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This article is about the type of political position. For other uses, seeHead of state (disambiguation).
Not to be confused withHead of government.

Absolute monarch

Executive head(presidential system)

Executive head(semi-presidential system)

Executive head(parliamentary system)

Ceremonial head(parliamentary system)

Constitutional monarch(parliamentary system)

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Ahead of state(orchief of state) is the publicpersonaof asovereign state.[1]The specific naming of the head of state depends on the country's form ofgovernmentandseparation of powers;the head of state may be aceremonialfigureheador concurrently thehead of governmentand more.

In aparliamentary system,such asIndiaor theUnited Kingdom,the head of state usually has mostly ceremonial powers, with a separate head of government.[2]However, in some parliamentary systems, likeSouth Africa,there is an executive president that is both head of state and head of government. Likewise, in some parliamentary systems the head of state is not the head of government, but still has significant powers, for exampleMorocco.In contrast, asemi-presidential system,such asFrance,has both heads of state and government as thede factoleaders of the nation (in practice they divide the leadership of the nation between themselves).

Meanwhile, inpresidential systems,the head of state is also the head of government.[1]Inone-partyrulingcommunist states,the position of president has no tangible powers by itself; however, since such a head of state, as a matter of custom, simultaneously holds the post ofGeneral Secretary of the Communist Party,they are the executive leader with their powers deriving from their status of being theparty leader,rather than the office of president.

Former French presidentCharles de Gaulle,while developing the currentConstitution of France(1958), said that the head of state should embodyl'esprit de la nation( "the spirit of the nation" ).[3]

Constitutional models[edit]

Grassalkovich PalaceinBratislavais the seat of thePresident of Slovakia.

Some academic writers discussstatesandgovernmentsin terms of "models".[4][5][6][7]

An independentnation statenormally has a head of state, and determines the extent of its head's executive powers of government or formal representational functions.[8]In terms ofprotocol:the head of asovereign,independent state is usually identified as the person who, according to that state's constitution, is the reigningmonarch,in the case of amonarchy;or the president, in the case of arepublic.

Among the stateconstitutions(fundamental laws) that establish different political systems, four major types of heads of state can be distinguished:

  1. Theparliamentary system,with two subset models;
    1. Thestandard model,in which the head of state, in theory, possesses key executive powers, but such power is exercised on the binding advice of ahead of government(e.g.United Kingdom,India,Germany).
    2. Thenon-executive model,in which the head of state has either none or very limited executive powers, and mainly has a ceremonial and symbolic role (e.g.Sweden,Japan,Israel).
  2. Thesemi-presidential system,in which the head of state shares key executive powers with a head of government or cabinet (e.g.Russia,France,Sri Lanka); and
  3. Thepresidential system,in which the head of state is also the head of government and has all executive powers (e.g.United States,Indonesia,South Korea).

In a federal constituent or a dependent territory, the same role is fulfilled by the holder of an office corresponding to that of a head of state. For example, in eachCanadian provincethe role is fulfilled by thelieutenant governor,whereas in mostBritish Overseas Territoriesthe powers and duties are performed by thegovernor.The same applies toAustralian states,Indian states,etc.Hong Kong's constitutional document, theBasic Law,for example, specifies thechief executiveas the head of the special administrative region, in addition to their role as the head of government. These non-sovereign-state heads, nevertheless, have limited or no role in diplomatic affairs, depending on the status and the norms and practices of the territories concerned.

Parliamentary system[edit]

World's parliamentary states (as of 2024):
Republics with an executive president elected by a parliament
Parliamentary republics
Parliamentary constitutional monarchies in which the monarch usually does not personally exercise power
Presidential republics, one-party states, and other forms of government

Standard model[edit]

Inparliamentary systemsthe head of state may be merely the nominalchief executive officer,heading theexecutive branchof the state, and possessing limited executive power. In reality, however, following a process of constitutional evolution, powers are usually only exercised by direction of acabinet,presided over by ahead of governmentwho is answerable to the legislature. This accountability and legitimacy requires that someone be chosen who has a majority support in thelegislature(or, at least, not a majority opposition – a subtle but important difference). It also gives the legislature the right to vote down the head ofgovernmentand their cabinet, forcing it either to resign or seek a parliamentary dissolution. Theexecutive branch is thus said to be responsible(or answerable) to the legislature, with the head of government and cabinet in turn accepting constitutional responsibility for offering constitutionaladviceto the head of state.

KingHarald VofNorway

In parliamentaryconstitutional monarchies,the legitimacy of the unelected head of state typically derives from the tacit approval of the people via the elected representatives. Accordingly, at the time of theGlorious Revolution,theEnglish parliamentacted of its own authority to name a new king and queen (the joint monarchsMary IIandWilliam III); likewise,Edward VIII's abdication required the approval of each of the six independent realms of which he was monarch. In monarchies with a written constitution, the position of monarch is created under the constitution and could be abolished through a democratic procedure of constitutional amendment. In many cases there are significant procedural hurdles imposed on such a procedure (as in theConstitution of Spain).

Inrepublicswith a parliamentary system (such as India, Germany, Austria, Italy and Israel), the head of state is usually titledpresidentand the principal functions of such presidents are mainly ceremonial and symbolic, as opposed to the presidents in a presidential or semi-presidential system.

In reality, numerous variants exist to the position of a head of state within a parliamentary system. The older the constitution, the more constitutional leeway tends to exist for a head of state to exercise greater powers over government, as many older parliamentary system constitutions in fact give heads of state powers and functions akin to presidential or semi-presidential systems, in some cases without containing reference to modern democratic principles of accountability to parliament or even to modern governmental offices. Usually, the king had the power of declaring war without previous consent of the parliament.

For example, under the 1848 constitution of theKingdom of Sardinia,and then theKingdom of Italy,theStatuto Albertino—the parliamentary approval to the government appointed by the king—was customary, but not required by law. So, Italy had ade factoparliamentary system, but ade jure"presidential" system.

Examples of heads of state in parliamentary systems using greater powers than usual, either because of ambiguous constitutions or unprecedented national emergencies, include the decision by KingLeopold III of the Belgiansto surrender on behalf of his state to the invading German army in 1940, against the will of his government. Judging that his responsibility to the nation by virtue of his coronation oath required him to act, he believed that his government's decision to fight rather than surrender was mistaken and would damage Belgium. (Leopold's decision proved highly controversial. AfterWorld War II,Belgium voted in a referendum to allow him to resume his monarchical powers and duties, but because of the ongoing controversy he ultimately abdicated.) The Belgian constitutional crisis in 1990, when thehead of staterefused to sign into law a bill permitting abortion, was resolved by the cabinet assuming the power to promulgate the law while he was treated as "unable to reign" for twenty-four hours.[9][10]

Non-executive model[edit]

Two contemporary heads of state who areconstitutional monarchs,but with no political power: KingNorodom Sihamoniof Cambodia (left), and KingCarl XVI Gustaf of Sweden(right).

These officials are excluded completely from the executive: they do not possess even theoretical executive powers or any role, even formal, within the government. Hence their states' governments are not referred to by the traditional parliamentary model head of statestylesofHis/Her Majesty's GovernmentorHis/Her Excellency's Government.Within this general category, variants in terms of powers and functions may exist.

TheConstitution of Japan(Nước Nhật hiến pháp,Nihonkoku-Kenpō)was drawn up under theAllied occupationthat followedWorld War IIand was intended to replace the previousmilitaristicand quasi-absolute monarchysystem with a form of liberal democracyparliamentary system.The constitution explicitly vests all executive power in theCabinet,who is chaired by theprime minister(articles 65 and 66) and responsible to theDiet(articles 67 and 69). Theemperoris defined in the constitution as "the symbol of the State and of the unity of the people" (article 1), and is generally recognised throughout the world as the Japanese head of state. Although the emperor formallyappointsthe prime minister to office, article 6 of the constitution requires him to appoint the candidate "as designated by the Diet", without any right to decline appointment. He is a ceremonialfigureheadwith no independent discretionary powers related to the governance of Japan.[11][12][13]

Since the passage inSwedenof the1974 Instrument of Government,theSwedish monarchno longer has many of the standard parliamentary system head of state functions that had previously belonged to him or her, as was the case in the preceding1809 Instrument of Government.Today, thespeaker of the Riksdagappoints (following a vote in theRiksdag) theprime ministerand terminates their commission following avote of no confidenceor voluntary resignation. Cabinet members are appointed and dismissed at the sole discretion of the prime minister. Laws and ordinances are promulgated by two Cabinet members in unison signing "On Behalf of the Government" and the government—not the monarch—is thehigh contracting partywith respect to international treaties. The remaining official functions of the sovereign, by constitutional mandate or by unwritten convention, are to open the annual session of the Riksdag, receive foreign ambassadors and sign theletters of credencefor Swedish ambassadors, chair the foreign advisory committee, preside at the special Cabinet council when a new prime minister takes office, and to be kept informed by the prime minister on matters of state.[14][15]

In contrast, the only contact thepresident of Irelandhas with the Irish government is through a formal briefing session given by thetaoiseach(head of government) to the president. However, the president has no access to documentation and all access to ministers goes through theDepartment of the Taoiseach.The president does, however, hold limitedreserve powers,such as referring a bill to theSupreme Courtto test its constitutionality, which are used under the president's discretion.[16]

The most extreme non-executive republican head of state is thePresident of Israel,which holds no reserve powers whatsoever.[17]The least ceremonial powers held by the president are to provide a mandate to attempt to form a government, to approve the dissolution of theKnessetmade by the prime minister, and to pardon criminals or to commute their sentence.

Executive model[edit]

Some parliamentary republics (likeSouth Africa,BotswanaandKiribati) have fused the roles of the head of state with the head of government (like in a presidential system), while having the sole executive officer, often called a president, being dependent on the Parliament's confidence to rule (like in a parliamentary system). While also being the leading symbol of the nation, the president in this system acts mostly as a prime minister since the incumbent must be a member of the legislature at the time of the election, answerquestion sessionsin Parliament, avoid motions of no confidence, etc.

Semi-presidential systems[edit]

Charles de Gaulle,President and head of state of theFrench Fifth Republic(1959–1969)
Main article:Semi-presidential system

Semi-presidential systems combine features of presidential and parliamentary systems, notably (in the president-parliamentary subtype) a requirement that the government be answerable to both the president and the legislature. Theconstitutionof theFifth French Republicprovides for aprime ministerwho is chosen by the president, but who nevertheless must be able to gain support in theNational Assembly.Should a president be of one side of the political spectrum and the opposition be in control of the legislature, the president is usually obliged to select someone from the opposition to become prime minister, a process known asCohabitation.PresidentFrançois Mitterrand,a Socialist, for example, was forced to cohabit with theneo-Gaullist(right wing)Jacques Chirac,who became his prime minister from 1986 to 1988. In the French system, in the event of cohabitation, the president is often allowed to set the policy agenda in security and foreign affairs and the prime minister runs the domestic and economic agenda.

Other countries evolve into something akin to a semi-presidential system or indeed a full presidential system.Weimar Germany,for example, in its constitution provided for a popularly elected president with theoretically dominant executive powers that were intended to be exercised only in emergencies, and a cabinet appointed by him from theReichstag,which was expected, in normal circumstances, to be answerable to the Reichstag. Initially, the president was merely a symbolic figure with the Reichstag dominant; however, persistent political instability, in which governments often lasted only a few months, led to a change in the power structure of the republic, with the president's emergency powers called increasingly into use to prop up governments challenged by critical or even hostile Reichstag votes. By 1932, power had shifted to such an extent that the German president,Paul von Hindenburg,was able to dismiss achancellorand select his own person for the job, even though the outgoing chancellor possessed the confidence of the Reichstag while the new chancellor did not. Subsequently, President von Hindenburg used his power to appointAdolf Hitleras Chancellor without consulting the Reichstag.

Presidential system[edit]

George Washington,the firstpresident of the United States,set the precedent for an executive head of state in republican systems of government[18]
Main article:Presidential system

Note: The head of state in a "presidential" system may not actually hold the title of "president"- the name of the system refers to any head of state who actually governs and is not directly dependent on thelegislatureto remain in office.

Some constitutions or fundamental laws provide for a head of state who is not only in theory but in practice chief executive, operating separately from, and independent from, the legislature. This system is known as a "presidential system" and sometimes called the "imperial model", because the executive officials of the government are answerable solely and exclusively to a presiding, acting head of state, and is selected by and on occasion dismissed by the head of state without reference to the legislature. It is notable that some presidential systems, while not providing for collective executive accountability to the legislature, may require legislative approval for individuals prior to their assumption of cabinet office and empower the legislature to remove a president from office (for example, in theUnited States of America). In this case the debate centers on confirming them into office, not removing them from office, and does not involve the power to reject or approve proposed cabinet membersen bloc,so accountability does not operate in the same sense understood as a parliamentary system.

Presidential systemsare a notable feature of constitutions in theAmericas,including those ofArgentina,Brazil,Colombia,El Salvador,MexicoandVenezuela;this is generally attributed to the strong influence of theUnited Statesin the region, and as theUnited States Constitutionserved as an inspiration and model for theLatin American wars of independenceof the early 19th century. Most presidents in such countries are selected by democratic means (popular direct or indirect election); however, like all other systems, the presidential model also encompasses people who become head of state by other means, notably through military dictatorship orcoup d'état,as often seen inLatin American,Middle Easternand other presidential regimes. Some of the characteristics of a presidential system, such as a strong dominant political figure with an executive answerable to them, not the legislature can also be found amongabsolute monarchies,parliamentary monarchiesandsingle party(e.g.,Communist) regimes, but in most cases of dictatorship, their stated constitutional models are applied in name only and not in political theory or practice.

Single-party states[edit]

In certain states underMarxist–Leninistconstitutions of theconstitutionally socialist statetype inspired by the formerUnion of Soviet Socialist Republics(USSR) and its constitutiveSoviet republics,real political power belonged to the sole legal party. In these states, there was no formal office of head of state, but rather the leader of the legislative branch was considered to be the closest common equivalent of a head of state as anatural person.In the Soviet Union this position carried such titles asChairman of the Central Executive Committee of the USSR;Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet;and in the case of theSoviet RussiaChairman of the Central Executive Committee of the All-Russian Congress of Soviets(pre-1922), andChairman of theBureau of the Central Committeeof the Russian SFSR(1956–1966). This position may or may not have been held by thede factoSoviet leader at the moment. For example,Nikita Khrushchevnever headed the Supreme Soviet but wasFirst Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party(party leader) andChairman of the Council of Ministers(head of government).

This may even lead to an institutional variability, as inNorth Korea,where, after the presidency of party leaderKim Il Sung,the office was vacant for years. The late president was granted the posthumous title (akin to some ancient Far Eastern traditions to give posthumous names and titles to royalty) of"Eternal President".All substantive power, as party leader, itself not formally created for four years, was inherited by his sonKim Jong Il.The post of president was formally replaced on 5 September 1998, for ceremonial purposes, by the office ofPresident of the Presidium of the Supreme People's Assembly,while the party leader's post aschairman of the National Defense Commissionwas simultaneously declared "the highest post of the state", not unlikeDeng Xiaopingearlier in thePeople's Republic of China.

InChina,under the currentcountry's constitution,theChinese Presidentis a largelyceremonial officewith limited power.[19][20]However, since 1993, as a matter of convention, the presidency has been held simultaneously by theGeneral Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party,[21]thetop leaderin theone party system.[22]The presidency is officially regarded asan institution of the staterather than an administrative post; theoretically, the President serves at the pleasure of theNational People's Congress,the legislature, and is not legally vested to take executive action on its own prerogative.[note 1]

Complications with categorisation[edit]

George V,Emperor of India, and Empress Mary at theDelhi Durbar,1911.

While clear categories do exist, it is sometimes difficult to choose which category some individual heads of state belong to. In reality, the category to which each head of state belongs is assessed not by theory but by practice.

Constitutional change inLiechtensteinin 2003 gave its head of state, theReigning Prince,constitutional powers that included a veto over legislation and power to dismiss thehead of governmentand cabinet.[23]It could be argued that the strengthening of the Prince's powers, vis-a-vis theLandtag(legislature), has moved Liechtenstein into the semi-presidential category. Similarly the original powers given to theGreek Presidentunder the1974 Hellenic Republic constitutionmovedGreececloser to the French semi-presidential model.

Another complication exists withSouth Africa,in which thepresidentis in fact elected by theNational Assembly(legislature) and is thus similar, in principle, to ahead of governmentin aparliamentary systembut is also, in addition, recognised as the head of state.[24]The offices ofpresident of Nauruandpresident of Botswanaare similar in this respect to the South African presidency.[11][25][26]

Panama,during the military dictatorships ofOmar TorrijosandManuel Noriega,was nominally a presidential republic. However, theelected civilian presidentswere effectively figureheads with real political power being exercised by the chief of thePanamanian Defense Forces.

Historically, at the time of theLeague of Nations(1920–1946) and the founding of theUnited Nations(1945),India'shead of state was the monarch of the United Kingdom, ruling directly or indirectly asEmperor of Indiathrough theViceroy and Governor-General of India.

Roles[edit]

Coronationceremony: QueenElizabeth IIandthe Duke of Edinburghin her coronation portraiton 2 June 1953.

Head of state is the highest-ranking constitutional position in a sovereign state. A head of state has some or all of the roles listed below, often depending on the constitutional category (above), and does not necessarily regularly exercise the most power or influence of governance. There is usually a formal public ceremony when a person becomes head of state, or some time after. This may be the swearing in at theinaugurationof a president of a republic, or thecoronationof a monarch.

Symbolic role[edit]

One of the most important roles of the modern head of state is being a livingnational symbolof the state; in hereditary monarchies this extends to the monarch being a symbol of the unbroken continuity of the state. For instance, theCanadian monarchis described by the government as being thepersonification of the Canadian stateand is described by theDepartment of Canadian Heritageas the "personal symbol of allegiance, unity and authority for all Canadians".[27][28]

In many countries, officialportraitsof the head of state can be found in government offices, courts of law, or other public buildings. The idea, sometimes regulated by law, is to use these portraits to make the public aware of the symbolic connection to the government, a practice that dates back to medieval times. Sometimes this practice is taken to excess, and the head of state becomes the principal symbol of the nation, resulting in the emergence of apersonality cultwhere the image of the head of state is the only visual representation of the country, surpassing other symbols such as theflag.

Other common representations are oncoins,postage and other stampsandbanknotes,sometimes by no more than a mention or signature; and public places, streets, monuments and institutions such as schools are named for current or previous heads of state. In monarchies (e.g., Belgium) there can even be a practice to attribute the adjective "royal" on demand based on existence for a given number of years. However, such political techniques can also be used by leaders without the formal rank of head of state, even party - and other revolutionary leaders without formal state mandate.

Heads of state often greet important foreign visitors, particularly visiting heads of state. They assume a host role during astate visit,and the programme may feature playing of thenational anthemsby amilitary band,inspection ofmilitary troops,official exchange of gifts, and attending astate dinnerat theofficial residenceof the host.

At home, heads of state are expected to render lustre to various occasions by their presence, such as by attending artistic or sports performances or competitions (often in a theatrical honour box, on a platform, on the front row, at the honours table), expositions,national day celebrations,dedication events, military parades and war remembrances, prominent funerals, visiting different parts of the country and people from different walks of life, and at times performing symbolic acts such ascutting a ribbon,groundbreaking,ship christening,laying the first stone. Some parts of national life receive their regular attention, often on an annual basis, or even in the form of official patronage.

TheOlympic Charter(rule 55.3) of theInternational Olympic Committeestates that theOlympic summerandwinter gamesshall beopened bythe head of state of the host nation, by uttering a single formulaic phrase as determined by the charter.[29]

As such invitations may be very numerous, such duties are often in partdelegatedto such persons as a spouse, ahead of governmentor acabinet ministeror in other cases (possibly as a message, for instance, to distance themselves without rendering offence) just a military officer or civil servant.

For non-executive heads of state there is often a degree of censorship by the politically responsible government (such as thehead of government). This means that the government discreetly approves agenda and speeches, especially where the constitution (or customary law) assumes all political responsibility by granting the crown inviolability (in fact also imposing political emasculation) as in theKingdom of Belgiumfrom its very beginning; in a monarchy this may even be extended to some degree to other members of the dynasty, especially the heir to the throne.

Below follows a list of examples from different countries of general provisions in law, which either designate an office as head of state or define its general purpose.

  • Example 1 (parliamentary monarchy):Section 56 (1) of theSpanish Constitution of 1978states:
    • TheKingis the Head of State, the symbol of its unity and permanence. He arbitrates and moderates the regular functioning of the institutions, assumes the highest representation of the Spanish State in international relations, especially with the nations of its historical community, and exercises the functions expressly conferred on him by the Constitution and the laws.[30]
  • Example 2 (parliamentary absentee monarchy):Article 2 of the New ZealandConstitution Act 1986states:
  • Example 3 (parliamentary non-executive monarchy):Article 1 of theConstitution of Japanstates:
    • TheEmperorshall be the symbol of the State and of the unity of the People, deriving his position from the will of the people with whom resides sovereign power.[12]
  • Example 4 (parliamentary republic):Title II, Article 87 of theConstitution of Italystates:
  • Example 5 (parliamentary republic):Article 67 of theIraqi constitution of 2005states:
    • ThePresident of the Republicis the Head of the State and a symbol of the unity of the country and represents the sovereignty of the country. He shall guarantee the commitment to the Constitution and the preservation of Iraq's independence, sovereignty, unity, and the safety of its territories, in accordance with the provisions of the Constitution.[33]
  • Example 6 (semi-presidential republic):Title II, Chapter I, Article 120 of theConstitution of Portugalstates:
  • Example 7 (presidential republic):Chapter IV, Section 1, Article 66 of theConstitution of the Republic of Koreastates:
    • (1)ThePresidentshall be the Head of State and represent the State vis-à-vis foreign states.
    • (2)The President shall have the responsibility and duty to safeguard the independence, territorial integrity and continuity of the State and the Constitution.[35]
  • Example 8 (semi-presidential republic):Chapter VI, Article 77 of theConstitution of Lithuaniastates:
    • ThePresident of the Republicshall be Head of State.
    • He shall represent the State of Lithuania and shall perform everything with which he is charged by the Constitution and laws.[36]
  • Example 9 (semi-presidential republic):Chapter 4, Article 80, Section 1-2 of theConstitution of Russiastates:
    • 1. ThePresident of the Russian Federationshall be the Head of State.
    • 2. The President of the Russian Federation shall be the guarantor of the Constitution of the Russian Federation and of human and civil rights and freedoms. In accordance with the procedure established by the Constitution of the Russian Federation, he (she) shall adopt measures to protect the sovereignty of the Russian Federation, its independence and State integrity, and shall ensure the coordinated functioning and interaction of State government bodies.[37]
  • Example 10 (presidential republic):Section 87 (Second Division, Chapter 1) of theConstitution of Argentinaprovides that:

Executive role[edit]

In the majority of states, whether republics or monarchies,executive authorityis vested, at least notionally, in the head of state. In presidential systems the head of state is the actual,de factochief executive officer. Under parliamentary systems the executive authority is exercised by the head of state, but in practice is done so on the advice of the cabinet of ministers. This produces such terms as "Her Majesty's Government" and "His Excellency's Government." Examples of parliamentary systems in which the head of state is notional chief executive includeAustralia,Austria,Canada,Denmark,India,Italy,Norway,Spainand theUnited Kingdom.

The few exceptions where the head of state is not even the nominal chief executive - and where supreme executive authority is according to the constitution explicitly vested in a cabinet - include theCzech Republic,Ireland,Israel,JapanandSweden.[12][14]

Appointment of senior officials[edit]

The head of state usually appoints most or all the key officials in the government, including thehead of governmentand other cabinet ministers, key judicial figures; and all major office holders in thecivil service,foreign serviceandcommissioned officers in the military.In many parliamentary systems, the head of government is appointed with the consent (in practice often decisive) of the legislature, and other figures are appointed on the head of government's advice.

In practice, these decisions are often a formality. The last time theprime minister of the United Kingdomwas unilaterally selected by themonarchwas in 1963, when QueenElizabeth IIappointedAlec Douglas-Homeon the advice of outgoing Prime MinisterHarold Macmillan.

In presidential systems, such as that of the United States, appointments are nominated by the president's sole discretion, but this nomination is often subject to confirmation by the legislature; and specifically in the US, theSenatehas to approve senior executive branch and judicial appointments by a simple majority vote.[44]

The head of state may also dismiss office-holders. There are many variants on how this can be done. For example, members of the Irish Cabinet are dismissed by thepresidenton the advice of thetaoiseach;in other instances, the head of state may be able to dismiss an office holder unilaterally; other heads of state, or their representatives, have the theoretical power to dismiss any office-holder, while it is exceptionally rarely used.[16]InFrance,while thepresidentcannot force theprime ministerto tender the resignation of the government, he can, in practice, request it if the prime minister is from his own majority.[45]In presidential systems, the president often has the power to fire ministers at his sole discretion. In the United States, the unwritten convention calls for theheads of the executive departmentsto resign on their own initiative when called to do so.

Some countries have alternative provisions for senior appointments: InSweden,under theInstrument of Government of 1974,theSpeaker of the Riksdaghas the role of formally appointing theprime minister,following a vote in theRiksdag,and the prime minister in turn appoints and dismisses cabinet ministers at his/her sole discretion.[14]

Diplomatic role[edit]

Tekiso Hati, ambassador of theKingdom of Lesotho,presenting his credentials toRussian presidentVladimir Putin
Daniel B. Shapiro,U.S. ambassador to Israel,presents his credentials toIsraeli presidentShimon Pereson 3 August 2011
A 1992letter of credence,written in French, for the Czechoslovakian Ambassador toLithuania,signed by thePresident of Czechoslovakiaand addressed to his Lithuanian counterpart

Although many constitutions, particularly from the 19th century and earlier, make no explicit mention of a head of state in the generic sense of several present day international treaties, the officeholders corresponding to this position are recognised as such by other countries.[11][47]In a monarchy, themonarchis generally understood to be the head of state.[11][48][49] TheVienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations,which codified longstanding custom, operates under the presumption that the head of a diplomatic mission (i.e.ambassadorornuncio) of the sending state is accredited to the head of state of the receiving state.[50][47]The head of state accredits (i.e. formally validates) their country'sambassadors(or rarer equivalent diplomatic mission chiefs, such ashigh commissionerorpapal nuncio) through sending formal aletter of credence(and a Letter of Recall at the end of a tenure) to other heads of state and, conversely, receives the letters of their foreign counterparts.[51]Without that accreditation, the chief of the diplomatic mission cannot take up their role and receive the highest diplomatic status. The role of a head of state in this regard, is codified in the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations from 1961, which (as of 2017) 191 sovereign states hasratified.[47][52]

However, there are provisions in the Vienna Convention that a diplomatic agent of lesser rank, such as achargé d'affaires,is accredited to theminister of foreign affairs(or equivalent).[47]

The head of state is often designated thehigh contracting partyin international treaties on behalf of the state; signs them either personally or has them signed in his/her name by ministers (government members or diplomats); subsequentratification,when necessary, may rest with thelegislature.The treaties constituting theEuropean Unionand theEuropean Communitiesare noteworthy contemporary cases of multilateral treaties cast in this traditional format, as are the accession agreements of new member states.[53][54][55]However, rather than being invariably concluded between two heads of state, it has become common that bilateral treaties are in present times cast in an intergovernmental format, e.g., between theGovernment of X and the Government of Y,rather than betweenHis Majesty the King of X and His Excellency the President of Y.[53]

  • Example 1 (parliamentary monarchy):Article 8 of theConstitution of the Principality of Liechtensteinstates:
    • 1) TheReigning Princeshall represent the State in all its relations with foreign countries, without prejudice to the requisite participation of the responsibleGovernment.
    • 2) Treaties by which territory of the State would be ceded, State property alienated, sovereign rights or prerogatives of the State affected, a new burden imposed on the Principality or its citizens, or an obligation assumed that would limit the rights of the citizens of Liechtenstein shall require the assent ofParliamentto attain legal force.[23]
  • Example 2 (parliamentary republic):Article 59 (1) of theBasic Law of the Federal Republic of Germanystates:
    • TheFederal Presidentshall represent the Federation in its international relations. He shall conclude treaties with foreign states on behalf of the Federation. He shall accredit and receive envoys..[56]
  • Example 3 (semi-presidential republic):Title II, Article 14 of theFrench Constitution of 1958states:
    • ThePresident of the Republicshall accredit ambassadors and envoys extraordinary to foreign powers; foreign ambassadors and envoys extraordinary shall be accredited to him.[45]
  • Example 4 (semi-presidential republic):Chapter 4, Article 86, Section 4 of theConstitution of Russiastates:
    • ThePresident of the Russian Federation:
      • a) shall direct the foreign policy of the Russian Federation;
      • b) shall hold negotiations and sign international treaties of the Russian Federation;
      • c) shall sign instruments of ratification;
      • d) shall receive letters of credence and letters of recall of diplomatic representatives accredited to his (her) office.[37]
  • Example 5 (single party republic):Section 2, Article 81 of theConstitution of the People's Republic of Chinastates:

InCanada,these head of state powers belong to themonarchas part of theroyal prerogative,[58][59][60][61]but theGovernor Generalhas been permitted to exercise them since 1947 and has done so since the 1970s.[61][62]

Military role[edit]

Main article:Commander in Chief
Albert II,King of the Belgiansinspectingtroopson Belgium'snational dayin 2011
Nicolas Sarkozy,President of Franceand GeneralJean-Louis Georgelin,Chief of the Defence Staff,reviewing troops during the 2008Bastille Day military paradeon theChamps-ÉlyséesinParis

A head of state is often, by virtue of holding the highest executive powers, explicitly designated as thecommander-in-chiefof that nation'sarmed forces,holding the highest office in all militarychains of command.

In a constitutional monarchy or non-executive presidency, the head of state mayde jurehold ultimate authority over the armed forces but will only normally, as per either written law or unwritten convention, exercise their authority on the advice of their responsible ministers: meaning that thede factoultimate decision making on military manoeuvres is made elsewhere. The head of state will, regardless of actual authority, perform ceremonial duties related to the country's armed forces, and will sometimes appear in military uniform for these purposes; particularly in monarchies where also the monarch's consort and other members of aroyal familymay also appear in military garb. This is generally the only time a head of state of a stable, democratic country will appear dressed in such a manner, as statesmen and public are eager to assert theprimacy of (civilian, elected) politics over the armed forces.

Inmilitary dictatorships,or governments which have arisen fromcoups d'état,the position of commander-in-chief is obvious, as all authority in such a government derives from the application of military force; occasionally a power vacuum created by war is filled by a head of state stepping beyond the normal constitutional role, as KingAlbert I of Belgiumdid duringWorld War I.In these and in revolutionary regimes, the head of state, and oftenexecutive ministerswhose offices are legally civilian, will frequently appear in military uniform.

Some countries with aparliamentary systemdesignate officials other than the head of state with command-in-chief powers.

The armed forces of theCommunist statesare under the absolute control of theCommunist party.

Legislative roles[edit]

It is usual that the head of state, particularly in parliamentary systems as part of the symbolic role, is the one who opens the annual sessions of the legislature, e.g. the annualState Opening of Parliamentwith theSpeech from the Thronein Britain. Even in presidential systems the head of state often formally reports to the legislature on the present national status, e.g. theState of the Union addressin the United States of America, or the State of the Nation Address in South Africa.

Most countries require that allbillspassed by the house or houses of the legislature be signed into law by the head of state. In some states, such as the United Kingdom, Belgium and Ireland, the head of state is, in fact, formally considered a tier of the legislature. However, in most parliamentary systems, the head of state cannot refuse to sign a bill, and, in granting a bill their assent, indicate that it was passed in accordance with the correct procedures. The signing of a bill into law is formally known aspromulgation.Some monarchical states call this procedureroyal assent.

  • Example 1 (non-executive parliamentary monarchy):Chapter 1, Article 4 of theSwedishRiksdag Actprovides that:
    • The formal opening of aRiksdagsession takes place at a special meeting of the Chamber held no later than the third day of the session. At this meeting, theHead of Statedeclares the session open at the invitation of theSpeaker.If the Head of State is unable to attend, the Speaker declares the session open.[67]
  • Example 2 (parliamentary monarchy):Article 9 of theConstitution of the Principality of Liechtensteinprovides that:
  • Example 3 (parliamentary republic):Section 11.a.1. of theBasic Laws of Israelstates:
  • Example 4 (semi-presidential republic):According to Chapter 4, Article 84 of theConstitution of the Russian Federation:
    • ThePresident of the Russian Federation:
      • a) shall announce elections to theState Dumain accordance with the Constitution of the Russian Federation and federal law;
      • c) shall announce referendums in accordance with the procedure established by federal constitutional law;
      • d) shall submit draft laws to the State Duma;
      • e) shall sign and promulgate federal laws;
      • f) shall address theFederal Assemblywith annual messages on the situation in the country and on the basic objectives of the internal and foreign policy of the State.[37]
  • Example 5 (presidential republic):Article 1, Section 7 of theUnited States Constitutionstates:
  • Example 6 (presidential republic):Article 84 of theBrazilian Constitutionprovides that:
    • ThePresident of the Republicshall have the exclusive power to:
      • III – start the legislative procedure, in the manner and in the cases set forth in this Constitution;
      • IV - sanction, promulgate and order the publication of laws, as well as to issue decrees and regulations for the true enforcement thereof;
      • V - veto bills, wholly or in part;
      • XI - upon the opening of the legislative session, send a government message and plan to theNational Congress,describing the state of the nation and requesting the actions he deems necessary;
      • XXIII - submit to the National Congress the pluriannual plan, the bill of budgetary directives and the budget proposals set forth in this Constitution;
      • XXIV - render, each year, accounts to the National Congress concerning the previous fiscal year, within sixty days of the opening of the legislative session.[43]
  • Example 7 (ruling monarchy):Article 106 of theConstitution of Qatarstates:
    • 1. Any draft law passed by theCouncilshall be referred to theEmirfor ratification.
    • 2. If the Emir, declines to approve the draft law, he shall return it a long with the reasons for such declination to the Council within a period of three months from the date of referral.
    • 3. In the event that a draft law is returned to the Council within the period specified in the preceding paragraph and the Council passes the same once more with a two-thirds majority of all its Members, the Emir shall ratify and promulgate it. The Emir may in compelling circumstances order the suspension of this law for the period that he deems necessary to serve the higher interests of the country. If, however, the draft law is not passed by a two-thirds majority, it shall not be reconsidered within the same term of session.[65]

In some parliamentary systems, the head of state retains certain discretionary powers in relation to bills to be exercised. They may have authority to veto a bill until the houses of the legislature have reconsidered it, and approved it a second time; reserve a bill to be signed later, or suspend it indefinitely (generally in states withroyal prerogative;this power is rarely used); refer a bill to the courts to test its constitutionality; refer a bill to the people in areferendum.

If the head of state also serves as the chief executive, the head of state can politically control the necessary executive measures without which a proclaimed law can remain dead letter, sometimes for years or even forever.

Summoning and dissolving the legislature[edit]

A head of state is often empowered to summon and dissolve the country'slegislature.In mostparliamentary systems,this is often done on the advice of thehead of government.In some parliamentary systems, and in some presidential systems, however, the head of state may do so on their own initiative. Some states have fixed term legislatures, with no option of bringing forward elections (e.g., Article II, Section 3, of theU.S. Constitution[44]). In other systems there are usually fixed terms, but the head of state retains authority to dissolve the legislature in certain circumstances. Where a head of government has lost support in the legislature, some heads of state may refuse a dissolution, where one is requested, thereby forcing the head of government's resignation.

Other prerogatives[edit]

Granting titles and honours[edit]

  • Example 1 (parliamentary monarchy):Article 113 of theConstitution of Belgiumstates:
  • Example 2 (parliamentary monarchy):Article 23 of theConstitution of Norwaystates:
    • TheKingmay bestowordersupon whomever he pleases as a reward for distinguished services, and such orders must be publicly announced, but no rank or title other than that attached to any office. The order exempts no one from the common duties and burdens of citizens, nor does it carry with it any preferential admission to senior official posts in the State. Senior officials honourably discharged from office retain the title and rank of their office. This does not apply, however, to Members of theCouncil of Stateor the State Secretaries.
      No personal, or mixed, hereditary privileges may henceforth be granted to anyone.      [64]
  • Example 3 (parliamentary republic):Title II, Article 87, 8th section of theConstitution of Italystates:

Immunity[edit]

See also:Sovereign immunityandImmunity from prosecution (international law)
  • Example 1 (parliamentary non-executive monarchy):Chapter 5, Article 8 of theSwedish Instrument of Government of 1974states:
    • TheKing or Queenwho is Head of State cannot be prosecuted for his or her actions. Nor can a Regent be prosecuted for his or her actions as Head of State.[14]
  • Example 2 (parliamentary monarchy):Article 5 of theConstitution of Norwaystates:
    • TheKing'sperson is sacred; he cannot be censured or accused. The responsibility rests with hisCouncil.[64]
  • Example 3 (parliamentary republic):Chapter 3, Article 65 of theConstitution of the Czech Republicstates:
    • (1)President of the Republicmay not be detained, subjected to criminal prosecution or prosecuted for offence or other administrative delict.
    • (2) President of the Republic may be prosecuted for high treason at theConstitutional Courtbased on theSenate'ssuit. The punishment may be the loss of his presidential office and of his eligibility to regain it.
    • (3) Criminal prosecution for criminal offences committed by the President of the Republic while executing his office shall be ruled out forever.[69]
  • Example 4 (semi-presidential republic):Title II, Chapter I, Article 130 of theConstitution of Portugalstates:
    • 1. ThePresident of the Republicanswers before theSupreme Court of Justicefor crimes committed in the exercise of his functions.
    • 2. Proceedings may only be initiated by theAssembly of the Republic,upon a motion subscribed by one fifth and a decision passed by a two-thirds majority of all the Members of the Assembly of the Republic in full exercise of their office.
    • 3. Conviction implies removal from office and disqualification from re-election.
    • 4. For crimes that are not committed in the exercise of his functions, the President of the Republic answers before the common courts, once his term of office has ended.[34]
  • Example 5 (executive monarchy):Article 64 of theConstitution of Qatar:
    • TheEmiris the head of State. His person shall be inviolable and he must be respected by all.[65]

Reserve powers[edit]

See also:reserve power
  • Example 1 (semi-presidential republic):Title II, Article 16 of theFrench Constitution of 1958states:
    • Where the institutions of the Republic, the independence of the Nation, the integrity of its territory or the fulfilment of its international commitments are under serious and immediate threat, and where the proper functioning of the constitutional public authorities is interrupted, thePresident of the Republicshall take measures required by these circumstances, after formally consulting thePrime Minister,thePresidents of the Houses of Parliamentand theConstitutional Council.
      He shall address the Nation and inform it of such measures.
      The measures shall be designed to provide the constitutional public authorities as swiftly as possible, with the means to carry out their duties. The Constitutional Council shall be consulted with regard to such measures.
      Parliament shall sit as of right.
      TheNational Assemblyshall not be dissolved during the exercise of such emergency powers.
      After thirty days of the exercise of such emergency powers, the matter may be referred to the Constitutional Council by thePresident of the National Assembly,thePresident of the Senate,sixty Members of the National Assembly or sixtySenators,so as to decide if the conditions laid down in paragraph one still apply. The Council shall make its decision publicly as soon as possible. It shall, as of right, carry out such an examination and shall make its decision in the same manner after sixty days of the exercise of emergency powers or at any moment thereafter.      [45]
  • Example 2 (executive monarchy):Articles 69 & 70 of theConstitution of Qatar:
    • Article 69
      • TheEmirmay, be a decree, declareMartial Lawsin the country in the event of exceptional cases specified by the law; and in such cases, he may take all urgent necessary measures to counter any threat that undermine the safety of the State, the integrity of its territories or the security of its people and interests or obstruct the organs of the State from performing their duties. However, the decree must specify the nature of such exceptional cases for which the martial laws have been declared and clarify the measures taken to address this situation.Al-Shoura Councilshall be notified of this decree within the fifteen days following its issue; and in the event that the Council is not in session for any reason whatsoever, the Council shall be notified of the decree at its first convening. Martial laws shall be declared for a limited period and the same shall not be extended unless approved by Al-Shoura Council.
    • Article 70
      • The Emir may, in the event of exceptional cases that require measures of utmost urgency which necessitate the issue of special laws and in case that Al-Shoura Council is not in session, issue pertinent decrees that have the power of law. Such decree-laws shall be submitted to Al-Shoura Council at its first meeting; and the Council may within a maximum period of forty days from the date of submission and with a two-thirds majority of its Members reject any of these decree-laws or request amendment thereof to be effected within a specified period of time; such decree-laws shall cease to have the power of law from the date of their rejection by the Council or where the period for effecting the amendments have expired.[65]

Right of pardon[edit]

See also:Pardon
  • Example 1 (parliamentary monarchy):Section 24 of theConstitution of Denmarkstates:
    • TheKingcan grant pardons and amnesties. He may only pardonMinistersconvicted by the Court of Impeachment with the consent ofParliament.[39]
  • Example 2 (parliamentary republic):According to Chapter V, Article 60(2) of theBasic Law of the Federal Republic of Germany:
    • He [The President] shall exercise the power to pardon individual offenders on behalf of the Federation.[56]
  • Example 3 (semi-presidential republic):Title II, Article 17 of theFrench Constitution of 1958states:
  • Example 4 (presidential republic):Article II, Section 2 of theConstitution of the United Statesprovides that:
    • ...and he [The President] shall have Power to grant Reprieves and Pardons for Offences against the United States, except in Cases ofImpeachment.[44]
  • Example 5 (presidential parliamentary republic):Part XI, Article 80 of theConstitution of Nauru:
    • ThePresidentmay-
      • (a) grant a pardon, either free or subject to lawful conditions, to a person convicted of an offence;
      • (b) grant to a person arespite,either indefinite or for a specified period, of the execution of a punishment imposed on that person for an offence;
      • (c) substitute a less severe form of punishment for any punishment imposed on a person for an offence; or
      • (d) remit the whole or a part of a punishment imposed on a person for an offence or of a penalty or forfeiture on account of an offence.[26]

Official title[edit]

In arepublic,the head of state nowadays usually bears the title ofPresident,but some have or have had other titles.[11][48]Titles commonly used by monarchs areKing/QueenorEmperor/Empress,but also many other; e.g.,Grand Duke,Prince,EmirandSultan.

Thoughpresidentand various monarchical titles are most commonly used for heads of state, in some nationalistic regimes, the leader adopts, formally or de facto, a unique style simply meaning leader in the national language, e.g., Germany's singlenational socialist party chiefand combined head of state and government,Adolf Hitler,as theFührerbetween 1934 and 1945.

In 1959, when formerBritishcrown colonySingaporegained self-government, it adopted the Malay styleYang di-Pertuan Negara( "head of state" inMalay) for its governor (the actual head of state remained the British monarch). The second and last incumbent of the office,Yusof bin Ishak,kept the style at 31 August 1963 unilateral declaration of independence and after 16 September 1963 accession toMalaysiaas a state (so now as a constituent part of the federation, a non-sovereign level). After its expulsion from Malaysia on 9 August 1965, Singapore became a sovereignCommonwealth republicand installed Yusof bin Ishak as its first president.

In 1959 after the resignation ofVice PresidentMohammad Hatta,PresidentSukarnoabolished the position and title of vice-president, assuming the positions of Prime Minister and Head of Cabinet. He also proclaimed himselfpresident for life(Indonesian:Presiden Seumur Hidup Panglima Tertinggi;"panglima"meaning" commander or martial figurehead ","tertinggi"meaning" highest "; roughly translated to English as" Supreme Commander of the Revolution "). He was praised as"Paduka Yang Mulia",aMalay honorificoriginally given to kings; Sukarno awarded himself titles in that fashion due to his noble ancestry.

There are also a few nations in which the exact title and definition of the office of head of state have been vague. During the ChineseCultural Revolution,following the downfall ofChinese PresidentLiu Shaoqi,no successor was named, so the duties of the head of state were transferred collectively to theVice PresidentsSoong Ching-lingandDong Biwu,then to theStanding Committee of the National People's Congress,butChairmanMao Zedongwas still theparamount leader.This situation was later changed: thePresident of the People's Republic of Chinais now the head of state. Although the presidency is a largelyceremonial officewith limited power, the symbolic role of a head of state is now generally performed byXi Jinping,who is alsoGeneral Secretary of the Communist Party(Communist Party leader) andChairman of the Central Military Commission(Supreme Military Command), making him themost powerful personin China.

In North Korea, the lateKim Il Sungwas named "Eternal President"four years after his death and thepresidencywas abolished. As a result, some of the duties previously held by the president were constitutionally delegated to theChairman of the Standing Committee of the Supreme People's Assembly,who performs some of the roles of a head of state, such as accrediting foreign ambassadors and undertaking overseas visits. However, thede jurerole of head of state lies within thePresident of the State Affairs Commission,currentlyKim Jong Un,who as theGeneral Secretary of the Workers' Party of KoreaandSupreme Commander of the Armed Forces of North Korea,is themost powerful personin North Korea.

There is debate as to whetherSamoawas anelective monarchyor anaristocratic republic,given the comparative ambiguity of the titleO le Ao o le Maloand the nature of the head of state's office.

In some states the office of head of state is not expressed in a specific title reflecting that role, but constitutionally awarded to a post of another formal nature. ColonelMuammar Gaddafiinitially ruled as combined head of state and briefly head of government of theLibyan Arab Republic,styled as Chairman of the Revolutionary Command Council. In 1977, the LibyanJamahiriya( "state of the masses" ) replaced the previous republic, and in March 1979 the role of head of state was transferred to the Secretary-General of the General People's Congress (comparable to a Speaker); in practice however Gaddafi remained thede factoleader as "Guide of the Revolution" untilhis overthrowin 2011.

Sometimes a head of state assumes office as a state becomes legal and political reality, before a formal title for the highest office is determined; thus in the since 1 January 1960 independent republicCameroon(Cameroun,a former French colony), the first president,Ahmadou Babatoura Ahidjo,was at first not styledprésidentbut 'merely' known aschef d'état(French for "head of state" ) until 5 May 1960. InUganda,Idi Aminthe military leader after the coup of 25 January 1971 was formally styledmilitary head of statetill 21 February 1971, only from then on as regular (but unconstitutional, unelected) president.

In certain cases a special style is needed to accommodate imperfect statehood, e.g., the titleSadr-i-Riyasatwas used in Kashmir after its accession to India, and thePalestine Liberation Organizationleader,Yasser Arafat,was styled the first "President of thePalestinian National Authority"in 1994. In 2008, the same office was restyled as"President of the State of Palestine".[70]

Historical European perspectives[edit]

  • Thepolisin Greek Antiquity and the equivalent city states in the feudal era and later, (many in Italy, theHoly Roman Empire,the MoorishtaifainIberia,essentially tribal-type but urbanised regions throughout the world in theMaya civilisation,etc.) offer a wide spectrum of styles, either monarchic (mostly identical to homonyms in larger states) or republican, seeChief magistrate.
  • Dogeswere elected by their Italian aristocratic republics from a patrician nobility, but "reigned" as sovereign dukes.
  • The paradoxical termcrowned republicrefers to various state arrangements that combine "republican" and "monarchic" characteristics.
  • TheNetherlandshistorically had officials calledstadholdersandstadholders-general,titles meaning "lieutenant" or "governor", originally for theHabsburgmonarchs.

In medieval Catholic Europe, it was universally accepted that thePoperanked first among all rulers and was followed by theHoly Roman Emperor.[71]The Pope also had the sole right to determine the precedence of all others.[71][72]This principle was first challenged by a Protestant ruler,Gustavus Adolphus of Swedenand was later maintained by his country at theCongress of Westphalia.[71]Great Britain would later claim a break of the old principle for theQuadruple Alliancein 1718.[71][note 2]However, it was not until the1815 Congress of Vienna,when it was decided (due to the abolition of theHoly Roman Empirein 1806 and the weak position of France and other catholic states to assert themselves) and remains so to this day, that all sovereign states are treated as equals, whether monarchies or republics.[74]On occasions when multiple heads of state or their representatives meet, precedence is by the host usually determined in Alpha betical order (in whatever language the host determines, althoughFrenchhas for much of the 19th and 20th centuries been thelingua francaof diplomacy) or by date of accession.[74]Contemporary international law on precedence, built upon the universally admitted principles since 1815, derives from theVienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations(in particular, articles 13, 16.1 and Appendix iii).[75]

  • European writers of 16th and 17th centuries
  • Title page of 1550 Italian edition of Machiavelli's The Prince
    Title page of 1550 Italian edition of Machiavelli'sThe Prince
  • Bodin named on title page of Discorsi politici (1602) by Fabio Albergati who compared Bodin's political theories unfavourably with those of Aristotle
    Bodin named on title page ofDiscorsi politici(1602) byFabio Albergatiwho compared Bodin's political theories unfavourably with those of Aristotle
  • Frontispiece of Thomas Hobbes' Leviathan (1651)
    Frontispiece ofThomas Hobbes'Leviathan(1651)

Niccolò MachiavelliusedPrince(Italian:Principe) as a generic term for the ruler, similar to contemporary usage ofhead of state,in his classicaltreatiseThe Prince,originally published in 1532: in fact that particular literarygenreit belongs to is known asMirrors for princes.Thomas Hobbesin hisLeviathan(1651) used the termSovereign.InEuropethe role of a monarchs has gradually transitioned from that of a sovereign ruler—in the sense ofDivine Right of Kingsas articulated byJean Bodin,Absolutismand the "L'etat c'est moi"—to that of a constitutional monarch; parallel with the conceptual evolution ofsovereigntyfrom merely the personal rule of a single person, toWestphalian sovereignty(Peace of Westphaliaending both theThirty Years' War&Eighty Years' War) andpopular sovereigntyas inconsent of the governed;as shown in theGlorious Revolutionof 1688 inEngland&Scotland,theFrench Revolutionin 1789, and theGerman Revolution of 1918–1919.The monarchies who survived through this era were the ones who were willing to subject themselves to constitutional limitations.

Interim and exceptional cases[edit]

Whenever a head of state is not available for any reason, constitutional provisions may allow the role to fall temporarily to an assigned person or collective body. In a republic, this is - depending on provisions outlined by the constitution or improvised - avice-president,the chief of government, the legislature or its presiding officer. In a monarchy, this is usually aregentor collegial regency (council). For example, in the United States the vice-president acts when the president is incapacitated, and in the United Kingdom the monarch's powers may be delegated tocounselors of statewhen they are abroad or unavailable. Neither of the twoco-princes of Andorrais resident in Andorra; each is represented in Andorra by a delegate, though these persons hold no formal title.

There are also several methods ofhead of state successionin the event of the removal, disability or death of an incumbent head of state.

In exceptional situations, such as war, occupation, revolution or acoup d'état,constitutional institutions, including the symbolically crucial head of state, may be reduced to a figurehead or be suspended in favour of an emergency office (such as the original Romandictator) or eliminated by a new "provisionary" regime, such as a collective of thejuntatype, or removed by an occupying force, such as amilitary governor(an early example being theSpartanHarmost).[citation needed]

Shared head of multiple states[edit]

In early modern Europe, a single person was often monarch simultaneously of separate states. Acomposite monarchyis a retrospective label for those cases where the states were governed entirely separately. Of contemporary terms, apersonal unionhad less government co-ordination than areal union.One of the twoco-princes of Andorrais thepresident of France.

Such arrangements are not to be confused with supranational entities which are not states and are not defined by a common monarchy but may (or not) have a symbolic, essentially protocollary, titled highest office, e.g.,Head of the Commonwealth(held by the British monarch, but not legally reserved for it) or 'Head of the Arab Union' (14 February - 14 July 1958, held by theKing of Iraq,duringits short-lived Hashemite federationwithJordan).

Commonwealth realms[edit]

Main article:Governor-general § Modern Commonwealth

The Lord Tweedsmuir(left) wasGovernor General of Canadafrom 1935 to 1940;
SirPaulias Matane(right) wasGovernor-General of Papua New Guineafrom 2004 to 2010

TheCommonwealth realmsshare a monarch, currentlyCharles III.In the realms other than the United Kingdom, a governor-general (governor generalin Canada) is appointed by the sovereign, usually on the advice of the relevant prime minister (although sometimes it is based on the result of a vote in the relevant parliament, which is the case forPapua New Guineaand theSolomon Islands), as a representative and to exercise almost all theroyal prerogativeaccording to established constitutional authority. In Australia the present king is generally assumed to be head of state, since the governor-general and the state governors are defined as his "representatives".[76]However, since the governor-general performs almost all national regal functions, the governor-general has occasionallybeen referred to as head of statein political and media discussion. To a lesser extent, uncertainty has been expressedin Canadaas to which officeholder—the monarch, the governor general, or both—can be considered the head of state. New Zealand,[31]Papua New Guinea,[77]andTuvalu[78]explicitly name the monarch as their head of state (though Tuvalu's constitution states that "references in any law to the Head of State shall be read as including a reference to the governor-general"[79]). Governors-general are frequently treated as heads of state on state and official visits; at theUnited Nations,they are accorded the status of head of state in addition to the sovereign.[11]

An example of a governor-general departing fromconstitutional conventionby acting unilaterally (that is, without direction from ministers, parliament, or the monarch) occurred in 1926, whenCanada's governor generalrefused the head of government's formal advicerequesting a dissolution of parliament and a general election. In a letter informing the monarch after the event, the Governor General said: "I have to await the verdict of history to prove my having adopted a wrong course, and this I do with an easy conscience that, right or wrong, I have acted in the interests of Canada and implicated no one else in my decision."

Another example occurred when, in the1975 Australian constitutional crisis,the governor-general unexpectedly dismissed the prime minister in order to break a stalemate between the House of Representatives and Senate over money bills. The governor-general issued a public statement saying he felt it was the only solution consistent with the constitution, his oath of office, and his responsibilities, authority, and duty as governor-general.[80]A letter from the queen'sprivate secretaryat the time,Martin Charteris,confirmed that the only person competent to commission an Australian prime minister was the governor-general and it would not be proper for the monarch to personally intervene in matters that the Constitution Act so clearly places within the governor-general's jurisdiction.[81]

Other Commonwealth realms that are now constituted with a governor-general as theviceregal representative of Charles IIIare:Antigua and Barbuda,the Bahamas,Belize,Grenada,Jamaica,New Zealand,Saint Kitts and Nevis,Saint Lucia,andSaint Vincent and the Grenadines.

Religious heads of state[edit]

Francis,from March 2013 thesovereign of the Vatican City State,anex officiorole of thePope

Sinceantiquity,variousdynastiesor individual rulers have claimed the right to rule by divine authority, such as theMandate of Heavenand thedivine right of kings.Some monarchs even claimed divine ancestry, such as EgyptianpharaohsandSapa Incas,who claimed descent from their respective sun gods and often sought to maintain this bloodline by practisingincestuous marriage.InAncient Rome,during thePrincipate,the titledivus('divine') was conferred (notably posthumously) on theemperor,a symbolic,legitimatingelement in establishing ade factodynasty.

Christianity[edit]

InRoman Catholicism,thepopewas once sovereign pontiff and head of state, first, of the politically importantPapal States.AfterItalian unification,the pope remains head of state ofVatican City.Furthermore, thebishop of Urgellisex officioone of the twoco-princes of Andorra.In theChurch of England,the reigning monarch holds the titleDefender of the Faithand acts as supreme governor of the Church of England, although this is purely a symbolic role.

Islam[edit]

Abdulmecid IIis the150thand lastCaliph of IslamfromOttoman dynasty

During theearly period of Islam,caliphswere spiritual and temporal absolute successors ofMuhammad.Various political Muslim leaders since have styled themselvesCaliphand served as dynastic heads of state, sometimes in addition to another title, such as theOttoman Sultan.Historically, sometheocraticIslamic states known asimamateshave been led byimamsas head of state, such as in what is nowOman,Yemen,andSaudi Arabia.

In theIslamic Republic of Iran,theSupreme Leader,at presentAli Khameneiserves ashead of state.TheAga Khans,a unique dynasty of temporal/religious leadership, leading theNizarioffshoot ofShia Islamin Central and South Asia, once ranking among British India'sprincely states,continue to the present day.

Hinduism[edit]

InHinduism,certain dynasties adopted a title expressing their positions as "servant" of a patron deity of the state, but in the sense of aviceroyunder an absenteegod-king,ruling "in the name of" the patron god(ess), such asPadmanabha Dasa(servant of Vishnu) in the case of theMaharajaofTravancore.

Buddhism[edit]

From the time of the5th Dalai Lamauntil the political retirement of the14th Dalai Lamain 2011, Dalai Lamas were both political and spiritual leaders ( "god-king" ) ofTibet.

Outer Mongolia,the former homeland of the imperial dynasty ofGenghis Khan,was anotherlamaisttheocracy from 1585, using various styles, such astulku.The establishment of theCommunistMongolian People's Republicreplaced thisregimein 1924.

Multiple or collective heads of state[edit]

See also:Directorial systemandCategory:Collective heads of state

Sometimes multiple individuals are co-equal heads of state, or acorporate personembodies the functions of head of state. In some casesprecedencerotates among the members of the collective as the term of office progresses. Of multiple royal systems, adiarchy,in which two rulers is the constitutional norm, may be distinguished from acoregency,in which a monarchy experiences an exceptional period of multiple rulers. Examples of collective republican systems include nominaltriumvirates;theFrench Directoryof the 1790s; the seven-memberSwiss Federal Council,where each member acts in turn asPresidentfor one year; thePresidency of Bosnia and Herzegovinawith members from three nations; the twoCaptains RegentofSan Marino,which maintains the tradition of Italian medieval republics that had always had an even number of consuls.

In theRoman Republicthere were two heads of state, styledconsul,both of whom alternated months of authority during their year in office, similarly there was an even number of supreme magistrates in the Italic republics of Ancient Age. In theAthenian Republicthere were nine supreme magistrates, styledarchons.InCarthagethere were two supreme magistrates, styled kings orsuffetes(judges). In ancientSpartathere were two hereditary kings, belonging to two dynasties.

In theSoviet Union,thePresidiumof theSupreme Soviet(between 1938 and 1989) served as thecollective head of state.[82]After World War II the Soviet model was subsequently adopted by almost all countries belonged to itssphere of influence.Czechoslovakiaremained the only country among them that retained an office of president as a form of a single head of state throughout this period;PolandandHungary,which initially had western-style constitutions (and therefore, western-style presidencies), switched to the presidium model with the adoption of new Soviet-influenced constitutions;Romania,which was a monarchy before the Soviet takeover, was the only country to move to a unitary presidency from a collective head of state, a move done by dictatorNicolae Ceausescuin 1974.[83]

A modern example of a collective head of state is theSovereignty Council of Sudan,the interim ruling council ofSudan.The Sovereignty Council comprises 11 ministers, who together have exercised all governmental functions for Sudan since the fall of PresidentOmar Al-Bashir.Decisions are made either by consensus or by a super majority vote (8 members).

TheNational Government of the Republic of China,established in 1928, had a panel of about 40 people as collective head of state. Though beginning that year, a provisional constitution made theKuomintangthesole government partyand the National Government bound to the instructions of the Central Executive Committee of that party.

Legitimacy[edit]

The position of head of state can be established in different ways, and with different sources of legitimacy.

By fiction or fiat[edit]

Power can come from force, but formallegitimacyis often established, even if only by fictitious claims of continuity (e.g., a forged claim of descent from a previousdynasty). There have been cases of sovereignty granted by deliberate act, even when accompanied byorders of succession(as may be the case in a dynastic split). Such grants of sovereignty are usually forced, as is common withself-determinationgranted afternationalistrevolts. This occurred with the lastAttalidking of HellenisticPergamon,who by testament left his realm to Rome to avoid a disastrous conquest.

By divine appointment[edit]

Under a theocracy, perceived divine status translated into earthly authority underdivine law.This can take the form of supreme divine authority above the state's, granting a tool for political influence to apriesthood.In this way, theAmunpriesthood reversed the reforms of PharaohAkhenatenafter his death. The division of theocratic power can be disputed, as happened between the Pope andHoly Roman Emperorin theinvestitureconflict when the temporal power sought to control key clergy nominations in order to guarantee popular support, and thereby his own legitimacy, by incorporating the formal ceremony ofunctionduringcoronation.

By social contract[edit]

The notion of asocial contractholds that the nation—either the whole people or theelectorate—gives a mandate, through acclamation orelection.

By constitution[edit]

Individual heads of state may acquire their position by virtue of aconstitution.An example is theSeychelles,as the1976 Independence Constitution of the Seychelles,Article 31, stated thatJames Manchamwould be the first President of the Republic by name, rather than by the fact he was the Prime Minister of colonial Seychelles immediately before independence.[84]

By hereditary succession[edit]

Absolute cognatic primogeniture diagram. Legend:
  • Grey: incumbent
  • Square: male
  • Circle: female
  • Black: deceased
  • Diagonal: cannot be displaced

The position of a monarch is usuallyhereditary,but inconstitutional monarchies,there are usually restrictions on the incumbent's exercise of powers and prohibitions on the possibility of choosing a successor by other means than by birth. In a hereditary monarchy, the position of monarch is inherited according to a statutory or customaryorder of succession,usually within oneroyal familytracing its origin through a historicaldynastyor bloodline. This usually means that the heir to the throne is known well in advance of becoming monarch to ensure a smooth succession. However, many cases of uncertain succession in European history have often led towars of succession.

Primogeniture,in which the eldest child of the monarch is first in line to become monarch, is the most common system in hereditary monarchy. The order of succession is usually affected by rules on gender. Historically "agnatic primogeniture" or "patrilineal primogeniture" was favoured, that is inheritance according to seniority of birth among the sons of a monarch orhead of family,with sons and their male issue inheriting before brothers and their male issue, to the total exclusion of females and descendants through females from succession.[85]This complete exclusion of females from dynastic succession is commonly referred to as application of theSalic law.Another variation on agnatic primogeniture was the so-called semi-Salic law, or "agnatic-cognatic primogeniture", which allowed women to succeed only at the extinction of all the male descendants in the male line of the particular legislator.[85][86]

Before primogeniture was enshrined in European law and tradition, kings would often secure the succession by having their successor (usually their eldest son) crowned during their own lifetime, so for a time there would be two kings incoregency– a senior king and a junior king. Examples includeHenry the Young Kingof England and the earlyDirect Capetiansin France.

Sometimes, however, primogeniture can operate through the female line. In some systems a female may rule as monarch only when the male line dating back to a common ancestor is exhausted. In 1980,Sweden,by rewriting its1810 Act of Succession,became the first monarchy to declare equal (full cognatic) primogeniture, meaning that the eldest child of the monarch, whether female or male, ascends to the throne.[87]Other European monarchies (such as theNetherlandsin 1983,Norwayin 1990 andBelgiumin 1991) have since followed suit. Similar reformswere proposed in 2011for theUnited Kingdomand the otherCommonwealth realms,which came into effect in 2015 after having been approved by all of the affected nations. Sometimesreligionis affected; under theAct of Settlement 1701allRoman Catholicsand all persons who have married Roman Catholics are ineligible to be theBritish monarchand are skipped in the order of succession.

In some monarchies there may be liberty for the incumbent, or some body convening after the death of the monarch, to choose from eligible members of theruling house,often limited tolegitimatedescendants of the dynasty's founder. Rules of succession may be further limited bystate religion,residency,equal marriageor even permission from thelegislature.

Other hereditary systems of succession includedtanistry,which is semi-elective and gives weight to merit andAgnatic seniority.In some monarchies, such asSaudi Arabia,succession to the throne usually first passes to the monarch's next eldest brother, and only after that to the monarch's children (agnatic seniority).

By election[edit]

Countries where theelectoral systemdirectly elects their head of state, by type
Two-round system(majority voting)
First-past-the-post(plurality voting)
Instant-runoff voting(ranked-choice majority voting)

Election usually is the constitutional way to choose the head of state of a republic, and some monarchies, either directly through popular election, indirectly by members of the legislature or of a special college ofelectors(such as theElectoral Collegein theUnited States), or as an exclusive prerogative. Exclusive prerogative allows the heads of states of constituent monarchies of a federation to choose the head of state for the federation among themselves, as in theUnited Arab EmiratesandMalaysia.The Pope, head of state of Vatican City, is chosen by previously appointedcardinalsunder 80 years of age from among themselves in apapal conclave.

By appointment[edit]

A head of state can be empowered to designate his successor, such asLord Protector of the CommonwealthOliver Cromwell,who was succeeded by his sonRichard.

By force or revolution[edit]

A head of state may seize power by force orrevolution.This is not the same as the use of force tomaintainpower, as is practised byauthoritarianortotalitarianrulers. Dictators often use democratic titles, though some proclaim themselves monarchs. Examples of the latter include EmperorNapoleon I of Franceand KingZog of Albania.In Spain, generalFrancisco Francoadopted the formal titleJefe del Estado,or Chief of State, and established himself asregentfor a vacant monarchy. Uganda'sIdi Aminwas one of several who named themselvesPresident for Life.

By foreign imposition[edit]

A foreign power can establishing a branch of their own dynasty, or one friendly to their interests. This was often the outcome of the wars fought between theRoman Empireand theParthian Empireover control ofArmenia,a vitalbuffer statebetween the two realms. TheRoman–Parthian War of 58–63ended with a compromise: a Parthian prince of theArsacidline would henceforth sit on the Armenian throne, but his nomination had to be approved by theRoman emperor.[88]

Loss[edit]

Apart from violent overthrow, a head of state's position can be lost in several ways, including death, another by expiration of the constitutional term of office,abdication,or resignation. In some cases, an abdication cannot occur unilaterally, but comes into effect only when approved by an act of parliament, as in the case of British KingEdward VIII.The post can also be abolished by constitutional change; in such cases, an incumbent may be allowed to finish their term. Of course, a head of state position will cease to exist if the state itself does.

Heads of state generally enjoy widest inviolability, although some states allowimpeachment,or a similar constitutional procedure by which the highest legislative or judicial authorities are empowered to revoke the head of state's mandate on exceptional grounds. This may be a common crime, a political sin, or an act by which the head of state violates such provisions as an established religion mandatory for the monarch. By similar procedure, an original mandate may be declared invalid.

Former heads of state[edit]

The National Monument toEmperor Wilhelm Iin Berlin, Germany, dedicated 1897, nearly 10 years after his death. The monument was destroyed by the communist government in 1950.[89]

Effigies,memorialsandmonumentsof former heads of state can be designed to represent the history or aspirations of a state or its people, such as the equestrian bronze sculpture ofKaiser Wilhelm I,first Emperor of a unified Germany[89]erected in Berlin at the end of the nineteenth century; or theVictoria Memorialerected in front ofBuckingham PalaceLondon, commemorating Queen Victoria and her reign (1837–1901), and unveiled in 1911 by her grandson, KingGeorge V;or themonument,placed in front of the Victoria Memorial Hall, Kolkata (Calcutta) (1921), commemorating Queen Victoria's reign asEmpress of Indiafrom 1876.[90]Another, twentieth century, example is theMount RushmoreNational Memorial, a group sculpture constructed (1927–1941) on a conspicuous skyline in theBlack HillsofSouth Dakota(40th state of the Union, 1889), in themidwestern United States,representing the territorial expansion of the United States in the first 130 years from its founding, which is promoted as the "Shrine ofDemocracy".[91][92]

Personal influence or privileges[edit]

Former presidents of the United States, while holding no political powersper se,sometimes continue to exert influence in national and world affairs.

A monarch may retain his style and certain prerogatives after abdication, as did KingLeopold III of Belgium,who left the throne to his son after winning a referendum which allowed him to retain a full royal household deprived him of a constitutional or representative role.Napoleontransformed the Italian principality ofElba,where he was imprisoned, into a miniature version of his First Empire, with most trappings of a sovereign monarchy, until hisCent Joursescape and reseizure of power in France convinced his opponents, reconvening theVienna Congressin 1815, to revoke his gratuitous privileges and send him to die inexileon barrenSaint Helena.

By tradition, deposed monarchs who have not freely abdicated continue to use their monarchical titles as acourtesyfor the rest of their lives. Hence, even afterConstantine IIceased to beKing of the Hellenes,it is still common to refer to the deposed king and his family as if Constantine II were still on the throne, as many European royal courts and households do in guest lists at royal weddings, as inSweden in 2010,Britain in 2011andLuxembourg in 2012.[93][94][95]The currentHellenic Republicopposes the right of their deposed monarch andformer royal family membersto be referred to by their former titles or bearing a surname indicating royal status, and has enacted legislation which hinders acquisition ofGreek citizenshipunless those terms are met. The former king brought this issue, along with property ownership issues, before theEuropean Court of Human Rightsfor alleged violations of theEuropean Convention on Human Rights,but lost with respect to the name issue.[96][97]

However, some other states have no problem with deposed monarchs being referred to by their former title, and even allow them to travel internationally on the state'sdiplomatic passport.

The Italian constitution provides that a former president of the Republic takes the title President Emeritus of the Italian Republic and he or she is also a senator for life, and enjoys immunity, flight status and official residences certain privileges.

See also[edit]

Lists[edit]

Notes[edit]

  1. ^It is listed as such in the current Constitution; it is thus equivalent to organs such as theState Council,rather than to offices such as that of thePremier.
  2. ^On the occasion of a royal marriage in 1760, thepremier of Portugal,theMarquis of Pombal,tried to maintain that the host, theKing of Portugal,should as a crowned head have the sovereign right to determine the precedence of how ambassadors (apart from the papal nuncio and the imperial ambassador) would rank, based on the date of their credentials. The pragmatic suggestions of Pombal was not successful, and as the pretensions among the great powers were so deep-rooted, it would take theNapoleonic Warsfor the great powers to have a fresh look at the issue.[73]

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Bibliography[edit]

External links[edit]

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