I,hand-to-hand fighting methods with theknifeandbayonetremain common in modern military training, though the importance of formal training declined after 1918. By 1944 someGermanrifles were being produced without bayonet lugs.

Modern hand-to-hand combat techniques

Corporal Alvin "Tony" Ghazlo, the senior bayonet and unarmed combat instructor atMontford Point,demonstrates a disarming technique on his assistant, Private Ernest "Judo" Jones.

Close Quarters Combat(CQC), orWorld War II combatives,was largely codified byWilliam Ewart FairbairnandEric Anthony Sykes.Also known for their eponymousFairbairn–Sykes fighting knife,Fairbairn and Sykes had worked in theShanghai Municipal Policeof theInternational Settlement(1854–1943) ofShanghaiin the 1920s, widely acknowledged as the most dangerous port city in the world due to a heavyopium traderun by organized crime (the ChineseTriads). CQC was derived from a mixture ofjudo,jujutsu,bo xing,savate,wrestlingandstreet fighting.

After theMay Thirtieth Movement,Fairbairn was charged with developing an auxiliary squad forriot control.After absorbing the most appropriate elements from a variety ofmartial artsexperts,from China,Japanand elsewhere, he condensed these arts into a practical combat system he calledDefendu.He and his police team went on to field test these skills on the streets of Shanghai; Fairbairn himself used his combat system effectively in over 2,000 documented encounters, including over 600 lethal-force engagements. The aim of his combat system was simply to be as brutally effective as possible. It was also a system that, unlike traditional Eastern martial-arts that required years of intensive training, could be digested by recruits relatively quickly. The method incorporated training inpoint shootingand gun combat techniques, as well as the effective use of moread hocweapons such as chairs or table legs.

Hand-to-hand combat training in theSoviet Army,1976

During theSecond World War,Fairbairn was brought back to Britain, and, after demonstrating the effectiveness of his techniques, was recruited to train theBritish commandosin his combat method. During this period, he expanded his 'Shanghai Method' into the 'Silent Killing Close Quarters Combat method' for military application. This became standard combat training for all BritishSpecial Operationspersonnel. He also designed the pioneeringFairbairn–Sykes fighting knife,which was adopted for use by British andAmerican Special Forces.In 1942, he published a textbook for close quarters combat training calledGet Tough.

U.S. Army officersRex ApplegateandAnthony Biddlewere taught Fairbairn's methods at a training facility inScotland,and adopted the program for the training ofOSSoperatives at a newly opened camp nearLake OntarioinCanada.Applegate published his work in 1943, calledKill or Get Killed.During the war, training was provided to BritishCommandos,theDevil's Brigade,OSS,U.S. Army RangersandMarine Raiders.

Rangers in Action 10-African Land Forces Summit,US Army Africa,2010

Other combat systems designed for military combat were introduced elsewhere, including EuropeanUnifight,Soviet/RussianSambo,Army hand-to-hand fight,Chinese militarySanshou/Sanda,IsraeliKapapandKrav Maga.The prevalence and style of hand-to-hand combat training often changes based on perceived need. Elite units such asspecial forcesandcommandounits tend to place higher emphasis on hand-to-hand combat training.

Although hand-to-hand fighting was accorded less importance in major militaries afterWorld War II,insurgencyconflicts such as theVietnam War,low intensity conflictandurban warfarehave prompted many armies to pay more attention to this form of combat. When such fighting includes firearms designed for close-in fighting, it is often referred to asClose Quarters Battle(CQB) at the platoon or squad level, orMilitary Operations on Urban Terrain(MOUT) at higher tactical levels. A 2023 study using data from theIraqandAfghanistan warsfound that the majority of hand-to-hand combat involved grappling techniques instead of striking.

Sport

Main article:Combat sport

Most combat sports involve hand-to-hand combat.

Modern usage

A 2014 study found that, amongst US soldiers deployed to Iraq and Afghanistan between 2004 and 2008, 19% reported the use of hand-to-hand techniques in at least one encounter, in a variety of circumstances and contexts (such as close combat, prisoner handling, crowd control and security checkpoints), supporting prior research that indicated that, despite advances in technology, hand-to-hand combat remained a persistent aspect of modern warfare.

Hand-to-hand combat is the principal form of combat during skirmishes betweenIndian Armyand ChinesePeople's Liberation Armysoldiers along the disputed Himalayan border between India and the People's Republic of China. While Chinese and Indian soldiers carry firearms, due to decades of tradition designed to reduce the possibility of an escalation, agreements disallow usage of firearms along this border.In the2020 China–India skirmishes,hand-to-hand combat involving stones, batons, iron rods, and other makeshift weapons resulted in the deaths of over 50 soldiers on both sides over six hours of fighting.

Military systems

• In theSoviet Union,sambo(self-defence without weapons) began development in the 1920s for themilitaryandsecret policeas a fighting system based on indigenous and foreign martial arts. It has since become acombat sport,an international style ofwrestling,and foundation for manyMMA fighters.
  • ARB(Army Hand-to-Hand Combat) is a Soviet martial art based on sambo that began development for the military in 1979. It has since become a popular combat sport inRussia.

• Krav Magais an Israeli martial art that was used byZionist paramilitary groupsand subsequently adopted by theIsraeli militarywhen it was founded in 1948.
• Jieitaikakutōjutsuis a military self-defence and fighting system developed forJSDFpersonnel. The system primarily consists of hand-to-hand combat,bayonetandknife fightingprinciples.
• In 2002, theU.S. Armyadopted theModern Army Combatives(MAC) hand-to-hand combat training program with the publishing of U.S. Army field manual (FM 3-25.150) and the establishment of the U.S. Army Combatives School atFt Benning,Georgia.
  • TheU.S. Air Forceadopted MAC as its hand-to-hand combat system in early 2008.

• In theU.S. Marine Corps,Marine Corps Martial Arts Program(MCMAP) replaced theMarine Corps LINE combat systemin 2002. Each Marine keeps a record book that records their training, and a colored belt system (tan, gray, green, brown, and black in order of precedence) is used to denote experience and skill level, similar to many Asian martial arts.

See also

• Bo xing (disambiguation)
• Ancillary weapon
• Knife fight
• Close-quarters combat

References

Further reading

• Close Combat(MCRP 3-02B), USMC, February 1999. CommercialISBN1-58160-073-9
• Get Tough!byWilliam E. Fairbairn,1942. Details basiccommandotechniques. ReprintISBN0-87364-002-0
• Kill or Get KilledbyRex Applegate,1943. Widely redistributed within theUSMCfrom 1991 as FMFRP 12–80.ISBN0-87364-084-5
• In Search of the Warrior Spirit: Teaching Awareness Disciplines to the Green BeretsbyRichard Strozzi-Heckler.3rd editionISBN1-55643-425-1
• Fleet Marine Force Manual (FMFM) 0-7, Close Combat,USMC,July 1993.
• Combatives: FM 3-25.150Commercial reprint of 2002 U.S. Army manual incorporatesBrazilian Jiu-Jitsu.ISBN1-58160-448-3