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Historical Vedic religion

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The spread of the Vedic culture in the lateVedic period.Aryavartawas limited to northwest India and the western Ganges plain, whileGreater Magadhain the east was occupied by non-Vedic Indo-Aryans.[1][2]The location ofshakhasis labeled in maroon.
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The historicalVedic religion,also known asVedicismandVedism,constituted the religious ideas and practices prevalent amongst theIndo-Aryan peoplesof the northwest Indian subcontinent (Punjaband the westernGangesplain) during theVedic period(1500–500 BCE).[3][4][5][6]These ideas and practices are found in theVedic texts,and some Vedic rituals are still practiced today.[7][8][9]The Vedic religion is one of the major traditions whichshaped Hinduism,though present-dayHinduismis significantly different from the historical Vedic religion.[5][10][note 1]

The Vedic religion developed in the northwestern region of theIndian subcontinentduring the early Vedic period (1500–1100 BCE), but has roots in theEurasian SteppeSintashta culture(2200–1800 BCE), the subsequent Central AsianAndronovo culture(2000–900 BCE),[11][a]and theIndus Valley Civilisation(2600–1900 BCE).[12]It was a composite of the religion of the Central AsianIndo-Aryans,itself "a syncretic mixture of old Central Asian and new Indo-European elements",[13]which borrowed "distinctive religious beliefs and practices"[14]from theBactria–Margiana culture;[14]and the remnants of theHarappanculture of the Indus Valley.[15]

During the late Vedic period (1100–500 BCE) Brahmanism developed out of the Vedic religion, as an ideology of theKuru-Panchalarealm which expanded into a wider area after the demise of the Kuru-Pancala realm. Brahmanism was one of the major influences that shaped contemporaryHinduism,when it was synthesized with the non-Vedic Indo-Aryan religious heritage of the eastern Ganges plain (which also gave rise toBuddhismandJainism), and with local religious traditions.[1][2][16][17][b]

Specific rituals and sacrifices of the Vedic religion include, among others: theSomarituals;Fire ritualsinvolving oblations (havir); and theAshvamedha(horse sacrifice).[18][19]The rites of grave burials as well ascremationare seen since the Rigvedic period.[20]Deities emphasized in the Vedic religion includeDyaus,Indra,Agni,RudraandVaruna,and important ethical concepts includesatyaandṛta.

Terminology[edit]

Vedismrefers to the oldest form of the Vedicreligion,when Indo-Aryans entered into the valley of theIndus Riverin multiple waves during the 2nd millennium BCE.Brahmanismrefers to the further developed form which took shape at the Ganges basin around c. 1000 BCE.[17][21]According to Heesterman, "It is loosely known as Brahmanism because of the religious and legal importance it places on the brāhmaṇa (priestly) class of society."[21]

Origins and development[edit]

Further information:Indo-Aryans,Indo-Aryan migrations,Vedic period,Indo-European migrations,Proto-Indo-European religion,andProto-Indo-Iranian religion

Indo-Aryan Vedic religion[edit]

The Vedic religion refers to the religious beliefs of some VedicIndo-Aryantribes, thearyas,[22][23][c]who migrated into the Indus River valley region of the Indian subcontinent after the collapse of theIndus Valley Civilisation.[3][a]The Vedic religion, and subsequent Brahmanism, center on the myths and ritual ideologies of the Vedas, as distinguished fromAgamic,Tantricand sectarian forms of Indian religion, which take recourse to the authority of non-Vedic textual sources.[3]The Vedic religion is described in theVedasand associated with voluminous Vedic literature, including the earlyUpanishads,preserved into the modern times by the different priestly schools.[3][25]The religion existed in the western Ganges plain in the early Vedic period from c. 1500–1100 BCE,[26][d]and developed into Brahmanism in the late Vedic period (1100–500 BCE).[17][29]The eastern Ganges plain was dominated by another Indo-Aryan complex, which rejected the later Brahmanical ideology and gave rise toJainismandBuddhism,and theMaurya Empire.[1][2]

Indo-European roots and syncreticism[edit]

The Indo-Aryans were speakers of a branch of theIndo-European languagefamily which originated in theSintashta cultureand further developed into theAndronovo culture,which in turn developed out of theKurganculture of theCentral Asiansteppes.[11][a][e]The commonly proposed period of earlier Vedic age is dated back to 2nd millennium BCE.[49]

The Vedic beliefs and practices of the pre-classical era were closely related to the hypothesizedProto-Indo-European religion,[50][f]and shows relations with rituals from theAndronovo culture,from which the Indo-Aryan people descended.[22]According to Anthony, the Old Indic religion probably emerged among Indo-European immigrants in the contact zone between theZeravshan River(present-dayUzbekistan) and (present-day) Iran.[13]It was "a syncretic mixture of old Central Asian and new Indo-European elements"[13]which borrowed "distinctive religious beliefs and practices"[14]from theBactria–Margiana culture(BMAC).[14]This syncretic influence is supported by at least383 non-Indo-European words that were borrowedfrom this culture, including the godIndraand the ritual drinkSoma.[51]According to Anthony,

Many of the qualities of Indo-Iranian god of might/victory,Verethraghna,were transferred to the adopted god Indra, who became the central deity of the developing Old Indic culture. Indra was the subject of 250 hymns, a quarter of theRig Veda.He was associated more than any other deity withSoma,a stimulant drug (perhaps derived fromEphedra) probably borrowed from theBMACreligion. His rise to prominence was a peculiar trait of the Old Indic speakers.[35]

The oldest inscriptions in Old Indic, the language of theRig Veda,are found in northern Syria, the location of theMitannikingdom.[52]The Mitanni kings took Old Indic throne names, and Old Indic technical terms were used for horse-riding and chariot-driving.[52]The Old Indic termr'ta,meaning "cosmic order and truth", the central concept of theRig Veda,was also employed in the Mitanni kingdom.[52]Old Indic gods, includingIndra,were also known in the Mitanni kingdom.[53][54][55]

South Asian influences[edit]

The Vedic religion was the product of "a composite of the Indo-Aryan and Harappan cultures and civilizations".[56]White (2003) cites three other scholars who "have emphatically demonstrated" that Vedic religion is partially derived from theIndus Valley civilization.[15]

The Vedic religion texts are cerebral, orderly, and intellectual, but it is unclear if the theory in diverse Vedic texts actually reflect the folk practices, iconography, and other practical aspects of the Vedic religion.The Vedic religion changed when Indo-Aryan people migrated into theGanges Plainafter c. 1100 BCE and became settled farmers,[17][57][58]further syncretizing with the native cultures of northern India.[2][page needed][3]The evidence suggests that the Vedic religion evolved in "two superficially contradictory directions", namely an ever more "elaborate, expensive, and specialized system of rituals",[59]which survives in the present-daysrauta-ritual,[60]and "abstraction and internalization of the principles underlying ritual and cosmic speculation" within oneself,[59][61]akin to the Jain and Buddhist tradition.

Aspects of the historical Vedic religion still continue in modern times. For instance, theNambudiriBrahmins continue the ancient Śrauta rituals, and the complex Vedic rituals ofŚrautaare practiced inKeralaandcoastal Andhra.[62]TheKalash peopleresiding in northwest Pakistan also continue to practice a form of the ancient Vedic religion.[60][g]It has also been suggested byMichael WitzelthatShinto,the native religion ofJapan,contains some influences from the ancient Vedic religion.[67][68]

"Ancient Hinduism"[edit]

According toHeinrich von Stietencron,in 19th century western publications, the Vedic religion was believed to be different from and unrelated to Hinduism. Instead, Hinduism was thought to be linked to theHindu epicsand thePuranasthrough sects based onpurohita,tantrasandBhakti.In the 20th century, a better understanding of the Vedic religion and its shared heritage and theology with contemporary Hinduism led scholars to view the historical Vedic religion as ancestral to modern Hinduism.[69]The historical Vedic religion is now generally accepted to be a predecessor ofHinduism,but they are not the same because the textual evidence suggests significant differences between the two.[b]These include the belief in anafterlifeinstead of the later developedreincarnationandsamsāraconcepts.[71][page needed]TheHindu reform movementsand theNeo-Vedantahave emphasized the Vedic heritage and "ancient Hinduism", and this term has been co-opted by some Hindus.[69]

Brahmanism[edit]

"Brahamic" redirects here. For the writing scripts, seeBrahmic scripts.
"Brahmanism" redirects here. Not to be confused withBranhamism.

Historical Brahminism[edit]

Brahmanism,also calledBrahminism,developed out of the Vedic religion, incorporating non-Vedic religious ideas, and expanding to aregion stretching fromthe northwest Indian subcontinent to the Ganges valley.[3][17]Brahmanism included the Vedic corpus, but also post-Vedic texts such as theDharmasutrasandDharmasastras,which gave prominence to the priestly (Brahmin) class of the society,[3]Heesterman also mentions the post-VedicSmriti(Puranasand the Epics),[3]which are also incorporated in the laterSmarta tradition.The emphasis on ritual and the dominant position of Brahmans developed as an ideology in theKuru-Pancala realm,and expanded over a wider area after the demise of the Kuru-Pancala kingdom.[17]It co-existed with local religions, such as theYakshacults.[2][72][73]

The wordBrahmanismwas coined by Gonçalo Fernandes Trancoso (1520–1596) in the 16th century.[74]Historically, and still by some modern authors, the word 'Brahmanism' was used in English to refer to theHindu religion,treating the term Brahmanism as synonymous withHinduism,and using it interchangeably.[75][76]In the 18th and 19th centuries, Brahminism was the most common term used in English for Hinduism. Brahmanism gave importance to Absolute Reality (Brahman) speculations in the earlyUpanishads,as these terms are etymologically linked, which developed from post-Vedic ideas during the late Vedic era.[4][77][78][79]The concept of Brahman is posited as that which existed before the creation of the universe, which constitutes all of existence thereafter, and into which the universe will dissolve, followed by similar endless creation-maintenance-destruction cycles.[80][81][82][h]

The post-Vedic period of the Second Urbanisation saw a decline of Brahmanism.[83][84]With the growth of political entities, which threatened the income and patronage of the rural Brahmins including; theSramanic movement,the conquests of eastern empires fromMagadhaincluding theNanda Empireand theMauryan Empire,[85][86]and also invasions and foreign rule of the northwestern Indian Subcontinent which brought in new political entities.[29]This was overcome by providing new services[87]and incorporating the non-Vedic Indo-Aryan religious heritage of the eastern Ganges plain and local religious traditions, giving rise to contemporaryHinduism.[29][16][2][1][17][3][b]This "new Brahmanism" appealed to rulers, who were attracted to the supernatural powers and the practical advice Brahmins could provide,[87]and resulted in a resurgence of Brahmanical influence, dominating Indian society since the classical Age of Hinduism in the early centuries CE.[29]

As a polemical term[edit]

Nowadays, the term Brahmanism, used interchangeably withBrahminism,is used in several ways. It denotes the specific Brahmanical rituals and worldview as preserved in theŚrautaritual, as distinct from the wide range of popular cultic activity with little connection with them. Brahminism also refers specifically to the Brahminical ideology, which sees Brahmins as naturally privileged people entitled to rule and dominate society.[88]The term is frequently used byanti-Brahmin opponents,who object against their domination of Indian society and their exclusivist ideology.[89]They follow the outline of 19th century colonial rulers, who viewed India's culture as corrupt and degenerate, and its population as irrational. In this view, derived from a Christian understanding of religion, the original "God-given religion" was corrupted by priests, in this case Brahmins, and their religion, "Brahminism", which was supposedly imposed on the Indian population.[90]Reformist Hindus, and others such asAmbedkar,structured their criticism along similar lines.[90]

Textual history[edit]

AYupasacrificial post of the time ofVasishka,3rd century CE. Isapur, nearMathura.Mathura Museum.

Texts dating to the Vedic period, composed inVedic Sanskrit,are mainly the four VedicSamhitas,but theBrahmanas,Aranyakas,and some of the olderUpanishads[i]are also placed in this period. The Vedas record theliturgyconnected with the rituals and sacrifices. These texts are also considered as a part of the scripture of contemporary Hinduism.[91]

Who really knows?
Who will here proclaim it?
Whence was it produced? Whence is this creation?
The gods came afterwards, with the creation of this universe.
Who then knows whence it has arisen?
—Nasadiya Sukta,Rig Veda,10:129-6[92][93][94]

Characteristics[edit]

See also:Proto-Indo-Iranian religion

The idea ofreincarnation,orsaṃsāra,is not mentioned in the early layers of the historic Vedic religion texts such as theRigveda.[95][96]The later layers of theRigvedado mention ideas that suggest an approach towards the idea of rebirth, according to Ranade.[97][98]

The early layers of the Vedas do not mention the doctrine ofKarmaand rebirth, but mention the belief in anafterlife.[99][100]According to Sayers, these earliest layers of the Vedic literature show ancestor worship and rites such assraddha(offering food to the ancestors). The later Vedic texts such as theAranyakasand theUpanisadsshow a different soteriology based on reincarnation, they show little concern with ancestor rites, and they begin to philosophically interpret the earlier rituals.[101][102][103]The idea of reincarnation and karma have roots in theUpanishadsof the lateVedic period,predating theBuddhaand theMahavira.[104][71]Similarly, the later layers of the Vedic literature such as theBrihadaranyaka Upanishad(c. 800 BCE) – such as in section 4.4 – discuss the earliest versions of the Karma doctrine as well as causality.[105][106]

The ancient Vedic religion lacked the belief in reincarnation and concepts such asSaṃsāraorNirvana.It was a complexanimisticreligion withpolytheisticandpantheisticaspects.Ancestor worshipwas an important, maybe the central component, of the ancient Vedic religion. Elements of the ancestors cult are still common in modern Hinduism in the form ofŚrāddha.[71][page needed][107]

According to Olivelle, some scholars state that the renouncer tradition was an "organic and logical development of ideas found in the Vedic religious culture", while others state that these emerged from the "indigenous non-Aryan population". This scholarly debate is a longstanding one, and is ongoing.[108]

Rituals[edit]

Main articles:Yajurvedaandyajna
AŚrautayajna being performed inKerala

Specific rituals and sacrifices of the Vedic religion include, among others:[18][verification needed]

  • Fire ritualsinvolving oblations (havir):
  • The Pashubandhu, the (semi-)annual animal sacrifice[109]
  • TheSomarituals, which involved the extraction, utility and consumption of Soma:[109]
  • The royal consecration (Rajasuya) sacrifice
  • TheAshvamedha(horse sacrifice) or a Yajna dedicated to the glory, wellbeing and prosperity of the kingdom or empire[19]
  • ThePurushamedha[109]
  • The rituals andcharmsreferred to in theAtharvavedaare concerned with medicine and healing practices[111]
  • The Gomedha or cow sacrifice:
    • The Taittiriya Brahmana of the Yajur Veda gives instructions for selecting the cow for the sacrifice depending on the deity.[112]
    • Panchasaradiya sava – celebration where 17 cows are immolated once every five years. The Taittiriya Brahmana advocates the Panchasaradiya for those who want to be great.[112]
    • Sulagava – sacrifice where roast beef is offered. It is mentioned in the Grihya Sutra[112]
    • According to Dr. R. Mitra, the offered animal was intended for consumption as detailed in the Asvalayana Sutra. The Gopatha Brahmana lists the different individuals who are to receive the various parts like Pratiharta (neck and hump), the Udgatr, the Neshta, the Sadasya, the householder who performs the sacrifice (the two right feet), his wife (the two left feet) and so on.[112]

The Hindu rites ofcremationare seen since the Rigvedic period; while they are attested from early times in theCemetery H culture,there is a late Rigvedic reference invoking forefathers "both cremated (agnidagdhá-) and uncremated (ánagnidagdha-) ". (RV 10.15.14)

Pantheon[edit]

Main article:Rigvedic deities
Detail of the Phra Prang, the central tower of theWat Arun( "Temple of Dawn" ) inBangkok,Thailand,showing the ancient Vedic godIndraand three-headed Erawan (Airavata).[citation needed]

Though a large number of names fordevasoccur in the Rigveda, only 33 devas are counted, eleven each of earth, space, and heaven.[113]The Vedic pantheon knows two classes, Devas andAsuras.The Devas (Mitra,Varuna,Aryaman,Bhaga,Amsa, etc.) are deities of cosmic and social order, from the universe and kingdoms down to the individual. TheRigvedais a collection of hymns to various deities, most notably heroicIndra,Agnithe sacrificial fire and messenger of the gods, andSoma,the deified sacred drink of the Indo-Iranians.[114]Also prominent isVaruna(often paired with Mitra) and the group of "All-gods", theVishvadevas.[115]

Sages[edit]

See also:Timeline of Eastern philosophers § Vedic Period

In the Hindu tradition, the revered sages of this era wereYajnavalkya,[116][117]Atharvan,[118]Atri,[119]Bharadvaja,[120]Gautama Maharishi,Jamadagni,[121]Kashyapa,[122]Vasistha,[123]Bhrigu,[124]Kutsa,[125]Pulastya,Kratu,Pulaha,VishwamitraNarayana, Kanva,Rishabha,Vamadeva,andAngiras.[citation needed]

Ethics – satya and rta[edit]

See also:Ashaandṛta

Ethics in the Vedas are based on concepts likesatyaandṛta.[126]

In theVedasand latersutras,the meaning of the word satya (सत्य) evolves into an ethical concept about truthfulness and is considered an important virtue.[127][128]It means being true and consistent with reality in one's thought, speech and action.[127]

Vedicṛtáand itsAvestanequivalentašaare both thought by some to derive fromProto-Indo-Iranian*Hr̥tás"truth",[129]which in turn may continue from a possibleProto-Indo-European*h2r-tós"properly joined, right, true", from a presumed root*h2er-.The derivative nounṛtais defined as "fixed or settled order, rule, divine law or truth".[130]As Mahony (1998) notes, however, the term can be translated as "that which has moved in a fitting manner" – although this meaning is not actually cited by authoritative Sanskrit dictionaries it is a regular derivation from the verbal root -, and abstractly as "universal law" or "cosmic order", or simply as "truth".[131]The latter meaning dominates in theAvestancognate toṚta,aša.[132]

Owing to the nature ofVedic Sanskrit,the termṚtacan be used to indicate numerous things, either directly or indirectly, and both Indian and European scholars have experienced difficulty in arriving at fitting interpretations forṚtain all of its various usages in theVedas,though the underlying sense of "ordered action" remains universally evident.[133]

The term is also found in theProto-Indo-Iranian religion,the religion of theIndo-Iranian peoples.[134]The termdharmawas already used in the later Brahmanical thoughts, where it was conceived as an aspect ofṛta.[135]

Vedic mythology[edit]

The central myth at the base of Vedic ritual surroundsIndrawho, inebriated bySoma,slays the dragon (ahi)Vritra,freeing therivers,the cows, andDawn.

Vedic mythology contains numerous elements which are common to Indo-European mythological traditions, like the mythologies ofPersia,Greece,andRome,and those of the Celtic, Germanic, Baltic, and Slavic peoples. The Vedic godIndrain part corresponds toDyaus Pitar,the Sky Father,Zeus,Jupiter,ThorandTyr,orPerun.The deityYama,the lord of the dead, is hypothesized to be related toYimaofPersianmythology. Vedic hymns refer to these and other deities, often 33, consisting of 8 Vasus, 11 Rudras, 12 Adityas, and in the late Rigvedas,Prajapati.These deities belong to the 3 regions of the universe or heavens, the earth, and the intermediate space.

Some major deities of the Vedic tradition includeIndra,Dyaus,Surya,Agni,Ushas,Vayu,Varuna,Mitra,Aditi,Yama,Soma,Sarasvati,Prithvi,andRudra.[136]

Post-Vedic religions[edit]

The hymn 10.85 of theRigvedaincludes the Vivaha-sukta (above). Its recitation continues to be a part of Hindu wedding rituals.[137][138]

The Vedic period is held to have ended around 500 BCE. The period between 800 BCE and 200 BCE is the formative period for laterHinduism,JainismandBuddhism.[139][140]According to Michaels, the period between 500 BCE and 200 BCE is a time of "ascetic reformism",[141]while the period between 200 BCE and 1100 CE is the time of "classical Hinduism", since there is "a turning point between the Vedic religion and Hindu religions".[10]Muesse discerns a longer period of change, namely between 800 BCE and 200 BCE, which he calls the "Classical Period", when "traditional religious practices and beliefs were reassessed. The Brahmins and the rituals they performed no longer enjoyed the same prestige they had in the Vedic period".[142]

Brahmanism evolved into Hinduism, which is significantly different from the preceding Brahmanism,[note 1]though "it is also convenient to have a single term for the whole complex of interrelated traditions."[5]The transition from ancient Brahmanism to schools of Hinduism was a form of evolution in interaction with non-Vedic traditions. This transition preserved many central ideas and theosophy found in the Vedas while synergistically integrating non-Vedic ideas.[1][2][17][143][note 2]While part of Hinduism,Vedanta,SamkhyaandYogaschools of Hinduism share their concern with escape from the suffering of existence with Buddhism.[152]

Continuation of orthodox ritual[edit]

Main article:Śrauta

According toAxel Michaels,the Vedic gods declined but did not disappear, and local cults were assimilated into the Vedic-Brahmanic pantheon, which changed into the Hindu pantheon. Deities such asShivaandVishnubecame more prominent and gave rise toShaivismandVaishnavism.[153]

According to David Knipe, some communities in India have preserved and continue to practice portions of the historical Vedic religion, as observed inKeralaandAndhra Pradeshstates and elsewhere.[7]According to the historian andSanskritlinguistMichael Witzel,some of the rituals of theKalash peoplehave elements of the historical Vedic religion, but there are also some differences such as the presence of fire next to the altar instead of "in the altar" as in the Vedic religion.[8][9]

Mīmāṃsā and Vedanta[edit]

Mīmāṃsāphilosophers argue that there was no need to postulate a maker for the world, just as there was no need for an author to compose the Vedas or a god to validate the rituals.[154]Mīmāṃsā argues that the gods named in the Vedas have no existence apart from themantrasthat speak their names. To that regard, the power of the mantras is what is seen as the power of gods.[155]

Of the continuation of the Vedic tradition in the Upanishads, Fowler writes the following:

Despite the radically different nature of the Upanishads in relation to theVedasit has to be remembered that the material of both form theVedaor "knowledge" which issrutiliterature. So theUpanishadsdevelop the ideas of theVedasbeyond their ritual formalism and should not be seen as isolated from them. The fact that the Vedas that are more particularly emphasized in the Vedanta: the efficacy of the Vedic ritual is not rejected, it is just that there is a search for the Reality that informs it.[156]

TheUpanishadsgradually evolved intoVedanta,which is one of the primary schools of thought withinHinduism.Vedantaconsiders itself "the purpose or goal [end] of the Vedas".[157]

Sramana tradition[edit]

Main articles:Śramaṇa,Jainism,Buddhism,andĀjīvika

The non-Vedic śramaṇa traditions existed alongside Brahmanism.[158][159][j][160][161]These were not direct outgrowths of Vedism, but movements with mutual influences with Brahmanical traditions,[158]reflecting "the cosmology and anthropology of a much older, pre-Aryan upper class of northeastern India".[162]Jainism and Buddhism evolved out of the Shramana tradition.[163]

There are Jaina references to 22 prehistorictirthankaras.In this view, Jainism peaked at the time ofMahavira(traditionally put in the 6th century BCE).[164][165]Buddhism,traditionally put from c. 500 BCE,declinedin India over the 5th to 12th centuries in favor of Puranic Hinduism[166]and Islam.[167][168]

See also[edit]

Wikisourcehas the text of the1911Encyclopædia Britannicaarticle "Brahmanism".

Notes[edit]

  1. ^abMichaels (2004,p. 38): "The legacy of the Vedic religion in Hinduism is generally overestimated. The influence of the mythology is indeed great, but the religious terminology changed considerably: all the key terms of Hinduism either do not exist in Vedic or have a completely different meaning. The religion of the Veda does not know the ethicised migration of the soul with retribution for acts (karma), the cyclical destruction of the world, or the idea of salvation during one's lifetime (jivanmukti; moksa; nirvana); the idea of the world as illusion (maya) must have gone against the grain of ancient India, and an omnipotent creator god emerges only in the late hymns of the rgveda. Nor did the Vedic religion know a caste system, the burning of widows, the ban on remarriage, images of gods and temples, Puja worship, Yoga, pilgrimages, vegetarianism, the holiness of cows, the doctrine of stages of life (asrama), or knew them only at their inception. Thus, it is justified to see a turning point between the Vedic religion and Hindu religions. "
    Jamison, Stephanie; Witzel, Michael (1992)."Vedic Hinduism"(PDF).Harvard University. p. 3.:"... to call this period Vedic Hinduism is a contradictio in terminis since Vedic religion is very different from what we generally call Hindu religion – at least as much as Old Hebrew religion is from medieval and modern Christian religion. However, Vedic religion is treatable as a predecessor of Hinduism."
    See alsoHalbfass 1991,pp. 1–2
  2. ^Scholars regard Hinduism as a synthesis[144][145]of various Indian cultures and traditions,[144][146]with diverse roots and no single founder.[147]Among its roots are the Vedic religion[146]of the lateVedic periodand its emphasis on the status of Brahmans,[148]but also the religions of theIndus Valley civilisation,[149]theSramana[150]or renouncer traditions[146]ofeast India,[150]and "popular orlocal traditions".[146]ThisHindu synthesisemerged after the Vedic period, between ca. 500[144]–200[151]BCE and ca. 300 CE,[144]in the period of theSecond Urbanisationand the earlyclassical period of Hinduism,when theEpicsand the first Purānas were composed.[144][151]
  1. ^abcThe Indo-Aryans were pastoralists[17]who migrated into north-western India after the collapse of theIndus Valley civilization,[24][30][31]bringing with them their language[32]and religion.[33][34]They were closely related to the Indo-Aryans who foundedMitannikingdom in northern Syria[35](c.1500–1300 BCE).
    Both groups were rooted in theAndronovo-culture[36]in theBactria–Margianaera, in present northern Afghanistan,[35]and related to theIndo-Iranians,from which they split off around 1800–1600 BCE.[37]Their roots go back further to theSintashta culture,with funeral sacrifices which show close parallels to the sacrificial funeral rites of theRig Veda.[38]
    The immigrations consisted probably of small groups of people.[11]Kenoyer(1998) notes that "there is no archaeological or biological evidence for invasions or mass migrations into the Indus Valley between the end of the Harappan phase, about 1900 B.C. and the beginning of the Early Historic period around 600 B.C."[39]
    For an overview of the current relevant research, see the following references.[40][41][42][11]
  2. ^abcScholars such as Jan Gonda have used the termancient Hinduism,distinguishing it from "recent Hinduism".Stephanie W. Jamisonand Michael Witzel (1992) "... to call this period Vedic Hinduism is acontradictio in terminissince Vedic religion is very different from what we generally call Hindu religion – at least as much as Old Hebrew religion is from medieval and modern Christian religion. However, Vedic religion is treatable as a predecessor of Hinduism ".[25]
    According to theEncyclopædia Britannica,from the Vedic religion emergedBrahmanism,a religious tradition of ancient India. It states, "Brahmanism emphasized the rites performed by, and the status of, the Brahman, or priestly, class as well as speculation about Brahman (the Absolute reality) as theorized in the Upanishads (speculative philosophical texts that are considered to be part of the Vedas, or scriptures)."[70]From Brahmanism developed Hinduism, when it was synthesized with the non-Vedic Indo-Aryan religious heritage of the eastern Ganges plain and with local religious traditions.[16][2][1][17]
  3. ^Michaels: "They called themselvesarya('Aryans', literally 'the hospitable', from the Vedicarya,'homey, the hospitable') but even in the Rgveda,aryadenotes a cultural and linguistic boundary and not only a racial one. "[24]
  4. ^There is no exact dating possible for the beginning of the Vedic period. Witzel mentions a range between 1900 and 1400 BCE.[27]Flood (1996) mentions 1500 BCE.[28]
  5. ^Some writers and archaeologists have opposed the notion of a migration of Indo-Aryans into India,[43][44][24][45]due to a lack of archaeological evidence and signs of cultural continuity,[24]hypothesizing instead a slow process of acculturation[24]or transformation.[30]According to Upinder Singh, "The original homeland of the Indo-Europeans and Indo-Aryans is the subject of continuing debate among philologists, linguists, historians, archaeologists, and others. The dominant view is that the Indo-Aryams came to the subcontinent as immigrants. Another view, advocated mainly by some Indian scholars, is that they were indigenous to the subcontinent."[45]Edwin Bryant used the term "Indo-Aryan controversy" for an oversight of the Indo-Aryan migration theory, and some of its opponents.[46]
    Mallory and Adams note that two types of models "enjoy significant international currency", namely theAnatolian hypothesis,and a migration out of the Eurasian steppes.[47]Linguistic and archaeological data clearly show a cultural change after 1750 BCE,[24]with the linguistic and religious data clearly showing links with Indo-European languages and religion.[48]According to Singh, "The dominant view is that the Indo-Aryans came to the subcontinent as immigrants."[45]
    An overview of the "Indigenist position" can be obtained from Bryant & Patton (2005).[46]See also the articleIndigenous Aryans
  6. ^See Kuzʹmina (2007),The Origin of the Indo-Iranians,p. 339, for an overview of publications up to 1997 on this subject.
  7. ^Up to the late 19th century, theNuristanisof Afghanistan observed a primitive form of Hinduism until they wereforcibly convertedto Islam under the rule ofAbdur Rahman Khan.[63][64][65]However, aspects of the historical Vedic religion survived in other corners of the Indian subcontinent, such asKerala,where theNambudiriBrahmins continue the ancient Śrauta rituals. TheKalash peopleresiding in northwest Pakistan also continue to practice a form of the ancient Vedic religion.[60][66]
  8. ^For the metaphysical concept of Brahman, see:Lipner, Julius(2012).Hindus: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices.Routledge. pp. 251–252, 283, 366–369.ISBN978-1-135-24061-5;Perrett, Roy W. (1998).Hindu Ethics: A Philosophical Study.University of Hawaii Press. pp. 53–54.ISBN978-0-8248-2085-5.
  9. ^Upanishads thought to date from the Vedic period areBṛhadāraṇyaka,Chāndogya,Jaiminiya Upanishad Brahmana.
  10. ^Cromwell: "Alongside Brahmanism was the non-Aryan Shramanic culture with its roots going back to prehistoric times."[158]

References[edit]

  1. ^abcdefBronkhorst 2007.
  2. ^abcdefghSamuel 2010.
  3. ^abcdefghiHeesterman 2005,pp. 9552–9553.
  4. ^ab"Vedic religion".Encyclopedia Britannica.
  5. ^abcSullivan 2001,p. 9.
  6. ^Samuel 2010,pp. 97–99, 113–118.
  7. ^abKnipe 2015,pp. 41–45, 220–223.
  8. ^abWitzel, Michael (2004). "Kalash Religion (extract from 'The Ṛgvedic Religious System and its Central Asian and Hindukush Antecedents". In Griffiths, A.; Houben, J.E.M. (eds.).The Vedas: Texts, language, and ritual.Groningen: Forsten. pp. 581–636.
  9. ^ab"Kalasha religion"(PDF).section 1.5.2.
  10. ^abMichaels 2004,p. 38.
  11. ^abcdAnthony 2007.
  12. ^White 2003.
  13. ^abcAnthony 2007,p. 462.
  14. ^abcdBeckwith 2011,p. 32.
  15. ^abWhite 2003,p. 28.
  16. ^abc"Vedic religion".Encyclopedia Britannica.It [Vedic religion] takes its name from the collections of sacred texts known as the Vedas. Vedism is the oldest stratum of religious activity in India for which there exist written materials. It was one of the major traditions that shaped Hinduism.
  17. ^abcdefghijWitzel 1995.
  18. ^abPrasoon, Shrikant (11 August 2010). "Ch. 2, Vedang, Kalp".Indian Scriptures.Pustak Mahal.ISBN978-81-223-1007-8.
  19. ^abGriffith, Ralph Thomas Hotchkin (1987) [1899].The Texts of the White Yajurveda. Translated with a popular commentary(Reprint ed.). Benaras: E. J. Lazarus and Co.ISBN81-215-0047-8.
  20. ^Stephanie Jamison (2015).The Rigveda — Earliest Religious Poetry of India.Oxford University Press. pp. 1393, 1399.ISBN978-0190633394.
  21. ^abJan C. Heesterman (1987) (1987),Vedism and Brahmanism,MacMillan Encyclopedia of Religion
  22. ^abKuz'mina 2007,p. 319.
  23. ^Singh 2008,p. 185.
  24. ^abcdefMichaels 2004,p. 33.
  25. ^abJamison, Stephanie; Witzel, Michael (1992)."Vedic Hinduism"(PDF).Harvard University. pp. 2–4.Retrieved4 August2018.
  26. ^Michaels 2004,pp. 32–36.
  27. ^Witzel 1995,pp. 3–4.
  28. ^Flood 1996,p. 21.
  29. ^abcdBronkhorst 2016,pp. 9–10.
  30. ^abFlood 1996,pp. 30–35.
  31. ^Hiltebeitel 2007,p. 5.
  32. ^Samuel 2010,p. 53–56.
  33. ^Flood 1996,p. 30.
  34. ^Hiltebeitel 2007,pp. 5–7.
  35. ^abcAnthony 2007,p. 454.
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  40. ^Witzel, Michael(2001)."Autochthonous Aryans? The Evidence from Old Indian and Iranian Texts"(PDF).Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies (EJVS).7(3): 1–93.
  41. ^Ratnagar, Shereen(2008). "The Aryan homeland debate in India". In Kohl, P. L.; Kozelsky, M.; Ben-Yehuda, N. (eds.).Selective Remembrances: Archaeology in the construction, commemoration, and consecration of national pasts.pp. 349–378.
  42. ^Bhan, Suraj(2002). "Aryanization of the Indus Civilization". In Panikkar, K. N.; Byres, T. J.; Patnaik, U. (eds.).The Making of History.pp. 41–55.
  43. ^Bryant 2001.
  44. ^Bryant, Edwin. 2001.The Indo-Aryan Controversy,p. 342[clarification needed]
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  46. ^abBryant & Patton 2005.
  47. ^Mallory & Adams 2006,pp. 460–461.
  48. ^Flood 1996,p. 33.
  49. ^Pletcher, Kenneth (2010).The History of India.Britannica Educational Publishing. p. 60.
  50. ^Roger D. Woodard (18 August 2006).Indo-European Sacred Space: Vedic and Roman Cult.University of Illinois Press. pp. 242–.ISBN978-0-252-09295-4.
  51. ^Anthony 2007,pp. 454–455.
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  55. ^Melton & Baumann 2010,p. 1412.
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  59. ^abJamison, Stephanie; Witzel, Michael (1992)."Vedic Hinduism"(PDF).Harvard University. pp. 1–5, 47–52, 74–77.Retrieved4 August2018.
  60. ^abcWest, Barbara A. (19 May 2010).Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania.Infobase Publishing.p. 357.ISBN9781438119137.The Kalasha are a unique people living in just three valleys near Chitral, Pakistan, the capital of North-West Frontier Province, which borders Afghanistan. Unlike their neighbors in the Hindu Kush Mountains on both the Afghani and Pakistani sides of the border the Kalasha have not converted to Islam. During the mid-20th century a few Kalasha villages in Pakistan were forcibly converted to this dominant religion, but the people fought the conversion and once official pressure was removed the vast majority continued to practice their own religion. Their religion is a form of Hinduism that recognizes many gods and spirits... given their Indo-Aryan language,... the religion of the Kalasha is much more closely aligned to the Hinduism of their Indian neighbors that to the religion of Alexander the Great and his armies.
  61. ^Samuel 2010,p. 113.
  62. ^Knipe 2015,pp. 1–50.
  63. ^Minahan, James B. (2014).Ethnic Groups of North, East, and Central Asia: An Encyclopedia.ABC-CLIO. p. 205.ISBN9781610690188.Living in the high mountain valleys, the Nuristani retained their ancient culture and their religion, a form of the ancient Vedic religion with many customs and rituals developed locally. Certain deities were revered only by one tribe or community, but one deity was universally worshipped by all Nuristani as the Creator, the Hindu god Yama Raja, calledimr'oorimraby the Nuristani tribes.
  64. ^Barrington, Nicholas; Kendrick, Joseph T.; Schlagintweit, Reinhard (18 April 2006).A Passage to Nuristan: Exploring the mysterious Afghan hinterland.I.B. Tauris.p. 111.ISBN9781845111755.Prominent sites include Hadda, near Jalalabad, but Buddhism never seems to have penetrated the remote valleys of Nuristan, where the people continued to practice an early form of polytheistic Hinduism.
  65. ^Weiss, Mitch; Maurer, Kevin (31 December 2012).No Way Out: A story of valor in the mountains of Afghanistan.Berkley Caliber. p. 299.ISBN9780425253403.Up until the late nineteenth century, many Nuristanis practiced a primitive form of Hinduism. It was the last area in Afghanistan to convert to Islam—and the conversion was accomplished by the sword.
  66. ^Bezhan, Frud (19 April 2017)."Pakistan's Forgotten Pagans get their Due".Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty.Retrieved31 July2017.About half of the Kalash practice a form of ancient Hinduism infused with old pagan and animist beliefs.
  67. ^Witzel, Michael (2012).The Origin of the World's Mythologies.
  68. ^Witzel, Michael (2005).Vala and Iwato: The Myth of the Hidden Sun in India, Japan, and beyond(PDF).
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  71. ^abcLaumakis 2008.
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  75. ^Maritain, Jacques; Watkin, E. I. (2005).An Introduction to Philosophy.Rowman & Littlefield. p. 7.ISBN978-0-7425-5053-7.
  76. ^Robinson, Catherine A. (2014).Interpretations of the Bhagavad-Gita and Images of the Hindu Tradition: The song of the Lord.Routledge. page 164, footnote 9.ISBN978-1-134-27891-6.
  77. ^Maritain, Jacques (2005).An Introduction to Philosophy.Rowman & Littlefield. pages 6–7 footnote 1.ISBN978-0-7425-5053-7.This [the primitive religion of the Vedas] resulted, after a period of confusion, in the formation of a new system, Brahmanism (or Hinduism), which is essentially a philosophy, a metaphysic, a work of human speculation,...; [footnote 1]... the neuter,Brahman,as the one impersonal substance.
  78. ^Leaman, Oliver (2002).Eastern Philosophy: Key Readings.Routledge. pp. 64–65.ISBN978-1-134-68918-7.The early Upanishads are primarily metaphysical treatises concerned with identifying the Brahman, the ground of the universe.... The essence of early Brahmanism is the search for the Absolute and its natural development is in Vedantin monism which claims that the soul is identical with the Absolute.
  79. ^Biardeau, Madeleine (1994).Hinduism: The anthropology of a civilization.Oxford University Press. pp.17–22.ISBN978-0-19-563389-4.
  80. ^Monier-Williams, Monier (1891).Brāhmanism and Hindūism: Or, Religious Thought and Life in India, as Based on the Veda and Other Sacred Books of the Hindūs.J. Murray. pp.2–3.
  81. ^Sullivan 2001,p. 137.
  82. ^Lochtefeld, James (2001). "Brahman".The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism.Vol. 1: A–M. Rosen Publishing. p.122.ISBN978-0823931798.
  83. ^Michaels 2004,pp. 37–39.
  84. ^Bronkhorst 2017,p. 363.
  85. ^Bronkhorst, Johannes (2011).Buddhism in the Shadow of Brahmanism.Leiden: Brill.ISBN978-90-04-20140-8.OCLC729756183.
  86. ^Chande, M. B. (1998).Kautilyan Arthasastra.New Delhi: Atlantic Publishers and Distributors.ISBN81-7156-733-9.OCLC71205138.
  87. ^abBronkhorst 2015,p. 2.
  88. ^South Asia Scholar Activist Collective,Hindutva Harassment Field Manual,WikidataQ108732338
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  90. ^abRaf Gelders, Willem Delders (2003),Mantras of Anti-Brahmanism: Colonial Experience of Indian Intellectuals,Economic and Political Weekly 38(43):4611–4617. DOI:10.2307/4414197
  91. ^Goodall, Dominic (2001).Hindu Scriptures.Motilal Banarsidass. pp. ix–xx.ISBN978-81-208-1770-8.
  92. ^Kramer, Kenneth (January 1986).World Scriptures: An Introduction to Comparative Religions.Paulist Press. pp. 34ff.ISBN978-0-8091-2781-8.
  93. ^David Christian (1 September 2011).Maps of Time: An Introduction to Big History.University of California Press. pp. 18ff.ISBN978-0-520-95067-2.
  94. ^Singh 2008,pp. 206ff.
  95. ^Boyer, A. M. (1901). "Etude sur l'origine de la doctrine du samsara".Journal Asiatique.9(18): 451–453, 459–468.
  96. ^Krishan, Yuvraj (1997).Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan.Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan.ISBN978-81-208-1233-8.
  97. ^Laumakis 2008,pp. 90–99.
  98. ^Ranade, R. D. (1926).A Constructive Survey of Upanishadic Philosophy.Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan. pp. 147–148.... in certain other places [of Rigveda], an approach is being made to the idea of Transmigration.... There we definitely know that the whole hymn is address to a departed spirit, and the poet [of the Rigvedic hymn] says that he is going to recall the departed soul in order that it may return again and live.
  99. ^Laumakis 2008,p. 90.
  100. ^Atsushi Hayakawa (2014).Circulation of Fire in the Veda.LIT Verlag Münster. pp. 66–67, 101–103.ISBN978-3-643-90472-0.
  101. ^Sayers, Matthew R. (2013).Feeding the Dead: Ancestor worship in ancient India.Oxford University Press. pp. 1–9.ISBN978-0-19-989643-1.
  102. ^Sayers, Matthew Rae.Feeding the ancestors: ancestor worship in ancient Hinduism and Buddhism(PhD thesis). University of Texas. p. 12.
  103. ^Sayers, Matthew R. (1 November 2015). McGovern, Nathan (ed.)."Feeding the Dead: Ancestor worship in ancient India".The Journal of Hindu Studies.8(3): 336–338.doi:10.1093/jhs/hiv034.ISSN1756-4255.
  104. ^Keown, Damien (2013).Buddhism: A very short introduction.Oxford University Press. pp. 28, 32–38.ISBN978-0-19-966383-5.
  105. ^Tull, Herman Wayne (1989).The Vedic Origins of Karma: Cosmos as man in ancient Indian myth and ritual.State University of New York Press. pp. 1–3, 11–12.ISBN978-0-7914-0094-4.
  106. ^"Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 4.4.5–6".Berkley Center for Religion Peace & World Affairs. Georgetown University. 2012. Archived fromthe originalon 13 April 2013.
  107. ^Sayers, Matthew R. (2015). "The Śrāddha: The Development of Ancestor Worship in Classical Hinduism".Religion Compass.9(6): 182–197.doi:10.1111/rec3.12155.ISSN1749-8171.
  108. ^Flood 2008,p. 273.
  109. ^abcdefghijklmnopRenou, Louis(1947).Vedic India.Susil Gupta. pp. 101–110.
  110. ^Jamison, Stephanie; Brereton, Joel (2014).The Rigveda: The Earliest Religious Poetry of India.Oxford University Press. p. 32.
  111. ^Bloomfield, Maurice (1 June 2004).Hymns of the Atharva Veda.Kessinger Publishing. pp. 1–8.ISBN1419125087.
  112. ^abcdThe Vedas: With Illustrative Extracts.Translated by Ralph Thomas Hotchkin Griffith; T. B. Griffith. Book Tree, 2003. 2003. pp. 56–57.ISBN9781585092239.
  113. ^Singhal, K. C.; Gupta, Roshan (2003). "Vedic period: A new interpretation".The Ancient History of India.Atlantic Publishers and Distributors. p. 150.ISBN8126902868.
  114. ^"Haoma i. Botany".Encyclopædia Iranica.
  115. ^Renou, Louis (1985) [1947].L'Inde Classique.Librairie d'Ameriqe et d'Orient. Vol. 1. Paris. p. 328.ISBN2-7200-1035-9.{{cite book}}:CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  116. ^Staal, Frits(2008).Discovering the Vedas: Origins, mantras, rituals, insights.Penguin Books. pp. 3, 365.ISBN978-0-14-309986-4.
  117. ^Olivelle, Patrick (1992).The Samnyasa Upanisads: Hindu scriptures on asceticism and renunciation.Oxford University Press. pp. 92, 140–146.ISBN978-0-19-536137-7.
  118. ^Dalal, Roshen (2010).Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide.Penguin Books. p. 48.ISBN978-0-14-341421-6.
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  124. ^Dalal, Roshen (2010).Hinduism: An Alpha betical guide.Penguin Books. p. 74.ISBN978-0-14-341421-6.
  125. ^Dalal, Roshen (2010).Hinduism: An Alpha betical guide.Penguin Books. p. 218.ISBN978-0-14-341421-6.
  126. ^Bodewitz, Henk W. (2019).Vedic Cosmology and Ethics: Selected Studies.Brill.ISBN978-90-04-39864-1.
  127. ^abTiwari, K. N. (1998).Classical Indian Ethical Thought.Motilal Banarsidass. p. 87.ISBN978-8120816077.
  128. ^A Dhand (2002), The dharma of ethics, the ethics of dharma: Quizzing the ideals of Hinduism, Journal of Religious Ethics, 30(3), pages 347–372
  129. ^"AṦA (Asha" Truth ")".Encyclopaedia Iranica.Retrieved21 February2013.
  130. ^Monier-Williams (1899:223b)
  131. ^Mahony (1998:3).
  132. ^Oldenberg (1894) p 30. Cf. also Thieme (1960) p 308.
  133. ^Cf. Ramakrishna (1965) pp. 45–46
  134. ^Duchesne-Guillemin 1963,p. 46.
  135. ^Day, Terence P. (1982).The Conception of Punishment in Early Indian Literature.Ontario: Wilfrid Laurier University Press. pp. 42–45.ISBN0-919812-15-5.
  136. ^Macdonell, A.A.(1995).Vedic Mythology.Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass.ISBN81-208-1113-5– via Google Books.
  137. ^Singh, N. (1992). "The vivaha (marriage) Samskara as a paradigm for religio-cultural integration in Hinduism".Journal for the Study of Religion.5(1): 31–40.JSTOR24764135.
  138. ^Vivekananda, Swami (2005).Prabuddha Bharata[Awakened India]. Prabuddha Bharata Press. pp. 362, 594.ISBN9788178231686.
  139. ^Michaels 2004,pp. 36–38.
  140. ^Flood 1996,pp. 82, 224–49.
  141. ^Michaels 2004,p. 36.
  142. ^Muesse 2003,p. 115.
  143. ^Eliade, Mircea (2011).From Gautama Buddha to the Triumph of Christianity.History of Religious Ideas. Vol. 2. University of Chicago Press. pp. 44–46.ISBN978-0-226-02735-7.
  144. ^abcdeHiltebeitel 2007,p. 12.
  145. ^Samuel 2010,p. 193.
  146. ^abcdFlood 1996,p. 16.
  147. ^Osborne 2005,p. 9.
  148. ^Samuel 2010,p. 48-53.
  149. ^Hiltebeitel 2007,p. 3.
  150. ^abGomez 2013,p. 42.
  151. ^abLarson 2009.
  152. ^Eliade, Mircea (2011).From Gautama Buddha to the Triumph of Christianity.History of Religious Ideas. Vol. 2. University of Chicago Press. pp. 49–54.ISBN978-0-226-02735-7.
  153. ^Michaels 2004,p. 40.
  154. ^Neville, Robert (2001).Religious Truth.SUNY Press. p. 51.ISBN9780791447789.
  155. ^Coward, Harold(2008).The perfectibility of human nature in eastern and western thought.SUNY Press. p. 114.ISBN9780791473368.
  156. ^Fowler, Jeaneane D.Perspectives of Reality: An introduction to the philosophy of Hinduism.p. 46.
  157. ^Hume, Robert E. (1966).The American College Dictionary.Random House.[Vedānta] is concerned with the end of the Vedas, both chronologically and teleologically.
  158. ^abcCrawford, S. Cromwell (1972). "review of L. M. Joshi,Brahmanism, Buddhism and Hinduism".Philosophy East and West.
  159. ^Kalghatgi, Dr. T.G. (1988).Study of Jainism.Jaipur: Prakrit Bharti Academy.
  160. ^Masih, Y. (2000).A Comparative Study of Religions.Delhi, IN: Motilal Banarsidass. p. 18.ISBN81-208-0815-0.There is no evidence to show that Jainism and Buddhism ever subscribed to Vedic sacrifices, Vedic deities or caste. They are parallel or native religions of India and have contributed... much to the growth of even classical Hinduism of the present times.
  161. ^Jaini, P.S. (1979).The Jaina Path to Purification.Delhi, IN: Motilal Banarsidass. p. 169.Jainas themselves have no memory of a time when they fell within the Vedic fold. Any theory that attempts to link the two traditions, moreover fails to appreciate rather distinctive and very non-Vedic character of Jaina cosmology, soul theory, karmic doctrine and atheism.
  162. ^Zimmer 1989,p. 217.
  163. ^Svarghese, Alexander P. (2008).India: History, religion, vision and contribution to the world.pp. 259–260.
  164. ^Helmuth von Glasenapp, Shridhar B. Shrotri. 1999. Jainism: an Indian religion of salvation. P.24. "Thus not only nothing, from the philosophical and the historical point of view, comes in the way of the supposition that Jainism was established by Parsva around 800 BCE, but it is rather confirmed in everything that we know of the spiritual life of that period."
  165. ^Dundas, Paul (2002).The Jains.p. 17.Jainism, then, was in origin merely one component of a north Indian ascetic culture that flourished in the Ganges basin from around the eighth or seventh centuries BCE.
  166. ^"Buddhism".Encyclopædia Britannica(Online Library ed.). 2009.
  167. ^Ruhe, Brian.Freeing the Buddha: Diversity on a sacred path – large scale concerns.pp. 78–83.
  168. ^Sarao, K.T.S.A text book of the history of Theravāda Buddhism.Dept. of Buddhist Studies. University of Delhi. p. 110.

Sources[edit]

Further reading[edit]

External links[edit]

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