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Histories(Herodotus)

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Histories
Fragment fromHistories,Book VIII on 2nd-century Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 2099
AuthorHerodotus
LanguageAncient Greek
GenreHistory
PublisherVarious
Publication date
c. 430 BC[citation needed]
Publication placeGreece

TheHistories(Greek:Ἱστορίαι,Historíai;[a]also known asThe History[1]) ofHerodotusis considered the founding work of history inWestern literature.[2]Although not a fully impartial record, it remains one of the West's most important sources regarding these affairs. Moreover, it established thegenreand study ofhistoryin the Western world (despite the existence of historical records andchroniclesbeforehand).

TheHistoriesalso stands as one of the earliest accounts of the rise of thePersian Empire,as well as the events and causes of theGreco-Persian Warsbetween the Persian Empire and theGreek city-statesin the 5th century BC. Herodotus portrays the conflict as one between the forces of slavery (the Persians) on the one hand, and freedom (theAtheniansand the confederacy of Greek city-states which united against the invaders) on the other.The Historieswas at some point divided into the ninebooksthat appear in modern editions, conventionally named after the nineMuses.

Motivation for writing[edit]

Herodotus claims to have traveled extensively around theancient world,conducting interviews and collecting stories for his book, almost all of which covers territories of the Persian Empire. At the beginning ofThe Histories,Herodotus sets out his reasons for writing it:

Here are presented the results of the enquiry carried out by Herodotus of Halicarnassus. The purpose is to prevent the traces of human events from being erased by time, and to preserve the fame of the important and remarkable achievements produced by both Greeks and non-Greeks; among the matters covered is, in particular, the cause of the hostilities between Greeks and non-Greeks.

— Herodotus,The Histories,Robin Waterfield translation (2008)

Summary[edit]

Book I (Clio)[edit]

Edwin Long's 1875 interpretation ofThe Babylonian Marriage Marketas described by Herodotus in Book 1 of theHistories
  • A description the geographic location of severalAnatoliantribes, including theCappadocians,Matieni,Phrygians,andPaphlagonians.(1.72)
  • TheBattle of Halys;Thalespredicts thesolar eclipse of May 28, 585 BC(1.74)
  • Croesus's defeat byCyrus II of Persia,and how he later became Cyrus's advisor (1.70–92)
  • The Tyrrhenians' descent from the Lydians: "Then the one group, having drawn the lot, left the country and came down to Smyrna and built ships, in which they loaded all their goods that could be transported aboard ship, and sailed away to seek a livelihood and a country; until at last, after sojourning with one people after another, they came to the Ombrici, where they founded cities and have lived ever since. They no longer called themselves Lydians, but Tyrrhenians, after the name of the king's son who had led them there,". (1.94)[4]
  • The rulers of theMedes:Deioces,Phraortes,Cyaxares,Astyages,Cyrus II of Persia(1.95–144)
  • The rise of Deioces over the Medes
  • Astyages's attempt to destroy Cyrus, and Cyrus's rise to power
  • Harpagustricked into eating his son, his revenge against Astyages by assisting Cyrus
  • Theculture of the Persians
  • The history and geography of theIonians,and the attacks on it by Harpagus
  • Pactyes' convinces the Lydians to revolt. Rebellion fails and he seeks refuge from Mazares inCyme (Aeolis)
  • The culture ofAssyria,especially the design and improvement of the city ofBabylonand the ways of its people
  • Cyrus's attack on Babylon, including his revenge on the riverGyndesand his famous method for entering the city
  • Cyrus's ill-fated attack on theMassagetæ,leading to his death

Book II (Euterpe)[edit]

Nile crocodileallowing thetrochilusto eat leeches in its mouth.[b]Drawing byHenry Scherren,1906

Book III (Thalia)[edit]

Book IV (Melpomene)[edit]

Scythian warriors, drawn after figures on anelectrumcup from the Kul'Oba kurgan burial nearKerch(Hermitage Museum,Saint Petersburg)
Relief ofDarius I,Persepolis
Statue ofAthena,the patron goddess of Athens

Book V (Terpsichore)[edit]

Book VI (Erato)[edit]

A Greektrireme
Miltiades
  • The order of Darius that the Greeks provide himearth and water,in which most consent, includingAegina
  • The Athenian request for assistance ofCleomenesof Sparta in dealing with the traitors
  • The history behind Sparta having two kings and their powers
  • The dethronement ofDemaratus,the other king of Sparta, due to his supposed false lineage
  • The arrest of the traitors in Aegina by Cleomenes and the new kingLeotychides
  • The suicide of Cleomenes in a fit of madness, possibly caused by his war withArgos,drinking unmixed wine, or his involvement in dethroning Demaratus
  • The battle between Aegina and Athens
  • The taking ofEretriaby the Persians after the Eretrians sent away Athenian help
  • Pheidippides's encounter with the godPanon a journey to Sparta to request aid
  • The assistance of thePlataeans,and the history behind their alliance with Athens
  • The Athenian win at theBattle of Marathon,led byMiltiadesand otherstrategoi(This section starts roughly around 6.100)[8]
  • The Spartans late arrival to assist Athens
  • The history of theAlcmaeonidaeand how they came about their wealth and status
  • The death of Miltiades after a failed attack onParosand the successful taking ofLemnos
The plain of Marathon today

Book VII (Polymnia)[edit]

  • The amassing of an army byDariusafter learning about the defeat atMarathon(7.1)
  • The quarrel betweenAriabignesandXerxesover which son should succeed Darius in which Xerxes is chosen (7.2-3)
  • The death of Darius in 486 BC (7.4)
  • The defeat of the Egyptian rebels by Xerxes
  • The advice given to Xerxes on invading Greece:Mardoniusfor invasion,Artabanusagainst (7.9-10)
LeonidasatThermopylae,byJacques-Louis David(1814)
  • The dreams of Xerxes in which a phantom frightens him and Artabanus into choosing invasion
  • The preparations for war, including building theXerxes CanalandXerxes' Pontoon Bridgesacross theHellespont
  • The offer byPythiusto give Xerxes all his money, in which Xerxes rewards him
  • The request by Pythius to allow one son to stay at home, Xerxes's anger, and the march out between the butchered halves of Pythius's sons
  • The destruction and rebuilding of the bridges built by theEgyptiansandPhoeniciansatAbydos
  • The siding with Persia of many Greek states, includingThessaly,Thebes,Melia,andArgos
  • The refusal of aid after negotiations byGeloofSyracuse,and the refusal fromCrete
  • The destruction of 400 Persian ships due to a storm
  • The small Greek force (approx. 7,000) led byLeonidas I,sent toThermopylaeto delay the Persian army (~5,283,220 (Herodotus) )
  • TheBattle of Thermopylaein which the Greeks hold the pass for 3 days
  • The secret pass divulged byEphialtes of Trachis,whichHydarnesuses to lead forces around the mountains to encircle the Greeks
  • The retreat of all but the Spartans,Thespians,and Thebans (forced to stay by the Spartans).
  • The Greek defeat and order by Xerxes to remove Leonidas's head and attach his torso to a cross
The Battle of Salamis,byWilhelm von Kaulbach(1868)

Book VIII (Urania)[edit]

  • Greek fleet is led byEurybiades,a Spartan commander who led the Greek fleet after the meeting at the Isthmus 481 BC,
  • The destruction by storm of two hundred ships sent to block the Greeks from escaping
  • The retreat of the Greek fleet after word of a defeat atThermopylae
  • The supernatural rescue ofDelphifrom a Persian attack
  • The evacuation ofAthensassisted by the fleet
  • The reinforcement of the Greek fleet atSalamis Island,bringing the total ships to 378
  • The destruction of Athens by the Persian land force after difficulties with those who remained
  • TheBattle of Salamis,the Greeks have the advantage due to better organization, and fewer losses due to ability to swim
  • The description of theAngarum,the Persian riding post
  • The rise in favor ofArtemisia,the Persian woman commander, and her council to Xerxes in favor of returning to Persia
TheSerpent Columndedicated by the victorious Greeks inDelphi,later transferred toConstantinople

Book IX (Calliope)[edit]

  • The second taking of an evacuatedAthens
  • The evacuation toThebesbyMardoniusafter the sending ofLacedaemoniantroops
  • The slaying ofMasistius,leader of the Persian cavalry, by the Athenians
  • The warning fromAlexanderto the Greeks of an impending attack
  • The death of Mardonius byAeimnestus
  • The Persian retreat to Thebes where they are afterwards slaughtered (Battle of Plataea)
  • The description and dividing of the spoils
  • The speedy escape ofArtabazusinto Asia.
  • The Persian defeat inIoniaby the Greek fleet (Battle of Mycale), and the Ionian revolt
  • The mutilation of the wife ofMasistesordered byAmestris,wife of Xerxes
  • The death of Masistes after his intent to rebel
  • The Athenian blockade ofSestosand the capture ofArtayctes
  • The Persians' abortive suggestion to Cyrus to migrate from rocky Persis

Style[edit]

In his introduction toHecataeus' work,Genealogies:

Fragment from theHistoriesVIII onPapyrus Oxyrhynchus2099, early 2nd century AD

Hecataeus the Milesian speaks thus: I write these things as they seem true to me; for the stories told by the Greeks are various and in my opinion absurd.

This points forward to the "folksy" yet "international" outlook typical of Herodotus. However, one modern scholar has described the work of Hecataeus as "a curious false start to history,"[9]since despite his critical spirit, he failed to liberate history from myth. Herodotus mentions Hecataeus in hisHistories,on one occasion mocking him for his naive genealogy and, on another occasion, quoting Athenian complaints against his handling of their national history.[10]It is possible that Herodotus borrowed much material from Hecataeus, as stated byPorphyryin a quote recorded byEusebius.[11]In particular, it is possible that he copied descriptions of thecrocodile,hippopotamus,andphoenixfrom Hecataeus'sCircumnavigation of the Known World(Periegesis/Periodos ges), even misrepresenting the source as "Heliopolitans" (Histories2.73).[12]

But Hecataeus did not record events that had occurred in living memory, unlike Herodotus, nor did he include the oral traditions of Greek history within the larger framework of oriental history.[13]There is no proof that Herodotus derived the ambitious scope of his own work, with its grand theme of civilizations in conflict, from any predecessor, despite much scholarly speculation about this in modern times.[9][14]Herodotus claims to be better informed than his predecessors by relying on empirical observation to correct their excessive schematism. For example, he argues for continental asymmetry as opposed to the older theory of a perfectly circular earth with Europe and Asia/Africa equal in size (Histories4.36 and 4.42). However, he retains idealizing tendencies, as in his symmetrical notions of theDanubeandNile.[15]

His debt to previous authors of prose "histories" might be questionable, but there is no doubt that Herodotus owed much to the example and inspiration of poets and story-tellers. For example, Athenian tragic poets provided him with a world-view of a balance between conflicting forces, upset by thehubrisof kings, and they provided his narrative with a model of episodic structure. His familiarity with Athenian tragedy is demonstrated in a number of passages echoingAeschylus'sPersae,including the epigrammatic observation that the defeat of the Persian navy atSalamiscaused the defeat of the land army (Histories8.68 ~Persae728). The debt may have been repaid by Sophocles because there appear to be echoes ofThe Historiesin his plays, especially a passage inAntigonethat resembles Herodotus's account of the death of Intaphernes (Histories3.119 ~Antigone904–920).[16]However, this point is one of the most contentious issues in modern scholarship.[17]

Homerwas another inspirational source.[c]Just as Homer drew extensively on a tradition of oral poetry, sung by wandering minstrels, so Herodotus appears to have drawn on an Ionian tradition of story-telling, collecting and interpreting the oral histories he chanced upon in his travels. These oral histories often contained folk-tale motifs and demonstrated a moral, yet they also contained substantial facts relating to geography, anthropology, and history, all compiled by Herodotus in an entertaining style and format.[19]

Mode of explanation[edit]

Herodotus writes with the purpose of explaining; that is, he discusses the reason for or cause of an event. He lays this out in the preamble: "This is the publication of the research of Herodotus of Halicarnassus, so that the actions of people shall not fade with time, so that the great and admirable achievements of both Greeks and barbarians shall not go unrenowned, and, among other things,to set forth the reasons why they waged war on each other."[20]

This mode of explanation traces itself all the way back to Homer,[21]who opened theIliadby asking:

Which of the immortals set these two at each other's throats?
Zeus' son and Leto's, offended
by the warlord. Agamemnon had dishonored
Chryses, Apollo's priest, so the god
struck the Greek camp with plague,
and the soldiers were dying of it.[22]

Both Homer and Herodotus begin with a question of causality. In Homer's case, "who set these two at each other's throats?" In Herodotus's case, "Why did the Greeks and barbarians go to war with each other?"

Herodotus's means of explanation does not necessarily posit a simple cause; rather, his explanations cover a host of potential causes and emotions. It is notable, however, that "the obligations of gratitude and revenge are the fundamental human motives for Herodotus, just as... they are the primary stimulus to the generation of narrative itself."[23]

Some readers of Herodotus believe that his habit of tying events back to personal motives signifies an inability to see broader and more abstract reasons for action.Gouldargues to the contrary that this is likely because Herodotus attempts to provide the rational reasons, as understood by his contemporaries, rather than providing more abstract reasons.[24]

Types of causality[edit]

Herodotus attributes cause to both divine and human agents. These are not perceived as mutually exclusive, but rather mutually interconnected. This is true of Greek thinking in general, at least fromHomeronward.[25]Gould notes that invoking the supernatural in order to explain an event does not answer the question "why did this happen?" but rather "why did this happen to me?" By way of example, faulty craftsmanship is the human cause for a house collapsing. However, divine will is the reason that the house collapses at the particular moment when I am inside. It was the will of the gods that the house collapsed while a particular individual was within it, whereas it was the cause of man that the house had a weak structure and was prone to falling.[26]

Some authors, includingGeoffrey de Ste-CroixandMabel Lang,have argued that Fate, or the belief that "this is how it had to be," is Herodotus's ultimate understanding of causality.[27]Herodotus's explanation that an event "was going to happen" maps well on to Aristotelean and Homeric means of expression. The idea of "it was going to happen" reveals a "tragic discovery" associated with fifth-century drama. This tragic discovery can be seen in Homer'sIliadas well.[28]

John Gould argues that Herodotus should be understood as falling in a long line of story-tellers, rather than thinking of his means of explanation as a "philosophy of history" or "simple causality." Thus, according to Gould, Herodotus's means of explanation is a mode of story-telling and narration that has been passed down from generations prior:[29]

Herodotus' sense of what was 'going to happen' is not the language of one who holds a theory of historical necessity, who sees the whole of human experience as constrained by inevitability and without room for human choice or human responsibility, diminished and belittled by forces too large for comprehension or resistance; it is rather the traditional language of a teller of tales whose tale is structured by his awareness of the shape it must have and who presents human experience on the model of the narrative patterns that are built into his stories; the narrative impulse itself, the impulse towards 'closure' and the sense of an ending, is retrojected to become 'explanation'.[30]

Reliability[edit]

Dedicationin theHistories,translated into Latin byLorenzo Valla,Venice 1494

The accuracy of the works of Herodotus has been controversial since his own era. Kenton L. Sparks writes, "In antiquity, Herodotus had acquired the reputation of being unreliable, biased, parsimonious in his praise of heroes, and mendacious". The historianDuris of Samoscalled Herodotus a "myth-monger".[31]Cicero(On the LawsI.5) said that his works were full of legends or "fables".[32]The controversy was also commented on byAristotle,Flavius JosephusandPlutarch.[33][34]TheAlexandriangrammarianHarpocrationwrote a whole book on "the lies of Herodotus".[35]Lucianof Samosata went as far as to deny the "father of history" a place among the famous on theIsland of the Blessedin hisVerae Historiae.

The works ofThucydideswere often given preference for their "truthfulness and reliability",[36]even if Thucydides basically continued on foundations laid by Herodotus, as in his treatment of the Persian Wars.[37]In spite of these lines of criticism, Herodotus' works were in general kept in high esteem and regarded as reliable by many. Many scholars, ancient and modern (such asStrabo,A. H. L. Heeren,etc.), routinely cited Herodotus.

To this day, some scholars regard his works as being at least partly unreliable. Detlev Fehling writes of "a problem recognized by everybody", namely that Herodotus frequently cannot be taken at face value.[38]Fehling argues that Herodotus exaggerated the extent of his travels and invented his sources.[39]For Fehling, the sources of many stories, as reported by Herodotus, do not appear credible in themselves. Persian and Egyptian informants tell stories that dovetail neatly into Greek myths and literature, yet show no signs of knowing their own traditions. For Fehling, the only credible explanation is that Herodotus invented these sources, and that the stories themselves were concocted by Herodotus himself.[40]

Like many ancient historians, Herodotus preferred an element of show[d]to purely analytic history, aiming to give pleasure with "exciting events, great dramas, bizarre exotica."[42]As such, certain passages have been the subject of controversy[43][44]and even some doubt, both in antiquity and today.[45][46][47][48][49][50][51]

Despite the controversy,[52]Herodotus has long served and still serves as the primary, often only, source for events in the Greek world, Persian Empire, and the broader region in the two centuries leading up to his own days.[53][54]So even if theHistorieswere criticized in some regards since antiquity, modern historians and philosophers generally take a more positive view as to their source andepistemologicvalue.[55]Herodotus is variously considered "father of comparative anthropology,"[53]"the father of ethnography,"[54]and "more modern than any other ancient historian in his approach to the ideal of total history."[55]

Discoveries made since the end of the 19th century have generally added to Herodotus' credibility. He describedGelonus,located inScythia,as a city thousands of times larger thanTroy;this was widely disbelieved until it was rediscovered in 1975. The archaeological study of the now-submergedancient Egyptiancity ofHeracleionand the recovery of the so-called "Naucratis stela" give credibility to Herodotus's previously unsupported claim that Heracleion was founded during the EgyptianNew Kingdom.

Babylon[edit]

Reconstruction of theOikoumene(inhabited world), ancient map based on Herodotus,c. 450 BC

Herodotus claimed to have visitedBabylon.The absence of any mention of theHanging Gardens of Babylonin his work has attracted further attacks on his credibility. In response, Dalley has proposed that the Hanging Gardens may have been inNinevehrather than in Babylon.[49]

Egypt[edit]

The reliability of Herodotus's writing about Egypt is sometimes questioned.[51]Alan B. Lloyd argues that, as a historical document, the writings of Herodotus are seriously defective, and that he was working from "inadequate sources."[45]Nielsen writes: "Though we cannot entirely rule out the possibility of Herodotus having been in Egypt, it must be said that his narrative bears little witness to it."[47]German historian Detlev Fehling questions whether Herodotus ever traveled up the Nile River, and considers doubtful almost everything that he says about Egypt and Ethiopia.[56][50]Fehling states that "there is not the slightest bit of history behind the whole story" about the claim of Herodotus that PharaohSesostriscampaigned in Europe, and that he left a colony inColchia.[48][46]Fehling concludes that the works of Herodotus are intended as fiction. Boedeker concurs that much of the content of the works of Herodotus are literary devices.[48][41]

However, a recent discovery of abaris(described inThe Histories) during an excavation of the sunken Egyptian port city of Thonis-Heracleion lends credence to Herodotus's travels and storytelling.[57]

Herodotus' contribution to the history andethnography of ancient Egyptand Africa was especially valued by various historians of the field (such asConstantin François de Chassebœuf, comte de Volney,W. E. B. Du Bois,Pierre Montet,Martin Bernal,Basil Davidson,Derek A. Welsby, Henry T. Aubin). Many scholars explicitly mention the reliability of Herodotus's work (such as on theNile Valley) and demonstrate corroboration of Herodotus' writings by modern scholars. A. H. L. Heeren quoted Herodotus throughout his work and provided corroboration by scholars regarding several passages (source of the Nile, location ofMeroë,etc.).[58]

Cheikh Anta Diopprovides several examples (like the inundations of the Nile) which, he argues, support his view that Herodotus was "quite scrupulous, objective, scientific for his time." Diop argues that Herodotus "always distinguishes carefully between what he has seen and what he has been told." Diop also notes that Strabo corroborated Herodotus' ideas about the Black Egyptians, Ethiopians, and Colchians.[59][60]Martin Bernalhas relied on Herodotus "to an extraordinary degree" in his controversial bookBlack Athena.[61]

British egyptologist Derek A. Welsby said that "archaeology graphically confirms Herodotus's observations."[62]To further his work on the Egyptians and Assyrians, historian and fiction writer Henry T. Aubin used Herodotus' accounts in various passages. For Aubin, Herodotus was "the author of the first important narrative history of the world."[63]

Scientific reasoning[edit]

On geography[edit]

Herodotus provides much information about the nature of the world and the status of science during his lifetime, often engaging in private speculation likewise. For example, he reports that the annual flooding of theNilewas said to be the result of melting snows far to the south, and he comments that he cannot understand how there can be snow inAfrica,the hottest part of the known world, offering an elaborate explanation based on the way that desert winds affect the passage of the Sun over this part of the world (2:18ff). He also passes on reports fromPhoeniciansailors that, whilecircumnavigating Africa,they "saw the sun on the right side while sailing westwards", although, being unaware of the existence of the southern hemisphere, he says that he does not believe the claim. Owing to this brief mention, which is included almost as an afterthought, it has been argued that Africa was circumnavigated by ancient seafarers, for this is precisely where the sun ought to have been.[64]His accounts of India are among the oldest records of Indian civilization by an outsider.[65][66][67]

On biology[edit]

Main article:Gold-digging ant
The Indian Gold Hunters,after Herodotus: gold ants pursuing gold hunters.

After journeys to India and Pakistan, French ethnologistMichel Peisselclaimed to have discovered an animal species that may illuminate one of the most bizarre passages in theHistories.[68]In Book 3, passages 102 to 105, Herodotus reports that a species of fox-sized, furry "ants"lives in one of the far eastern, Indian provinces of thePersian Empire.This region, he reports, is a sandy desert, and the sand there contains a wealth of fine gold dust. These giant ants, according to Herodotus, would often unearth the gold dust when digging their mounds and tunnels, and the people living in this province would then collect the precious dust. LaterPliny the Elderwould mention this story in thegold miningsection of hisNaturalis Historia.

TheHimalayan marmot

Peissel reports that, in an isolated region of northern Pakistan on theDeosai PlateauinGilgit–Baltistanprovince, there is a species ofmarmot– theHimalayan marmot,a type of burrowingsquirrel– that may have been what Herodotus called giant ants. The ground of the Deosai Plateau is rich in gold dust, much like the province that Herodotus describes. According to Peissel, he interviewed theMinarotribal people who live in the Deosai Plateau, and they have confirmed that they have, for generations, been collecting the gold dust that the marmots bring to the surface when they are digging their burrows.

Peissel offers the theory that Herodotus may have confused the old Persian word for "marmot" with the word for "mountain ant." Research suggests that Herodotus probably did not know any Persian (or any other language except his native Greek) and was forced to rely on many local translators when travelling in the vast multilingual Persian Empire. Herodotus did not claim to have personally seen the creatures which he described.[68][69]Herodotus did, though, follow up in passage 105 of Book 3 with the claim that the "ants" are said to chase and devour full-grown camels.

Accusations of bias[edit]

Some "calumnious fictions" were written about Herodotus in a work titledOn the Malice of HerodotusbyPlutarch,aChaeroneanby birth, (or it might have been aPseudo-Plutarch,in this case "a great collector of slanders" ), including the allegation that the historian was prejudiced against Thebes because the authorities there had denied him permission to set up a school.[70]Similarly, in aCorinthian Oration,Dio Chrysostom(or yet another pseudonymous author) accused the historian of prejudice againstCorinth,sourcing it in personal bitterness over financial disappointments[71]– an account also given byMarcellinusin hisLife of Thucydides.[72]In fact, Herodotus was in the habit of seeking out information from empowered sources within communities, such as aristocrats and priests, and this also occurred at an international level, withPericlean Athensbecoming his principal source of information about events in Greece. As a result, his reports about Greek events are often coloured by Athenian bias against rival states –Thebesand Corinth in particular.[73]

Use of sources and sense of authority[edit]

Croesus Receiving Tribute from a Lydian Peasant,byClaude Vignon

It is clear from the beginning of Book 1 of theHistoriesthat Herodotus utilizes (or at least claims to utilize) various sources in his narrative. K. H. Waters relates that "Herodotos did not work from a purely Hellenic standpoint; he was accused by the patriotic but somewhat imperceptive Plutarch of beingphilobarbaros,a pro-barbarian or pro-foreigner. "[74]

Herodotus at times relates various accounts of the same story. For example, in Book 1 he mentions both the Phoenician and the Persian accounts of Io.[75]However, Herodotus at times arbitrates between varying accounts: "I am not going to say that these events happened one way or the other. Rather, I will point out the manwho I know for a factbegan the wrong-doing against the Greeks. "[76]Again, later, Herodotus claims himself as an authority: "I know this is how it happened because I heard it from the Delphians myself."[77]

Throughout his work, Herodotus attempts to explain the actions of people. Speaking about Solon the Athenian, Herodotus states "[Solon] sailed away on the pretext of seeing the world,but it was really so that he could not be compelled to repeal any of the laws he had laid down."[78]Again, in the story about Croesus and his son's death, when speaking of Adrastus (the man who accidentally killed Croesus' son), Herodotus states: "Adrastus...believing himself to be the most ill-fated man he had ever known,cut his own throat over the grave. "[79]

Herodotus and myth[edit]

Although Herodotus considered his "inquiries" a serious pursuit of knowledge, he was not above relating entertaining tales derived from the collective body of myth, but he did so judiciously with regard for hishistorical method,by corroborating the stories through enquiry and testing their probability.[80]While the gods never make personal appearances in his account of human events, Herodotus states emphatically that "many things prove to me that the gods take part in the affairs of man" (IX, 100).

In Book One, passages 23 and 24, Herodotus relates the story ofArion,the renowned harp player, "second to no man living at that time," who was saved by a dolphin. Herodotus prefaces the story by noting that "a very wonderful thing is said to have happened," and alleges its veracity by adding that the "Corinthians and the Lesbians agree in their account of the matter." Having become very rich while at the court of Periander, Arion conceived a desire to sail to Italy and Sicily. He hired a vessel crewed by Corinthians, whom he felt he could trust, but the sailors plotted to throw him overboard and seize his wealth. Arion discovered the plot and begged for his life, but the crew gave him two options: that either he kill himself on the spot or jump ship and fend for himself in the sea. Arion flung himself into the water, and a dolphin carried him to shore.[81]

Herodotus clearly writes as both historian and teller of tales. Herodotus takes a fluid position between the artistic story-weaving of Homer and the rational data-accounting of later historians. John Herington has developed a helpful metaphor for describing Herodotus's dynamic position in the history of Western art and thought – Herodotus as centaur:

The human forepart of the animal... is the urbane and responsible classical historian; the body indissolubly united to it is something out of the faraway mountains, out of an older, freer and wilder realm where our conventions have no force.[82]

Herodotus is neither a mere gatherer of data nor a simple teller of tales – he is both. While Herodotus is certainly concerned with giving accurate accounts of events, this does not preclude for him the insertion of powerful mythological elements into his narrative, elements which will aid him in expressing the truth of matters under his study. Thus to understand what Herodotus is doing in theHistories,we must not impose strict demarcations between the man as mythologist and the man as historian, or between the work as myth and the work as history. As James Romm has written, Herodotus worked under a common ancient Greek cultural assumption that the way events are remembered and retold (e.g. in myths or legends) produces a valid kind of understanding, even when this retelling is not entirely factual.[83]For Herodotus, then, it takes both myth and history to produce truthful understanding.

Legacy[edit]

On the legacy ofThe HistoriesofHerodotus,historianBarry S. Strausswrites:

He is simply one of the greatest storytellers who ever wrote. His narrative ability is one of the reasons... those who call Herodotus the father of history. Now that title is one that he richly deserves. A Greek who lived in the fifth century BC, Herodotus was a pathfinder. He traveled the eastern Mediterranean and beyond to do research into human affairs: from Greece to Persia, from the sands of Egypt to the Scythian steppes, and from the rivers of Lydia to the dry hills of Sparta. The Greek for "research" is historia, where our word "history" comes from... Herodotus is a great historian. His work holds up very well when judged by the yardstick of modern scholarship. But he is more than a historian. He is a philosopher with three great themes: the struggle betweenEastandWest,the power of liberty, and the rise and fall of empires. Herodotus takes the reader from the rise of the Persian Empire to its crusade against Greek independence, and from the stirrings of Hellenic self-defense to the beginnings of the overreach that would turn Athens into a new empire of its own. He goes from the cosmos to the atom, ranging between fate and the gods, on the one hand, and the ability of the individual to make a difference, on the other. And then there is the sheer narrative power of his writing... The old master keeps calling us back.[84]

In popular culture[edit]

Historical novelssourcing material from Herodotus

  • Kapuściński, R.Travels with Herodotus.

Critical editions[edit]

  • Herodotus(1908) [c. 430BC]. "Tomvs prior: Libros I-IV continens". In Hude, C. (ed.).Herodoti Historiae.Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
  • Herodotus(1908) [c. 430BC]. "Tomvs alter: Libri V-IX continens". In Hude, C. (ed.).Herodoti Historiae.Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
  • Herodotus(2015) [c. 430BC]. "Tomvs prior: Libros I-IV continens". In Wilson, N.G. (ed.).Herodoti Historiae.Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
  • Herodotus(2015) [c. 430BC]. "Tomvs alter: Libri V-IX continens". In Wilson, N.G. (ed.).Herodoti Historiae.Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.

Translations[edit]

  • Herodotus(1958) [c. 430BC].The Histories.Translated by Carter, Harry.

Manuscripts[edit]

See also[edit]

Notes[edit]

  1. ^Ancient Greek:[hi.storˈi.ai̯]
  2. ^Herodotus (Book II, 68) claimed that thetrochilusbird visited the crocodile, which opened its mouth in what would now be called acleaning symbiosisto eat leeches. A modern survey of the evidence finds only occasional reports ofsandpipers"removing leeches from the mouth and gular scutes and snapping at insects along the reptile's body."[5]
  3. ^"In the scheme and plan of his work, in the arrangement and order of its parts, in the tone and character of the thoughts, in ten thousand little expressions and words, the Homeric student appears."[18]
  4. ^Boedeker comments on Herodotus's use of literary devices.[41]

References[edit]

  1. ^ab Herodotus(1987) [c. 430BC].The HistoryἹστορίαι[The History]. Translated by Gren, David. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. pp. 37–38.ISBN0-226-32770-1.
  2. ^ Herodotus;Arnold, John H. (2000).History: A very short introduction.Oxford University Press. p. 17.ISBN0-19-285352-X.
  3. ^Fehling, Detlev (1989). "Some demonstrably false source citations".Herodotus and His 'Sources'.Francis Cairns, Ltd. 50–57.ISBN0-905205-70-7.
    Lindsay, Jack (1974). "Helen in the Fifth Century".Helen of TroyRowman and Littlefield. 133–134.ISBN0-87471-581-4
  4. ^Herodotus. The Histories. Translated by A. D. Godley, Harvard University Press, 1920,http:// perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0126:book=1:chapter=94.
  5. ^Macfarland, Craig G.; Reeder, W. G. (1974). "Cleaning symbiosis involving Galapagos tortoises and two species of Darwin's finches".Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie.34(5): 464–483.doi:10.1111/j.1439-0310.1974.tb01816.x.PMID4454774.
  6. ^Geggel, Laura (March 19, 2019)."2,500 Years Ago, Herodotus Described a Weird Ship. Now, Archaeologists Have Found it".Live Science.Retrieved2019-03-19.
  7. ^Kim, Lawrence (2010). "Homer, poet and historian".Homer Between History and Fiction in Imperial Greek Literature.Cambridge University Press. 30-35ISBN978-0-521-19449-5.
    Allan, Williams (2008). "Introduction".Helen.Cambridge University Press. 22-24ISBN0-521-83690-5.
    Lindsay, Jack (1974). "Helen in the Fifth Century".Helen of Troy.Rowman and Littlefield. 135-138.ISBN0-87471-581-4
  8. ^"Herodotus, The Histories, Book 6, chapter 100, section 1".perseus.tufts.edu.Retrieved2017-10-03.
  9. ^abMurray (1986),p. 188
  10. ^Herodotus,Histories2.143,6.137
  11. ^Preparation of the Gospel,X, 3
  12. ^Immerwahr (1985),pp. 430, 440
  13. ^Immerwahr (1985),p. 431
  14. ^Burn (1972),pp. 22–23
  15. ^Immerwahr (1985),p. 430
  16. ^Immerwahr (1985),pp. 427, 432
  17. ^Richard Jebb (ed),Antigone,Cambridge University Press, 1976, pp. 181–182, n. 904–920
  18. ^Rawlinson (1859),p. 6
  19. ^Murray (1986),pp. 190–191
  20. ^Blanco (2013),p. 5
  21. ^Gould (1989),p. 64
  22. ^Homer,Iliad,trans. Stanley Lombardo (Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company,1997): 1, Bk. 1, lines 9–16.
  23. ^Gould (1989),p. 65
  24. ^Gould (1989),p. 67
  25. ^Gould (1989),pp. 67–70
  26. ^Gould (1989),p. 71
  27. ^Gould (1989),pp. 72–73
  28. ^Gould (1989),pp. 75–76
  29. ^Gould (1989),pp. 76–78
  30. ^Gould (1989),pp. 77–78
  31. ^Marincola (2001),p. 59
  32. ^Roberts (2011),p. 2
  33. ^Sparks (1998),p. 58
  34. ^Asheri, Lloyd & Corcella (2007)
  35. ^Cameron (2004),p. 156
  36. ^Neville Morley:The Anti-Thucydides: Herodotus and the Development of Modern Historiography.In: Jessica Priestly and Vasiliki Zali (eds.):Brill's Companion to the Reception of Herodotus in Antiquity and Beyond.Brill, Leiden and Boston 2016, pp. 143–166, here especially p. 148 ff.
  37. ^Vassiliki Zali:Herodotus and His Successors: The Rhetoric of the Persian Wars in Thucydides and Xenophon.In: Priestly and Zali (eds.):Brill's Companion to the Reception of Herodotus in Antiquity and Beyond.Brill, Leiden and Boston 2016, pp. 34–58, here p. 38.
  38. ^Fehling (1994),p. 2
  39. ^Fehling (1989)
  40. ^Fehling (1989),pp. 4, 53–54
  41. ^abBoedeker (2000),pp. 101–102
  42. ^Saltzman (2010)
  43. ^Archambault (2002),p. 171
  44. ^Farley (2010),p. 21
  45. ^abLloyd (1993),p. 4
  46. ^abFehling (1994),p. 13
  47. ^abNielsen (1997),pp. 42–43
  48. ^abcMarincola (2001),p. 34
  49. ^abDalley (2003)
  50. ^abBaragwanath & de Bakker (2010),p. 19
  51. ^abDalley (2013)
  52. ^Mikalson (2003),pp. 198–200
  53. ^abBurn (1972),p. 10
  54. ^abJones (1996)
  55. ^abMurray (1986),p. 189
  56. ^Fehling (1994),pp. 4–6
  57. ^Solly, Meilan."Wreck of Unusual Ship Described by Herodotus Recovered From Nile Delta".Smithsonian.
  58. ^Heeren (1838),pp. 13, 379, 422–424
  59. ^Diop (1981),p. 1
  60. ^Diop (1974),p. 2
  61. ^Norma Thompson:Herodotus and the Origins of the Political Community: Arion's Leap.Yale University Press, New Haven and London 1996, p. 113.
  62. ^Welsby (1996),p. 40
  63. ^Aubin (2002),pp. 94–96, 100–102, 118–121, 141–144, 328, 336
  64. ^"Herodotus on the First Circumnavigation of Africa".Livius.org.1996.Retrieved12 June2019.
  65. ^The Indian Empire.Vol. 2. 1909. p. 272 – viaDigital South Asia Library.{{cite book}}:|work=ignored (help)
  66. ^Jain, Meenakshi (1 January 2011).The India They Saw: Foreign Accounts.Vol. 1–4. Delhi:Prabhat Prakashan.ISBN978-81-8430-106-9.
  67. ^Majumdar, Ramesh Chandra (1981).The Classical Accounts of India: Being a Compilation of the English Translations of the Accounts Left by Herodotus, Megasthenes, Arrian, Strabo, Quintus, Diodorus, Siculus, Justin, Plutarch, Frontinus, Nearchus, Apollonius, Pliny, Ptolemy, Aelian, and Others with Maps.Calcutta: Firma KLM. pp.504.OCLC247581880.
  68. ^abPeissel (1984)
  69. ^Simons, Marlise(25 November 1996)."Himalayas offer clue to legend of gold-digging 'ants'".The New York Times.p. 5.Retrieved23 February2016.
  70. ^Rawlinson (1859),pp. 13–14
  71. ^"Dio ChrysostomOrat.xxxvii, p11 ".Penelope.uchicago.edu.Retrieved13 September2012.
  72. ^Marcellinus,Life of Thucydides
  73. ^Burn (1972),pp. 8, 9, 32–34
  74. ^Waters (1985),p. 3
  75. ^Blanco (2013),pp. 5–6, §1.1, 1.5
  76. ^Blanco (2013),p. 6, §1.5
  77. ^Blanco (2013),p. 9, §1.20
  78. ^Blanco (2013),p. 12, §1.29
  79. ^Blanco (2013),p. 17, §1.45, ¶2
  80. ^Wardman (1960)
  81. ^Histories1.23–24.
  82. ^Romm (1998),p. 8
  83. ^Romm (1998),p. 6
  84. ^ Strauss, B.S.(14 June 2014)."One of the greatest storytellers who ever lived".Off the Shelf (offtheshelf ).

Sources[edit]

  • Asheri, David; Lloyd, Alan; Corcella, Aldo (2007).A Commentary on Herodotus, Books 1–4.Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-814956-9.
  • Baragwanath, Emily; de Bakker, Mathieu (2010).Herodotus.Oxford Bibliographies Online Research Guide. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-980286-9.
  • Herodotus; Blanco, Walter (2013).The Histories.New York, NY: W.W. Norton & Company.ISBN978-0-393-93397-0.
  • Boedeker, Deborah (2000). "Herodotus' genre(s)". In Depew, Mary; Obbink, Dirk (eds.).Matrices of Genre: Authors, canons, and society.Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. pp. 97–114.ISBN978-0-674-03420-4.
  • Cameron, Alan (2004).Greek Mythography in the Roman World.Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-803821-4.
  • Dalley, S. (2003). "Why did Herodotus not mention the Hanging Gardens of Babylon?". In Derow, P.; Parker, R. (eds.).Herodotus and his World.New York, NY: Oxford University Press. pp. 171–189.ISBN978-0-19-925374-6.
  • Dalley, S. (2013).The Mystery of the Hanging Garden of Babylon: An elusive world-wonder traced.Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-966226-5.
  • Evans, J.A.S (1968). "Father of History or Father of Lies: The reputation of Herodotus".Classical Journal.64:11–17.
  • Farley, David G. (2010).Modernist Travel Writing: Intellectuals abroad.Columbia, MO: University of Missouri Press.ISBN978-0-8262-7228-7.
  • Fehling, Detlev (1989) [1971].Herodotos and His 'Sources': Citation, invention, and narrative art.Arca Classical and Medieval Texts, Papers, and Monographs. Vol. 21. Translated by Howie, J.G. Leeds, UK: Francis Cairns.ISBN978-0-905205-70-0.
  • Immerwahr, Henry R. (1985). "Herodotus". In Easterling, P.E.; Knox, B.M.W. (eds.).Greek Literature.The Cambridge History of Classical Greek Literature. Vol. 1. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-0-521-21042-3.
  • Jain, Meenakshi (2011).The India They Saw: Foreign accounts.Delhi, IN: Ocean Books.ISBN978-81-8430-106-9.
  • Lloyd, Alan B. (1993).Herodotus.Études préliminaires aux religions orientales dans l'Empire romain; Book II. Vol. 43. Leiden, NL: Brill.ISBN978-90-04-07737-9.
  • Majumdar, R.C. (1981).The Classical accounts of India.Calcutta, IN: Firma KLM.ISBN978-0-8364-0704-4.Being a compilation of the English translations of the accounts left by Herodotus, Megasthenes, Arrian, Strabo, Quintus, Diodorus, Siculus, Justin, Plutarch, Frontinus, Nearchus, Apollonius, Pliny, Ptolemy, Aelian, and others with maps.
  • Mikalson, Jon D. (2003).Herodotus and Religion in the Persian Wars.Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press.ISBN978-0-8078-2798-7.
  • Nielsen, Flemming A.J. (1997).The Tragedy in History: Herodotus and the deuteronomistic history.A&C Black.ISBN978-1-85075-688-0.
  • Rawlinson, George (1859).The History of Herodotus.Vol. 1. New York, NY: D. Appleton and Company.
  • Roberts, Jennifer T. (2011).Herodotus: A very short introduction.Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-957599-2.
  • Sparks, Kenton L. (1998).Ethnicity and Identity in Ancient Israel: Prolegomena to the study of ethnic sentiments and their expression in the Hebrew Bible.Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns.ISBN978-1-57506-033-0.
  • Waters, K.H. (1985).Herodotos the Historian: His problems, methods, and originality.University of Oklahoma Press.ISBN978-0-8061-1928-1.

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