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Heresy

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Not to be confused withhearsay.
"Heretic", "heretical", and "heresies" redirect here. For the website, seeHeretical (website).For other uses, seeHeretic (disambiguation)andHeresy (disambiguation).
The Gospeltriumphs over Heresia and theSerpent.Gustaf Vasa Church,Stockholm, Sweden,sculpture byBurchard Precht.
A statue inViennaportrayingSaint Ignatius of Loyolatrampling on a heretic
The burning of thepantheisticAmalricianheretics in 1210, in the presence of KingPhilip II Augustus.In the background is theGibbet of Montfauconand, anachronistically, theGrosse Tourof theTemple.Illumination from theGrandes Chroniques de France,c. AD 1455–1460.

Heresyis any belief or theory that is strongly at variance with established beliefs or customs, particularly the accepted beliefs orreligious lawof a religious organization.[1][2]Ahereticis a proponent of heresy.[1]

Heresy inChristianity,Judaism,andIslamhas at times been met with censure ranging fromexcommunicationto the death penalty.[3]

Heresy is distinct fromapostasy,which is the explicit renunciation of one's religion, principles or cause;[4]and fromblasphemy,which is an impious utterance or action concerning God or sacred things.[5]Heresiologyis the study of heresy.

Etymology

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Derived fromAncient Greekhaíresis(αἵρεσις), the Englishheresyoriginally meant "choice" or "thing chosen".[6]However, it came to mean the "party, or school, of a man's choice",[7]and also referred to that process whereby a young person would examine various philosophies to determine how to live.[citation needed]

The wordheresyis usually used within a Christian, Jewish, or Islamic context, and implies slightly different meanings in each. The founder or leader of a heretical movement is called aheresiarch,while individuals who espouse heresy or commit heresy are known asheretics.

Christianity

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Former German CatholicfriarMartin Lutherwas famously excommunicated as a heretic byPope Leo Xby hispapal bullDecet Romanum Pontificemin 1520. To this day, the papal decree has not been rescinded.
Main article:Heresy in Christianity

According toTitus 3:10 a divisive person should be warned twice before separating from him. The Greek for the phrase "divisive person" became a technical term in the early Church for a type of "heretic" who promoted dissension.[8]In contrast, correct teaching is called sound not only because it builds up the faith, but because it protects it against the corrupting influence of false teachers.[9]

Tertullian(c. AD 155–240) implied that it was the Jews who most inspired heresy in Christianity: "From the Jew the heretic has accepted guidance in this discussion [thatJesus was not the Christ]. "[10]

The use of the wordheresywas given wide currency byIrenaeusin his 2nd-century tractContra Haereses(Against Heresies) to describe and discredit his opponents during the early centuries of the Christian community. He described the community's beliefs and doctrines asorthodox(fromὀρθός,orthos,"straight" or "correct" +δόξα,doxa,"belief" ) and theGnostics' teachings as heretical.[citation needed]He also invoked the concept ofapostolic successionto support his arguments.[11]

Constantine the Great,who along withLiciniushad decreed toleration of Christianity in the Roman Empire by what is commonly called theEdict of Milan,[12]and was the first Roman Emperor baptized, set precedents for later policy. By Roman law the Emperor wasPontifex Maximus,the high priest of theCollege of Pontiffs(Collegium Pontificum)of all recognized religions inancient Rome.To put an end to the doctrinal debate initiated byArius,Constantine called the first of what would afterwards be called theecumenical councils[13]and then enforced orthodoxy by Imperial authority.[14]

The first known usage of the term in a legal context was in AD 380 by theEdict of ThessalonicaofTheodosius I,[15]which made Christianity thestate church of the Roman Empire.Prior to the issuance of this edict, the Church had no state-sponsored support for any particular legal mechanism to counter what it perceived as "heresy". By this edict the state's authority and that of the Church became somewhat overlapping. One of the outcomes of this blurring of Church and state was the sharing of state powers of legal enforcement with church authorities.

Within six years of the official criminalization of heresy by the Emperor, the first Christian heretic to be executed,Priscillian,was condemned in 386 by Roman secular officials for sorcery, and put to death with four or five followers.[16][17][18]However, his accusers were excommunicated both by Ambrose of Milan and by Pope Siricius,[19]who opposed Priscillian's heresy, but "believed capital punishment to be inappropriate at best and usually unequivocally evil."[16]The edict ofTheodosius II(435) provided severe punishments for those who had or spread writings of Nestorius.[20]Those who possessed writings of Arius were sentenced to death.[21]

In the 7th-century textConcerning Heresy,Saint John of DamascusnamedIslamas Christological heresy, referring to it as the "heresy of the Ishmaelites" (seemedieval Christian views on Muhammad).[22]The position remained popular in Christian circles well into the 20th century, by theologians such as the Congregationalist clericFrank Hugh Fosterand the Roman Catholic historianHilaire Belloc,the latter describing it as "the great and enduring heresy of Mohammed."[23][24]

For some years after theReformation,Protestant churches were also known to execute those they considered heretics; for example,Michael Servetuswas declared a heretic by both theReformed ChurchandCatholic Churchfor rejecting the Christian doctrine of theHoly Trinity.[25]The last known heretic executed by sentence of the Catholic Church was Spanish schoolmasterCayetano Ripollin 1826. The number of people executed as heretics under the authority of the various "ecclesiastical authorities"[note 1]is not known.[note 2]

Although less common than in earlier periods, in modern times, formal charges of heresy within Christian churches still occur. Issues in the Protestant churches have included modern biblical criticism and the nature of God. In the Catholic Church, theCongregation for the Doctrine of the Faithcriticizes writings for "ambiguities and errors" without using the word "heresy."[31]

On 11 July 2007,Pope Benedict XVIstated that some Protestant groups are "ecclesial communities" rather than Churches.[32]Representatives of some of these Christian denominations accused the Vatican of effectively calling them heretics.[33][34]However, Pope BenedictXVI clarified that the phrase "ecclesial community" did not necessitate explicit heresy, but only that the communities lacked certain "essential elements" of an apostolic church, as he had written in the documentDominus Iesus.

Catholicism

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Main article:Heresy in the Catholic Church
Massacre of theWaldensiansofMérindolin 1545.

In theCatholic Church,obstinate and willful manifest heresy is considered to spiritually cut one off from the Church, even beforeexcommunicationis incurred. TheCodex Justinianus(1:5:12) defines "everyone who is not devoted to the Catholic Church and to our Orthodox holy Faith" a heretic.[35]The Church had always dealt harshly with strands of Christianity that it considered heretical, but before the 11th century these tended to centre on individual preachers or small localised sects, likeArianism,Pelagianism,Donatism,MarcionismandMontanism.The diffusion of the almostManichaeansect ofPaulicianswestwards gave birth to the famous 11th- and 12th-century heresies of Western Europe. The first one was that ofBogomilsin modern-day Bulgaria, a sort of sanctuary between Eastern and Western Christianity. By the 11th century, more organised groups such as thePatarini,theDulcinians,theWaldensiansand theCatharswere beginning to appear in the towns and cities of northern Italy, southern France and Flanders.

In France the Cathars grew to represent a popular mass movement and the belief was spreading to other areas.[36]TheCathar Crusadewas initiated by the Catholic Church to eliminate the Cathar heresy inLanguedoc.[37][38]Heresy was a major justification for theInquisition(Inquisitio Haereticae Pravitatis,Inquiry on Heretical Perversity) and for theEuropean wars of religionassociated with theProtestant Reformation.

Cristiano Banti's 1857 paintingGalileo facing theRoman Inquisition.

Galileo Galileiwasbrought before the Inquisitionfor heresy, butabjuredhis views and was sentenced tohouse arrest,under which he spent the rest of his life. Galileo was found "vehemently suspect of heresy", namely of having held the opinions that the Sun lies motionless at the centre of theuniverse,and that the Earth is not at its centre and moves, and that one may hold and defend an opinion as probable after it has been declared contrary to Holy Scripture. He was required to "abjure, curse and detest" those opinions.[39]Most contemporary historians of science believe the Galileo affair is an exception in the overall relationship between science and Christianity.[40][41][42]

Pope Gregory Istigmatized Judaism and the Jewish people in many of his writings. He described Jews as enemies of Christ: "The more theHoly Spiritfills the world, the more perverse hatred dominates the souls of the Jews. "He labeled all heresy as" Jewish ", claiming that Judaism would" pollute [Catholics and] deceive them with sacrilegious seduction. "[43]The identification of Jews and heretics in particular occurred several times inRoman-Christian law.[35][44]

Between 1420 and 1431 theHussiteheretics defeated five anti-HussiteCrusadesordered by the Pope.

Eastern Orthodoxy

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InEastern Orthodox Christianityheresy most commonly refers to those beliefs declared heretical by thefirst seven Ecumenical Councils.Since theGreat Schismand theProtestant Reformation,various Christian churches have also used the concept in proceedings against individuals and groups those churches deemed heretical.

TheEastern Orthodox Churchalso rejects the early Christian heresies such asArianism,Gnosticism,Origenism,Montanism,Judaizers,Marcionism,Docetism,Adoptionism,Nestorianism,Monophysitism,MonothelitismandIconoclasm.

Lutheranism

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Martin LutherandPhilip Melanchthon,who played an instrumental part in the formation of theLutheran Churches,condemnedJohannes Agricolaand his doctrine ofantinomianism– the belief that Christians were free from the moral law contained in theTen Commandments– as a heresy.[45]Traditional Lutheranism, espoused by Luther himself, teaches that after justification, "the Law of God continued to guide people in how they were to live before God."[45]

TheAugsburg Confessionof 1539, which is among the foundational documents of Lutheranism, lists 10 heresies by name which are condemned:Manichaeans,Valentinians,Arians,Eunomians,Mohammedans,Samosatenes,Pelagians,Anabaptists,Donatistsand "certain Jewish opinions".[46]

Anglicanism

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The39 Articlesof theAnglican CommunioncondemnPelagianismas a heresy.[47]

In Britain, the 16th-centuryEnglish Reformationresulted in a number of executions on charges of heresy. During the thirty-eight years ofHenry VIII's reign, about sixty heretics, mainly Protestants, were executed and a rather greater number of Catholics lost their lives on grounds of political offences such as treason, notablySir Thomas Moreand CardinalJohn Fisher,for refusing to accept the king's supremacy over the Church in England.[48][49][50]UnderEdward VI,the heresy laws were repealed in 1547 only to be reintroduced in 1554 byMary I;even so two radicals were executed in Edward's reign (one for denying the reality of the incarnation, the other for denying Christ's divinity).[51]Under Mary, around two hundred and ninety people were burned at the stake between 1555 and 1558 after the restoration of papal jurisdiction.[51]WhenElizabeth Icame to the throne, the concept of heresy was retained in theory but severely restricted by the 1559Act of Supremacyand the one hundred and eighty or so Catholics who were executed in the forty-five years of her reign were put to death because they were considered members of "a subversivefifth column."[52]The last execution of a "heretic" in England occurred underJames VI and Iin 1612.[53]Although the charge was technically one of "blasphemy" there was one later execution in Scotland (still at that date an entirely independent kingdom) when in 1697Thomas Aikenheadwas accused, among other things, of denying the doctrine of the Trinity.[54]

Another example of the persecution of heretics under Protestant rule was the execution of theBoston martyrsin 1659, 1660, and 1661. These executions resulted from the actions of theAnglicanPuritans,who at that time wielded political as well as ecclesiastic control in theMassachusetts Bay Colony.At the time, the colony leaders were apparently hoping to achieve their vision of a "purer absolute theocracy" within their colony.[citation needed]As such, they perceived the teachings and practices of the rival Quaker sect as heretical, even to the point where laws were passed and executions were performed with the aim of ridding their colony of such perceived "heresies."[citation needed]

Methodism

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TheArticles of Religionof theMethodist Churchesteach thatPelagianismis a heresy.[47]

John Wesley,the founder of the Methodist tradition, harshly criticized antinomianism,[55]considering it the "worst of all heresies".[56]He taught that Christian believers are bound to follow themoral lawfor theirsanctification.[55]Methodist Christians thus teach the necessity of following the moral law as contained in the Ten Commandments, citingJesus'teaching, "If ye love me, keep my commandments" (cf. Saint John 14:15).[57]

Islam

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Main articles:Bid‘ahandZindīq
Mehdiana Sahib:the Killing ofBhai Dayala,aSikh,by the Mughals at Chandni Chowk, India in 1675

Starting in medieval times, Muslims began to refer to heretics and those who antagonized Islam aszindiqs,the charge being punishable by death.[58]

OttomanSultanSelim the Grimregarded theShiaQizilbashas heretics.[59]Shiites, in general, have often been considered heretics bySunni Muslims,especially inIndonesia,Saudi ArabiaandTurkey.[60][61][62]

ToMughalEmperorAurangzeb,Sikhswere heretics.[63]

In 1989,Ruhollah Khomeini,supreme religious leader ofIran,issued afatwathat declared the writing ofSalman Rushdieto be heretical, and a bounty was issued for anyone who assassinated him. Heresy remains anoffensepunishable by death in some nations. TheBaháʼí Faithis considered an Islamic heresy in Iran, with systematicpersecution of Baháʼís.[63]

Judaism

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Main article:Heresy in Judaism
See also:Heresy in Orthodox Judaism

Orthodox Judaismconsiders views on the part of Jews who depart from traditionalJewish principles of faithheretical. In addition, the more right-wing groups within Orthodox Judaism hold that all Jews who reject the simple meaning ofMaimonides's 13 principles of Jewish faith are heretics.[64]As such, most of Orthodox Judaism considersReformandReconstructionist Judaismheretical movements, and regards most ofConservative Judaismas heretical. The liberal wing ofModern Orthodoxyis more tolerant of Conservative Judaism, particularly its right wing, as there is some theological and practical overlap between these groups.

Other religions

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The act of usingChurch of Scientologytechniques in a form different from that originally described byL. Ron Hubbardis referred to within Scientology as "squirreling"and is said by Scientologists to behigh treason.[65]TheReligious Technology Centerhas prosecuted breakaway groups who have practiced Scientologyoutside the official Churchwithout authorization.

AlthoughZoroastrianismhas had an historical tolerance for other religions, it also held sects likeZurvanismandMazdakismheretical to its main dogma and has violently persecuted them, such as burying Mazdakians with their feet upright as "human gardens." In later periods Zoroastrians cooperated with Muslims to kill other Zoroastrians deemed heretical.[66]

BuddhistandTaoistmonks in medieval China often called each other "heretics" and competed to be praised by the royal court. Although today most Chinese believe in a hybrid of the "Three Teachings" (Buddhism, Taoism, Confucian) the competition between the two religions may still be seen in some teachings and commentaries given by both religions today. A similar situation happened withShintoin Japan.Neo-Confucianheresy has also been described.[67]

Non-religious usage

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In other contexts the term does not necessarily havepejorativeovertones and may even be complimentary when used, in areas where innovation is welcome, of ideas that are in fundamental disagreement with thestatus quoin any practice and branch of knowledge.

Scientist/authorIsaac Asimovconsidered heresy as an abstraction, mentioning religious, political, socioeconomic and scientific heresies.[68]He divided scientific heretics into: endoheretics, those from within thescientific community;and exoheretics, those from without. Characteristics were ascribed to both and examples of both kinds were offered. Asimov concluded that science orthodoxy defends itself well against endoheretics (by control of science education, grants and publication as examples), but is nearly powerless against exoheretics. He acknowledged by examples that heresy has repeatedly become orthodoxy.

Publishing his findings asThe Dinosaur Heresies,revisionistpaleontologistRobert T. Bakker,himself a scientific endoheretic, treated the mainstream view of dinosaurs asdogma:[69]

I have enormous respect for dinosaur paleontologists past and present. But on average, for the last fifty years, the field hasn't tested dinosaur orthodoxy severely enough.[69]: 27 

He adds that, "Most taxonomists, however, have viewed such new terminology as dangerously destabilizing to the traditional and well-known scheme."[69]: 462 The illustrations by the author show dinosaurs in very active poses, in contrast to the traditional perception of lethargy.

Immanuel Velikovskyis an example of a recent scientific exoheretic; he did not have appropriatescientific credentialsand did not publish inscientific journals.While the details of his work are in scientific disrepute, the concept ofcatastrophic change(extinction eventandpunctuated equilibrium) has gained acceptance in recent decades.

The termheresyis used not only with regard to religion but also in the context of political theory.[70][71]The term heresy is also used as an ideologicalpigeonholefor contemporary writers because, by definition, heresy depends on contrasts with an establishedorthodoxy.For example, the tongue-in-cheek contemporary usage of heresy, such as to categorize a "Wall Streetheresy "a"Democraticheresy "or a"Republicanheresy ", aremetaphorsthat invariably retain asubtextthat links orthodoxies ingeologyorbiologyor any other field to religion. These expanded metaphoric senses allude to both the difference between the person's views and the mainstream and the boldness of such a person in propounding these views.

See also

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Notes

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  1. ^An "ecclesiastical authority" was initially an assembly of bishops, later the Pope, then an inquisitor (a delegate of the Pope) and later yet the leadership of a Protestant church (which would itself be regarded as heretical by the Pope). The definitions of "state", "cooperation", "suppress" and "heresy" were all subject to change during the past 16 centuries.
  2. ^Only very fragmentary records have been found of the executions carried out under Christian "heresy laws" during the first millennium. Somewhat more complete records of such executions can be found for the second millennium. To estimate the total number of executions carried out under various Christian "heresy laws" from AD 385 until the last official Catholic "heresy execution" in 1826 would require far more complete historical documentation than is currently available. The Catholic Church by no means had a monopoly on the execution of heretics. The charge of heresy was a weapon that could fit many hands. A century and a half after heresy was made a state crime, theVandals(a heretical Christian Germanic tribe), used the law to prosecute thousands of (orthodox) Catholics with penalties of torture, mutilation, slavery and banishment.[26]The Vandals were overthrown; orthodoxy was restored; "No toleration whatsoever was to be granted to heretics or schismatics."[27]Heretics were not the only casualties. 4000 Roman soldiers were killed by heretical peasants in one campaign.[28]Some lists ofhereticsandheresiesare available. About seven thousand people were burned at the stake by theCatholic Inquisition,which lasted for nearly seven centuries.[29]From time to time, heretics were burned at the stake by an enraged local populace, in a certain type of "vigilante justice", without the official participation of the Church or State.[30]Religious Warsslaughtered millions. During these wars, the charge of "heresy" was often leveled by one side against another as a sort of propaganda or rationalization for the undertaking of such wars.

References

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  1. ^ab"Heresy | Define Heresy at Dictionary".Dictionary.reference.Retrieved2013-04-15.
  2. ^"heresy – definition of heresy in English from the Oxford dictionary".oxforddictionaries.Archived fromthe originalon July 20, 2012.
  3. ^Sandle, Mark. 2007. "Soviet and Eastern bloc Marxism." pp. 59–77 inTwentieth-Century Marxism,edited by D. Glaser and D. M. Walker. London: Routledge.ISBN978-1-13597974-4.p. 62.
  4. ^"Apostasy | Learn everything there is to know about Apostasy at".Reference. Archived fromthe originalon 2013-07-17.Retrieved2013-04-15.
  5. ^"Definitions of" blasphemy "at Dictionary".Dictionary.reference.Retrieved2015-11-27.
  6. ^Cross, F. L.,andE. A. Livingstone,eds. 1974. "Heresy."The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church(2nd ed.). Oxford:Oxford University Press.
  7. ^Bruce, F. F.1964.The Spreading Flame.Exeter:Paternoster.p. 249.
  8. ^The NIV Study Bible.London:Zondervan/Hodder & Stoughton.1987. Titus 3:10n.
  9. ^The NIV Study Bible.London:Zondervan/Hodder & Stoughton.1987. Titus 1:9n.
  10. ^Michael, Robert (2011).A History of Catholic Antisemitism: The Dark Side of the Church(1st Palgrave Macmillan pbk. ed.). New York: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 28–30.ISBN978-0230111318.
  11. ^ W.H.C. Frend (1984).The Rise of Christianity.Chapter 7, The Emergence of Orthodoxy 135–93.ISBN978-0-8006-1931-2.{{cite book}}:CS1 maint: location (link) CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)Appendices provide a timeline of Councils, Schisms, Heresies and Persecutions in the years 193–604. They are described in the text.
  12. ^Cross, F.L.; Livingstone, E.A., eds. (1974). "Milan, Edict of". The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (2 ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  13. ^Chadwick, Henry.1967.The Early Christian Church.Pelican. pp. 129–130.
  14. ^ Paul Stephenson (2009). "Chapter 11".Constantine: Roman Emperor, Christian Victor.Harry N. Abrams.ISBN978-1-59020-324-8.The Emperor established and enforced orthodoxy for domestic tranquility and the efficacy of prayers in support of the empire.
  15. ^ Charles Freeman (2008).A.D. 381 – Heretics, Pagans, and the Dawn of the Monotheistic State.Harry N. Abrams.ISBN978-1-59020-171-8.As Christianity placed its stamp upon the Empire, the Emperor shaped the church for political purposes.
  16. ^abBassett, Paul M. 2013. "Priscillian." pp. 949–950 inEncyclopedia of Early Christianity(2nd ed.), edited byE. Ferguson.Routledge.ISBN978-1-13661158-2.p. 950.
  17. ^John Anthony McGuckin,The Westminster Handbook to Patristic Theology(Westminster John Knox Press 2004ISBN978-0-66422396-0), p. 284
  18. ^"Priscillian".Encyclopædia Britannica.January 2024.
  19. ^Chadwick, Henry.The Early Church,Pelican, London, 1967. p. 171
  20. ^Jay E. Thompson (2009).A Tale of Five Cities: A History of the Five Patriarchal Cities of the Early Church.Wipf and Stock Publishers. p. 138.ISBN978-1-4982-7447-0.
  21. ^María Victoria Escribano Paño (2010)."Chapter Three. Heretical texts andmaleficiumin theCodex Theodosianum(CTh.16.5.34) ".In Richard Lindsay Gordon; Francisco Marco Simón (eds.).Magical Practice in the Latin West: Papers from the International Conference Held at the University of Zaragoza, 30 Sept. – 1st Oct. 2005.BRILL. pp. 135–136.ISBN978-90-04-17904-2.
  22. ^Griffith, Sidney H. (2010).The Church in the Shadow of the Mosque: Christians and Muslims in the World of Islam.Princeton University Press. p. 41.ISBN978-0-691-14628-7.
  23. ^Wismer, Don (2016).Routledge Revivals: The Islamic Jesus (1977): An Annotated Bibliography of Sources in English and French.Routledge.The old opinion of John of Damascus continues to persist among Christian orientalists. The author here replies to Frank Hugh Foster (see 233), who said that Islam is in fact heretical Christianity.
  24. ^Murray, Douglas (2017).The Strange Death of Europe: Immigration, Identity, Islam.Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 131.ISBN978-1-4729-4222-7.
  25. ^Caravale, Giorgio (2017).Censorship and Heresy in Revolutionary England and Counter-Reformation Rome: Story of a Dangerous Book.Springer. p. 3.ISBN978-3-319-57439-4.
  26. ^ Edward Gibbon (1862).History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire.Chapter 37, Part III.{{cite book}}:CS1 maint: location (link) CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  27. ^W.H.C. Frend (1984).The Rise of Christianity.Fortress Press. p. 833.ISBN978-0-8006-1931-2.
  28. ^Edward Gibbon (1862).History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire.Chapter 21, Part VII.{{cite book}}:CS1 maint: location (link) CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  29. ^James Carroll (2001).Constantine's Sword.Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. p. 357.ISBN0-618-21908-0.
  30. ^ Will & Ariel Durant (1950).The Age of Faith.p. 778.
  31. ^An example is theNotification regarding certain writings of Fr. Marciano Vidal, C.Ss.R.
  32. ^Cf. the documents"Responses to Some Questions"and"Commentary"from the Congregation on the Doctrine of the Faith.
  33. ^"Dismay and anger as Pope declares Protestants cannot have churches."The Guardian.11 July 2007.
  34. ^"Will the Pope's Pronouncement Set Ecumenism Back a Hundred Years?"Progressive Theology.11 July 2007
  35. ^abMichael, Robert (2011).A History of Catholic Antisemitism: The Dark Side of the Church(1st Palgrave Macmillan pbk. ed.). New York: Palgrave Macmillan. p. 219.ISBN978-0230111318.Retrieved9 February2015.
  36. ^"Massacre of the Pure."Time.April 28, 1961.
  37. ^Joseph Reese Strayer (1992).The Albigensian Crusades.University of Michigan Press.p. 143.ISBN0-472-06476-2
  38. ^ Will & Ariel Durant (1950).The Age of Faith.Chapter XXVIII, The Early Inquisition: 1000–1300.{{cite book}}:CS1 maint: location (link) CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  39. ^Fantoli (2005, p. 139); Finocchiaro (1989, pp. 288–293).
  40. ^Finocchiaro, Maurice A. (2014). "Introduction".The Trial of Galileo: Essential Documents.Hackett Publishing Company, Incorporated. pp. 1–4.ISBN978-1-62466-132-7...one of the most common myths widely held about the trial of Galileo, including several elements: that he "saw" the earth's motion (an observation still impossible to make even in the twenty-first century); that he was "imprisoned" by the Inquisition (whereas he was actually held under house arrest); and that his crime was to have discovered the truth. And since to condemn someone for this reason can result only from ignorance, prejudice, and narrow-mindedness, this is also the myth that alleges the incompatibility between science and religion.
  41. ^Jules Speller (2008).Galileo's Inquisition Trial Revisited.Peter Lang.pp. 55–56.ISBN978-3-631-56229-1.
  42. ^McMullin, Ernan (2008). "Robert Bellarmine". In Gillispie, Charles (ed.).Dictionary of Scientific Biography.Scribner & American Council of Learned Societies.
  43. ^Michael, Robert (2011).A History of Catholic Antisemitism: The Dark Side of the Church(1st Palgrave Macmillan pbk. ed.). New York: Palgrave Macmillan. p. 76.ISBN978-0230111318.Retrieved9 February2015.
  44. ^Constitutio Sirmondiana6, 14;TheodosiusII – Novella3;Codex Theodosianus16:5:44, 16:8:27, 16:8:27;Codex Justinianus1:3:54, 1:5:12,21, 1:10:2;Justinian,Novellae37, 45
  45. ^abSeelye, James E.; Selby, Shawn (2018).Shaping North America: From Exploration to the American Revolution.ABC-CLIO.p. 50.ISBN9781440836695.
  46. ^https://bookofconcord.org/augsburg-confession/Book of Concord.org, Articles 1–17
  47. ^abWilson, Kenneth (2011).Methodist Theology.Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 87.ISBN9780567317469.
  48. ^Wagner, John A.; Schmid, Susan Walters (2012).Encyclopedia of Tudor England.Bloomsbury Academic.ISBN9781598842982.
  49. ^Christenson, Ron. 1991.Political Trials in History.Transaction Publishers.ISBN978-0-88738406-6.p. 302.
  50. ^O'Donovan, Oliver,and Joan Lockwood O'Donovan. 1999.From Irenaeus to Grotius.Eerdmans.ISBN978-0-80284209-1.p. 558.
  51. ^abDickens, A.G.The English ReformationFontana/Collins 1967, pp. 327, 364
  52. ^Neill, Stephen.Anglicanism.Pelican. pp. 96–97.
  53. ^MacCulloch, Diarmaid.1996.Thomas Cranmer.Yale University Press.p. 477.
  54. ^MacCulloch, Diarmaid.2003.The Reformation.Penguin. p. 679.
  55. ^abYrigoyen, Charles Jr.; Warrick, Susan E. (2013).Historical Dictionary of Methodism.Scarecrow Press. p. 30.ISBN9780810878945.
  56. ^Hurst, John Fletcher (1903).John Wesley the Methodist: A Plain Account of His Life and Work.Eaton & Mains. p. 200.
  57. ^The Wesleyan Methodist Association Magazine.Vol. 12. R. Abercrombie. 1849. p. 368.
  58. ^John Bowker. "Zindiq."The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions.1997[ISBN missing]
  59. ^Āl-e-Aḥmad, Jalāl.1982.Plagued by the West,translated byP. Sprachman.Center for Iranian Studies, Columbia University.ISBN978-0-88206-047-7.
  60. ^John Limbert(2009).Negotiating with Iran: Wrestling the Ghosts of History.US Institute of Peace Press. p.29.ISBN9781601270436.
  61. ^Masooda Bano (2012).The Rational Believer: Choices and Decisions in the Madrasas of Pakistan.Cornell University Press. p.73.ISBN9780801464331.
  62. ^Johnson, Thomas A., ed. (2012).Power, National Security, and Transformational Global Events: Challenges Confronting America, China, and Iran(illustrated ed.). CRC Press. p. 162.ISBN9781439884225.
  63. ^abSanasarian, Eliz (2000).Religious Minorities in Iran.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp.52–53.ISBN0-521-77073-4.
  64. ^Shapiro, Marc B.The Limits of Orthodox Theology: Maimonides' Thirteen Principles Reappraised.ISBN1-874774-90-0.(A book written as a contentious rebuttal to an article written in theTorah u'Maddah Journal.)
  65. ^Welkos, Robert W.; Sappell, Joel (29 June 1990)."When the Doctrine Leaves the Church".Los Angeles Times.Retrieved2008-08-24.
  66. ^Houtsma, Martijn Theodoor (1936),First Encyclopaedia of Islam 1913–1936:E.J. Brill,ISBN9789004097964
  67. ^John B. Henderson (1998).The construction of orthodoxy and heresy: Neo-Confucian, Islamic, Jewish, and early Christian patterns.SUNY Press.ISBN978-0-7914-3760-5.
  68. ^Donald Goldsmith (1977).Scientists Confront Velikovsky.Cornell University Press.ISBN0-8014-0961-6.Asimov's views are in "Forward: The Role of the Heretic".
  69. ^abcRobert T. Bakker (1986).The Dinosaur Heresies.Citadel Press.ISBN978-0-8065-2260-9.
  70. ^"Religion: Anti-Religion".TIME.6 May 1940.
  71. ^"Exploring the high moments and small mountain roads of Marxism".isreview.org.

Bibliography

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