History of Andhra Pradesh

The recorded history ofAndhra Pradesh,one of the 28 states of 21st-century India, begins in theVedic period.It is mentioned inSanskrit epicssuch as theAitareya Brahmana(800BCE).Its sixth-century BCE incarnationAssakalay between theGodavariandKrishna Rivers,one of sixteenmahajanapadas(700–300 BCE). TheSatavahanassucceeded them (230 BCE–220 CE), builtAmaravati,and reached a zenith underGautamiputra Satakarni.

After the Satavahanas, the region fragmented intofiefdoms.By the late second century CE,Andhra Ikshvakusruled along the Krishna River. In the fourth century CE, thePallava dynastyruled southern Andhra Pradesh andTamilakam,and had a capital atKanchipuram.Their power increased in the reigns ofMahendravarman I(571–630) andNarasimhavarman I(630–668), and dominated northernTamilakamand the southernTelugu-speakingregion until the end of the ninth century.Northern Andhra Pradesh was underVengi Chalukyasstarting from 624 CE. Later during 1002 CE Vengi Chalukyas became subordinate ofImperial CholaswhenRajaraja Chola Ihelped Vengi Chalukyas to secure the Vengi throne fromTelugu Cholaking Jata Choda Bhima. From 1002 CE till 1206 CE Andhra Pradesh was under Imperial Cholas.

From 1206 CE to 1323 CE theKakatiya dynastyunified the land and in that golden ageTikkana’s translation of theMahabharatafoundedTeluguliterature. In 1258 CE, Pandyan emperorJatavarman Sundara Pandyan IdefeatedNellore Cholasand Kakatiyas, extendingPandyan empiretill Nellore. Kakatiyas unified the Andhra again during internal crisis in Pandyan empire. In 1323 CE,Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq,sultan of Delhi, sent a large army underUlugh Khanto laysiege to Warangal.After theKakatiya dynastyfell, theDelhi Sultanate,and the Persio-Tajiksultanate of central India competed for the region. In the end theMusunuri Nayakswon over Delhi.

UnderKrishnadevarayaof theVijayanagara Empire(1336 CE–1646 CE) the Telugus became independent, then theQutb Shahi dynastyruled theBahmani Sultanatethere from the early 16th to the end of the 17th centuries, and was tolerant of Telugu culture.

The French, under theMarquis de Bussy-Castelnau,and the English, underRobert Clive,altered the regional polity. In 1765 CE, Clive and thechiefand council atVisakhapatnamobtained theNorthern CircarsfromMughalemperorShah Alam.The British later defeated Maharaja Vijaya Rama Gajapati Raju of Vizianagaram, in 1792 CE.

Andhra Statewas created in the year 1953 CE.Potti Sriramuluhad campaigned for a state independent of theMadras Presidency,andTanguturi Prakasam Pantulusocial-reform movements led to the founding of Andhra State, with a capital atKurnooland freedom-fighter Pantulu as its first chief minister. A democracy with two stable political parties and a modern economy emerged under theN. T. Rama Rao.

India became independentin 1947. TheNizam of Hyderabad,Mir Osman Ali Khanto, wanted to remain independent, but in 1948 the Indian ArmyannexedHyderabad to theDominion of India,where it becameHyderabad State.Andhra Pradesh, the first Indian state formed primarily on the basis of language post independence, split off from theMadras Presidencyin 1953.Andhra Statemerged with the Telugu-speaking portion ofHyderabad Statein 1956 to create the state ofAndhra Pradesh.

TheLok SabhaformedTelanganafrom ten districts of Andhra Pradesh on 18 February 2014.

Pre-Satavahana period

Chalcolithic age

TheChalcolithicperiod is dated using pottery and is believed to be around 1750 BC or earlier. The pottery used for dating the time period was discovered from sites near the Krishna andTungabhadra riverssuch as Patapadu. A painted spouted vessel found there resembles chalcolithic-age vessels fromNavdatoliand as far asBronze AgeCrete.

Great Stupa of Amaravati

Sculpture depicting thestupa,now at theGovernment Museum, Chennai.

Amaravati Marbles,a series of marble sculptures and inscriptions excavated from the site.

The surviving foundation of the stupa.

TheAmaravati Mahachaitya,also known as the Great Stupa of Amaravati was built around the third century BCE.

Proto-Historic and Historic periods

Main article:Andhra in Indian epic literature

The term Andhra was first mentioned as the name of a tribe in theAitareya Brahamana,datable to 800 B.C. Andhras left the north of Indian subcontinent near theYamuna river,crossed theVindhyasand came to present-day Andhra Pradesh andTelangana.It also mentions that the Andhras were socially parallel to other tribes like thePundras,SabarasandPulindas.There are references to an Andhra kingdom and a people known as the Andhras inIndian epic poetry(theMahabharata,theRamayanaand thePuranas). In theMahabharataRukmiruled theVidarbha Kingdom,which included theDeccan Plateau,the foothills of theVindhya Range,present-day Andhra Pradesh,Maharashtra,Madhya PradeshandKarnatakaand a little-known (now submerged) archipelago in theBay of Bengal.Ramais said to have lived in the forest around present-dayBhadrachalamduring his exile.

Ancient literature indicates a history dating to several centuries BCE, but archaeological evidence exists only from the last two millennia. The fifth-century Kingdom of Pratipalapura, identified withBhattiproluin theGunturdistrict of Andhra Pradesh, may have been the earliest kingdom in South India. Inscriptions suggest that King Kubera ruled Bhattiprolu around 230 BCE.

The script of the Bhattiprolu inscriptions was the progenitor of theBrahmilipi,which later diversified into modernTeluguscripts.

Middle Kingdoms (3rd century BCE - 12th century CE)

Satavahana dynasty

Archaeological remains ofBavikonda.

As part of theMauryan Empireduring the fourth century BCE, Andhra was a political state in the southeasternDeccan.According toMegasthenes,who visited the court ofChandragupta Maurya(322-297), the Andhras had 30 fortified towns alongGodavari Riverand an army of 1,00,000infantry, 2,000 cavalry and 1,000 elephants.The military might of Andhras was second only to the Mauryas.

Uninterrupted political and cultural accounts of Andhra Pradesh begin during the rise of theSatavahana dynasty.According to theMatsya Purana,the dynasty had 29 rulers in a 456-year period from the second century BCE to the second century CE. An inscription atNasik,written at the time ofGautamiputra Satakarni(the 23rd Satavahana ruler), indicates that the kingdom included most of the southern peninsula and southern parts of Maharashtra,OrissaandMadhya Pradesh.The court language used by the Satavahanas wasPrakrit,and their kings observed theVedic religion.

The fall of the Satavahana empire left Andhra in political chaos, and local rulers carved out small kingdoms for themselves. Between 180 and 624 CE, control of Andhra lay with theIkshvaku,Brihatpalayana,Salankayana,Vishnukundina,Vakataka,Pallava,Ananda Gotrika,Kalingaand other small kingdoms; the most important was Ikshvaku.Sanskritreplaced Prakrit as the inscriptional language at this time.

Ikshvakus

See also:List of Ikshvaku dynasty kings in Hinduism

Nagarjunakonda,which is believed to be the site of theAndhra Ikshvakucapital.

TheAndhra Ikshvakus(Sanskrit: इक्श्वाकू) established a kingdom along the Krishna River in the second half of the second century CE. Their capital wasVijayapuri(Nagarjunakonda). Archaeological evidence indicates that the Ikshvakus succeeded the Satavahanas in the Krishna River valley and may have entered Andhra from the north.The Ikshvakus left inscriptions at Nagarjunakonda,Jaggayyapeta,Amaravati andBhattiprolu,and their rulers observed theVedic religion.

Some historians believe that Andhra Ikshvakus were related to the mythologicalIkshvakus,while some believe Andhra Ikshvakus to be a local tribe who adopted the title.Some scholars believe that this dynasty was related to the ancientIkshvakusof theHinduepics, andRamaof theRamayana,the incarnation ofVishnu,was descended from theIkshvakuline. Inscriptions in the Nagarjunakonda valley, Jaggayyapeta and Ramireddipalli provide some support for this hypothesis.

In theVayu Purana,Manu(the patriarch of ancient India) had nine sons; Ikshvaku, the eldest, founded theSuryavamshadynasty and ruled fromAyodhyaat the beginning of theTreta Yuga.He had 100 sons; the eldest was Vikushi, who succeeded his father as the ruler of Ayodhya. Fifty of Vikushi's brothers founded small principalities inNorth India,and forty-eight founded kingdoms in the south. In the Dharmamrita, during the lifetime of the 12thtirthankara,Yasodhara (an Ikshvaku prince from the kingdom ofAnga) went toVengi.The prince was so impressed with the region's beauty and fertility that he made it his home and founded the city of Pratipalapura (present-day Bhattiprolu).

In the Puranas, the Andhra Ikshvakus are called Sriparvatiyas (rulers of Sriparvata) andAndhrabhrityas(servants of the Andhras). They were feudal lords of theSatavahanas,and bore the title of Mahatalavara. Although the Puranas cite seven kings ruling Andhra for 100 years, only four are confirmed in inscriptions.

Vashishthiputra Sri Santamula (Santamula I)

Santamula I founded the Ikshvaku dynasty, performing theAshvamedha,Agnihotra,Agnistoma andVajapeyayagnas to proclaim his imperial status. Rulers of subsequent dynasties commonly performed the Ashvamedha yagna to declare their independence.

Virapurushadatta

Virapurushadatta was the son and successor of Santamula through his wife, Madhari. He had a sister, Adavi Santisri, took a queen from theSakafamily ofUjjainand gave his daughter in marriage to aChutuprince.

Ehuvula Santamula (Santamula II)

Ehuvula Santamula (Santamula II), Virapurushadata's son, ruled after a shortAbhirainterregnum.

Rudrapurushadatta

Rudrapurushadatta was an Ikshvaku ruler mentioned in inscriptions fromGurajalainGuntur district.Possibly a son of Ehuvula Santamula, he ruled for over 11 years.

Brihatpalayanas

During the third century CE, theBrihatpalayanasruled northern Andhra from their capital,Kodur,in theKrishna district.

Anandagotrikas

TheAnanda Gotrikas(335-425) ruled coastal Andhra from their capital, Kapotapuram. Their affiliations are unknown. A few Anandagotras families have been discovered in theAnantapurdistrict andKadiritaluk. It is an oldKadapa district:Hiranya Raajya, in the Puranas. Anandagotras live in Cedaranya ofKadhiriarea hill/mountain places called Batrapalli forest, Gogannapeta, Pandava Raju hill and Vankapalli. Old andha/kandarapuram have been demolished. Kambamraayudu mountain hill areas' surname is tatam in patras.

Salankayanas

From about 300 to 440, after the fall of the Ikshvakus, theSalankayanasruled part of the east coast fromVengi.Like the Vishnukundinas ofVinukondawho succeeded them, the Salankayanas were vassals of thePallavasof the southernTeluguand northernTamillands. At this time, Telugu andKannadascripts began to separate from those of other Indian dialects.

Pallavas

ThePallava dynastyruledSouth Indiafrom the fourth to the ninth centuries fromKanchipuraminTamil Nadu.It was ascendant during the reigns ofMahendravarman I(590–630) andNarasimhavarman I(630–668) and included the southernTeluguand the north of the Tamil regions.

The Pallavas were noted for their patronage ofDravidian architecture,examples of which survive inMahabalipuram.The Chinese travellerXuanzangvisitedKanchipuramunder Pallava rule), and extolled its benign government.The period was characterized by conflict with theChalukyasofBadamiin the north and the Tamil states ofCholaandPandyasin the south. During the ninth century, the Pallavas were succeeded by theChola dynasty

Vishnukundinas

One of theUndavalli Caves,built in the seventh century CE by theVishnukundina dynasty.

TheVishnukundinadynasty ruled in theDeccanandSouth Indiain the fifth and sixth centuries CE. Early rulers of the dynasty allied with theVakatakasand theRashtrakutasby marriage.

In 529, Madhava Varma (a descendant of the dynasty) and four allied clans achieved independence by defeating theSalankayanasin coastal Andhra.

Kalachuris of Chedi

TheMatsyas,Chedis,Pericchedis,HaihayasandKalachurismay share a common Vedic ancestry andorigin myth,but the link is tenuous. In thePuranas,Matsya (Sanskritfor "fish" ) was the name of a tribe (Meenas) and a state under the Vedic civilisation. The Matsya tribe was founded by a fisherman who became a king. TheMahabharata(V.74.16) describes King Sahaja as a son ofUparichara Vasu,aChediking. Vasu ruled the Chedis and the Matsyas, suggesting the Matsya were once part of the Chedi kingdom. The Puranas mention six Matsya kingdoms, and thePandya Kingdomin the south has a fish on its banner. Signs of the Matsya were later found in theVisakhapatnamregion.

Chedi

The Chedi kingdom, in central and western India, was first ruled byPauravakings and later byYadavkings. It corresponds roughly to the present-dayBundelkhandregion ofMadhya Pradesh.

Haihaya

TheHaihaya kingdom(hayameans "horse" ) was one of a number of kingdoms ruled byChandravamshaKshatriyakings in central and western India. TheVishnu Puranalinks its outlying tribes to theYadutribe. According to the Puranas, the Haihaya were divided into the Talajanghas, Vitihotras, Avantis, Tundikeras and Jatas. Haihaya rulers included the legendaryKartavirya Arjuna,a powerful king who defeatedRavana.Although he had a thousand arms, he was felled and his arms severed byParasurama.The Haihaya capital wasMahishmati,on the banks of theNarmada RiverinMadhya Pradesh.

Kalachuri

Kalachuriis the name used by two kingdoms who claim a common ancestry and ruled in a succession of dynasties from the 10th to the 12th centuries. The first kingdom controlled westernMadhya PradeshandRajasthanin central India. The second, the southern Kalachuri, ruled part ofKarnataka.Kalachuri kings, related by marriage to theChalukyasandRashtrakutas,and ruled fromTripuri,Gorakhpur,Ratnapur and Rajpur.

The nameKalachurimay derive fromkali(long moustache) andchuri(sharp knife). The Kalachuri were also known as Katachuris.

In the Telugu epicTheBattle of Palnadu,the Kalachuri are referred to as the Haihaya family of the Kona region (Amalapuram), theRazoleTaluqsof the present-dayEast Godavari district,and the Haihaya family ofPalanadu.They were vassals of the Chalukyas.

ThePericchedisare also mentioned as vassals of the Chalukyas. According to V. Rama Chandra Rao, they were connected to the ancient Chedi. The Pericchedis had two branches, with Kollipaka and Bezawada their capitals. Rao also mentions that theVatsavaidynasty ofPeddapurammay be related to theMatsyadynasty, since there is evidence of a branch in the Visakhapatnam area.

An 1174 record suggests the Kalachuri dynasty was thought to be founded by Soma, who grew a beard and moustache to save himself fromParashurama's wrath. Their emblem wassuvarna vrishabha,a golden bull. The Kalachuri honouredKrantivirya Sahasrarjun,who killed Rishi Jamdagni (Bhagwan Parshurama's father). Historians such asP. B. Desaiemphasize the Kalachuris' central-Indian origin.

At their zenith, theKalachurisruled parts ofGujarat,Malwa,KonkanandMaharashtra.Their rule was ended by theBadami Chalukyasunder Badami Chalukya Magalesa. Lieutenant colonelJames Todrecorded a tribe of Haihayas "near the very top of the valley ofSohagpurinBagelkhand,aware of their ancient lineage, and though few in number, still celebrated for their valour ".

Eastern Chalukyas

Between 624 and 1323, the Telugu language emerged as a literary medium alongside Prakrit and Sanskrit. From around 848 (during the time of GunagaVijayaditya) to the 11th century, the language progressed from stanzas to full literary works. At this time, it was written in old Telugu script;Al-Berunireferred to the script as "Andhri" in his 1000Kitab Al-Hind.During the 11th century, theMahabharatawas partially translated by court poetNannayaunder the patronage of theEastern ChalukyarulerRajaraja Narendra.ModernTelugu scriptevolved from the old Telugu script from the 11th to the 19th centuries.

The Eastern Chalukyas were a branch of theChalukyasofBadami.Pulakesin IIconqueredVengi(nearEluru) in 624 and installed his brother,Kubja Vishnuvardhana(624-641), as its ruler. The Vishnuvardhana dynasty, known as the Eastern Chalukyas, ruled for nearly four centuries. Vishnuvardhana's domain extended fromSrikakulamin the north toNellorein the south.

Control of the Vengi region shifted from Gunaga Vijayaditya toRashtrakutarule, to theKalyani Chalukyaand then to theCholas.In 1118,Kulottunga Cholawas defeated byVikramaditya VIof the Kalyani Chalukya dynasty. The Cholas atTalakadwere defeated by theHoysalaruler,Vishnuvardhana,and Vengi was again ruled by the Chalukyas. LaterVikrama Cholarecaptured Vengi from Kalyani Chalukyas and it remained under Cholas till early thirteenth century. After the death ofKulottunga Chola III,Vengi went into the hands ofKakatiyas.

Chola Empire

Further information:Telugu Cholas

Theancient Chola kingdomonce famous inTamil literatureand in the writings ofGreek merchantsandgeographersfaded into darkness after c. 300 CE. Cholas during this period almost completely disappeared from their native land. The Cholas disappeared from the Tamil land almost completely in this debacle, though a branch of them can be traced towards the close of the 6th century in Rayalaseema—theTelugu-Cholas,whose kingdom is mentioned by Xuanzang in the seventh century CE.Due to Kalabhra invasion and growing power of Pallavas,Cholasmigrated from their native to Telugu country and ruled from there as chieftains of Pallavas at least since 470 CE. SeveralTelugu Cholafamilies like Renati Cholas, Pottapi Cholas,Nellore Cholas,Velanati Cholas,Nannuru Cholas existed and claimed descent from ancient Tamil Chola kingKarikala Chola.The Cholas had to wait for another three centuries until the accession ofVijayalaya Cholabelonging to Pottapi Chola family in the second quarter of the ninth century to re-establish their dynasty as independent rulers by overthrowing Pallavas and Pandyas. According to Anbil plates ofParantaka Chola II,Vijayalaya Chola's predecessor isSrikantha Choladhiraja,a Telugu Pottapi Chola king. Vijayalaya Chola capturedTanjorefrom Pandyas and his descendants started ruling from there. UnderRaja Raja Chola IandRajendra Chola I,the empire expanded occupying south India, Sri Lanka, Maldives, Malaysia and Indonesia. TheseImperial Cholashad marital alliances with Vengi Chalukyas. Kulottunga Chola I, the grandson ofRajendra Chola Iand son of Eastern Chalukya kingRaja Raja Narendrabecame the Chola emperor in 1270 CE. Contemporarily several Telugu Chola families likeNellore Cholas,Velanati Cholaswere ruling as subordinates ofImperial Cholas.After the fall of Imperial Cholas in 1279 CE, Nellore Cholas and Velanati Cholas became subordinates of Kakatiyas. Kakatiyas also claim descendant fromKarikala Chola.

Late Medieval and Early Modern period (12th - 18th centuries CE)

Kakatiya dynasty

Timeline
12th - 18th centuries CE
1323	TheDelhi Sultanatebesieges andannexes Warangal,resulting in the end of theKakatiya dynasty.
1326	Musunuri Nayaksreclaim Telugu lands from the Delhi Sulatante.
1518	TheBahmani Sultanatedisintegrates, and theGolconda Sultanateis established byQuli Qutb-ul-Mulk.
1687	MughalInvasion and end of theGolconda Sultanate
1724	The region is conquered byNizam-ul-Mulk.

TheKakatiya dynastyrose to power during the 12th and 13th centuries. Initially vassals of theWestern ChalukyasofKalyani,they held a small territory nearWarangal.Prola IIof the Kakatiyas (1110–1158) extended his territory southwards and declared his independence, withHanumakondaas the capital. His successor, Prataparudra I (1158–1195), increased the holdings eastward to theGodavari delta.Prataparudra built Warangal as a second capital, and countered invasions by theSeunaYadavasofDevagiri.

The next ruler, Mahadeva, extended the Kakatiyas kingdom to the coast before he was succeeded by Ganapati Deva in 1199. Ganapati Deva was the first ruler since theSatavahana dynastyto unite the Telugu lands. In 1210, Ganapati Deva defeated theVelanati Chodasand extended his empire north toAnakapalle.

RaniRudrama Devi(died 1289 or 1295), who defended the Kakatiya kingdom against the Cholas and theSeunaYadavas,is one of the few queens in Indian history. She was succeeded by her grandson, Prataparudra. Although his reign was characterized by battles against internal and external foes, Prataparudra expanded his kingdom west toRaichurand south toOngoleand theNallamala Hills,all the way toKanchipuram.He introduced a number of administrative reforms, some of which were adopted in theVijayanagar empire.Muslimattacks began in 1310, and in 1323 the Kakatiya dynasty fell to theDelhi Sultanate.

Musunuri Nayaks

TheMusunuri Nayaksreclaimed the Telugu lands from the Delhi Sultanate and ruled them for fifty years.Hakka(Harihara) andBukka,treasury officers at the court ofPrataparudra,were inspired by the Musunuri Nayaks to organise Hindu opposition to Muslim invaders.

Kaapaneedu

Prataparudra was captured by the Muslims.Two Telugus, Annaya Mantri and Kolani Rudradeva, united the Nayaks against the invaders. Musunuri Prolaya Nayaka of theMusunuri Nayakswas chosen as their leader.By 1326, Prolaneedu had liberated Warangal.Inspired by the victories of Prolaneedu and his cousin,Kaapaneedu,other states (includingKampili,Hoysala,DwarasamudramandAraveedu) asserted their independence.

Ulugh Khancaptured Harihara and Bukka atWarangal.Converted to Islam, they were sent by the sultan to suppress the Hoysala ruler's rebellion. Instead, the brothers established theVijayanagara Empire.The Sultan led a large army south, but was halted by an epidemic and Nayak resistance. Kaapaneedu, with the assistance of the Hoysala, liberated Andhra Pradesh.

In 1345 Muslim nobles rebelled againstMuhammad bin TughluqinDevagiri,resulting in the foundation of theBahmani Sultanateby Hasan Gangu. He assumed the nameAlauddin Bahman Shah,and moved his capital toGulbargain 1347. With raids and coercion, Singama of theRecherla Nayaksdestabilised Alauddin's rule.Kapaya Nayakaforged a treaty with Alauddin and surrenderedKaulas Fort.In 1351, Muhammad bin Tughluq died. Eight years later, Alauddin died and was succeeded byMohammed Shah.Kapaya Nayaka then sent his son, Vinayaka Deva, to liberateKaulas FortandBhuvanagirifrom the Bahmanis; Vijayanagar emperorBukka Rayaassisted Deva in the campaign. Deva initially succeeded, but was eventually defeated, captured and killed.

Kapaya Nayaka persisted, capturingGolcondaand Warangal. In 1365, Golconda was chosen as the border between the Bahmani and Warangal kingdoms. Kapaya Nayaka was forced to pay reparations, including a turquoise throne, to Mohammed Shah.In 1370 Anapota Nayaka of theRecherla Nayaksmarched against Warangal as part of a Bahmani invasion, and Kapaya Nayaka died in the ensuing battle at Bhimavaram. With Kapaya Nayaka gone, the Bahmanis soon subjugated their allies and ruled Andhra.

Reddy Kingdom

Main article:Reddy kingdom

Kondapalli Fort,constructed in 1325 CE by theReddiKingdom.

Prolaya Vema Reddy established the Reddy kingdom. The Reddys ruled from present-daySrikakulamin the north to Kanchi in the south, most of the present-day Andhra andRayalaseemaregions.

The Reddy Kingdom (1326–1448) ruled portions of coastal Andhra Pradesh for over a century.Prolaya Vema Reddy, was the first king of the Reddy dynasty.The capital of the kingdom wasAddanki.It was moved to Kondavidu and then later toRajahmundry.His reign was characterised by the restoration of peace, patronage of the arts and literature and broad development.Errana,the translator of theMahabharata,lived during this period.

Vijayanagara Empire

Sculpture ofGaneshaat theVeerabhadra TempleatLepakshi,built during the reign of the Vijayanagara Empire.

TheVijayanagara Empirewas founded by Harihara (Hakka) andBukka,who were treasury officers in the administration of theKakatiya dynastyor commanders ofHoysala's forces. When Warangal fell in 1323 the brothers were captured, taken to Delhi and converted to Islam. The Delhi Sultanate sent them to the Deccan as governors ofKampiliin the hope that they could deal with the local revolt and invasions by neighboring Hindu kings. Their first campaign was against neighboring Hoysala emperorVeera Ballala IIIofDwarasamudra.The brothers later reconverted to Hinduism under the influence of the sageVidyaranya,and proclaimed independence from the Delhi Sultanate. Some, however, claim that the founders of the empire wereKannadigasstationed in theTungabhadraregion under Veera Ballala III to fight off Muslim invaders.

Harihara I(r. 1336–1356) established his new capital,Vijayanagar,in an easily defended position south of theTungabhadra River.The empire reached its zenith underKrishnadevarayain the early 16th century, and Telugu literature developed at this time. Vijayanagar monuments were built across South India, and inLepakshi,TirupatiandSri Kalahastiin Andhra Pradesh. The largest and best-known collection of such monuments is atHampiin present-dayKarnataka.

Bahmani and Golconda Sultanates

Main article:Qutb Shahi Dynasty

The mosque atGandikota Fortwas built by theGolconda Sultanate.

In 1323, Delhi sultan Ghiaz-ud-dinTughlaqsent a large army under his sonUlugh Khan(Muhammad bin Tughlaq) to conquer the Telugu country and lay siege to Warangal, which was soon annexed and governed as "Tiling", a provinces of the Deccan. Their rule in Andhra lasted until the 1330s, when 72 nayaka chieftains from Andhra and Telangana rebelled and drove governorMalik Maqbul Tilanganiout of Warangal. In 1347, after a revolt against theDelhi Sultanate,an independent Muslim state, theBahmani Sultanate,was established in South India byAla-ud-Din Bahman Shahwhose successors gradually occupied the Andhra regions by 1471. By the end of the 15th century, the sultanate was plagued with factional strife. Five Shahi sultanates were founded, and the Qutb Shahi dynasty played a major role in the history of the Telugu country. The founder of the dynasty wasQuli Qutb Mulk,aShiaTurkmenfromHamadaninPersia.He first migrated toDelhiand then to the Deccan to serve under the Bahmani Sultanate, where he earned the titleQutb-ul-Mulk.Later, when the Bahamani Sultanate declined and was divided into fiveDeccan sultanates,he gained control over the south-eastern region and founded a sovereign kingdom. He adopted the title of Qutb Shah and his dynasty became known as theQutb Shahi dynasty.

Qutb Shah occupied the region ofVengibetween the Krishna River and the Godavari River after the death ofPrataparudra Deva,theGajapatimonarch who ruled the region. However, the advance of Quli Qutb Shah was stopped at the banks of the Godavari by the regional Gajapati Empire feudatoryVishwanath Dev Gajapatiand a treaty was signed marking the river as the boundary between the two kingdoms. The treaty was engraved on a copper plate, now in theNizam Museum.However with the decline of the Gajapatis,Ibrahim Quli Qutb Shahlater rescinded the terms of the treaty and invadedKalingain 1571 after the death of Vishwanath Dev, and defeated his son the new king, Maharaja Balaram Dev, enforcing a tributary status upon theNandapur Kingdom.The military conquests of Qutb Shahi Sultans led to the annexation of regions of southern Kalinga into their kingdom and the Sultanate prospered.The rule of the Jeypore Kings over coastal Andhra came to an end when their feudatories of the region claimed independence in the rebellion of Balaram Dev III against his brother the king, Maharaja Ram Chandra Dev I, in 1711.Some of those notable feudatories of Jeypore were -Kurupam,Chemudu,Madugula,Pachipenta,Araku,etc. However, coastal Andhra later became a part of theNizamate of Hyderabaduntil the arrival of the British.

Mughal conquest

In 1687,Aurangazebinvaded and annexed Golconda and appointed aNizam(governor). The Mughal Nizams controlled Andhra for about 35 years. In 1707 Aurangazeb died, and the Mughal regime weakened and lost control of the provinces. This enabled the BritishEast India Companyand the FrenchCompagnie des Indes Orientalesto consolidate power in India.

Colonial era (1753-1947 CE)

Maximum extent of French influence (1741–1754)

In a 1753 decree, DeccansubedarAsif ad-Dawlah Mir Ali Salabat JangcededChicacole,ElloreandRajahmundryto theMarquis de Bussy-Castelnau.An annual stipend of 200,000 rupees was paid to maintain French troops in thesubah;revenue in the Northern Circars amounted to one million rupees a year.Bussy had helpedSalabat Jangbecome subedar of the Deccan. The agreement between the French and Salabat Jang inAurangabadbears the signature of Said Loukshur, Salabat Jang's minister.Yanamwas an important town during the French occupation of the Northern Circars.

In 1758, the French and English fought atChandurthiin present-dayGollaprolumandalofEast Godavaridistrict. The French were defeated by the British and Salabat Jang made a treaty with the British, giving them the Northern Circars in afirman.

TheNizamlater rebelled against the English. The war ended with a second treaty; the Northern Circars remained under the control ofBritish India,and after 1760 the French lost their hold there and throughout South India. In 1765,Robert Cliveand the chief and council atVizagapatamobtained from Mughal emperorShah Alama grant for the Northern Circars. During the rule ofHyder AliandTipu Sultan,theKingdom of Mysorepursued an expansionist policy against theMarathas,the Nizam and the English and made incursions into theRayalaseemaregion.

The western part of Vishakapatnam district consisted of theJeypore Estateruled by king Vikram Dev I (1758-1781). In 1777, the British invaded Jeypore with the help ofVizianagaramand defeated Vikram Dev, turning his kingdom into azamindari.The region later was reorganized on linguistic lines.

Madras Presidency

Madras Presidency in 1859; North Canara (Uttara Kannada) was transferred to theBombay Presidencyin 1862.

The Northern Circars became part of the BritishMadras Presidency.The Nizam later ceded five territories (Datta Mandalālu) to the British, which becameRayalaseema.The Nizams retained control of the interior provinces as aprincely state,acknowledging British rule in return for local autonomy. The provinces were governed in afeudalmanner, withzamindarsin areas such as Kulla and elsewhere in the Godavari acting as lords under the Nizam. The zamindari system was dismantled after independence.

Telugu districts

• Vizagapatam(laterSrikakulam,VizianagaramandVisakhapatnamdistricts)
• Godavari (later East Godavari district)
• Machilipatnam(laterGuntur,KrishnaandWest GodavariDistricts)
• Kurnool
• Nellore
• Cuddapah
• Anantapur
• Prakasam

Zamindaris

• Vasireddy clan
• Vizianagaram estate
• Vizagapatam
• Bobbili Estate
• Nuzvid Estate
• Pemmasani clan
• Ravella clan
• Yarlagadda rajas
• Balusu clan
• Mullapudi clan
• Adusumilli clan
• Marni clan
• Indriyal Clan of Rajamahendravaram

Padmanayaka Zamindari

• Vavilavalasa Inuganty kings
• Siripuram Inuganty kings
• Kirlampudi
• Annavaram
• Nuzividu
• Mylavaram
• Gurazala
• Shri Kalahasti
• Venkatagiri
• Pithapuram

Post-Independence (1947 CE - present)

Timeline
1947 CE - present
1947	Indiabecomes independent
1953	Andhra Stateis created by separating Telugu-speaking regions of theMadras State.
1956	According to theStates Reorganization Act,the Telugu-speaking regions ofHyderabad Stateand theAndhra Statewere merged to createAndhra Pradesh (United).
2014	Andhra Pradesh (United)is bifurcated intoTelanganaandAndhra Pradesh.

In 1947,India gained independencefrom the United Kingdom. Although theMuslimNizam of Hyderabadresisted, he wasforcedto cede his state to India in 1948 to formHyderabad State.When India became independent, Telugu-speaking people (Urduis spoken in some parts ofHyderabadand a few other districts of Hyderabad State) were distributed in 22 districts: nine in Hyderabad State, 12 in the Madras Presidency and one in French-controlledYanam.In 1953Andhra Statewas created from part of the Madras Presidency, the first state in India formed on a linguistic basis. In 1956, Andhra State was merged with the Telugu-speaking area of Hyderabad State to form the state of Andhra Pradesh.

Madras Manademovement

Madras possessed Tamil and Telugu cultures. In the early 1920s,Madras PresidencyChief MinisterPanagal Rajasaid that theCooum Rivershould be the boundary between the Andhra and Tamil regions. In 1953 Telugu speakers in the former Madras Presidency sought to make Madras the capital of Andhra Pradesh, adopting the sloganMadras manade( "Madras is ours" ). However the city of Madras had 65 percentage of Tamil speakers as opposed to 27 percent Telugu speakers that time and Madras stayed with the Tamil state.

Creation of Andhra State

ActivistPotti Sriramuluadvocated inclusion of the Telugu-speaking areas of Rayalaseema and Coastal Andhra in an Andhra state. He conducted ahunger strikeuntil Prime MinisterJawaharlal Nehrupromised to form an Andhra state. On 19 October 1952, when Nehru's promise had not been fulfilled, Sriramulu began fasting again at Maharshi Bulusu Sambamurthy's Madras home. The AndhraCongresscommittee disapproved of Sriramulu's hunger strike, but his action became widely known. He died shortly after midnight on 15 December 1952 at 126 Royapettah High Road,Mylapore,Madras, and the house has been preserved.

During Sriramulu's funeral procession, mourners praised his sacrifice. When the procession reachedMount Road,thousands of people joined it and raised banners hailing Sriramulu. Later, they began destroying public property. The news spread quickly, and seven people were killed by police gunfire inAnakapalleandVijayawada.The unrest continued for several days.

On 19 December 1952, Prime Minister Nehru announced the formation of a separate state for the Telugu-speaking people of theMadras Presidency.On 1 October 1953, eleven districts in the Telugu-speaking portion ofMadras State(Coastal Andhra and Rayalaseema) voted to become Andhra State, withKurnoolas their capital. Andhra KesariTanguturi Prakasam Pantulubecame chief minister of the new Telugu state.

Merger of Hyderabad and Andhra States

Main article:History of the Telangana movement

Map of India, with the Telangana region highlighted in red

In December 1953, theStates Reorganisation Commissionconvened to create states on linguistic lines.Due to public demand, the commission recommended abolishing Hyderabad State and merging itsMarathi-speakingregion intoBombay Stateand itsKannada-speakingregion intoMysore State.

TheStates Reorganisation Commission(SRC) discussed a merger of the Telugu-speaking Telangana region of Hyderabad State and Andhra State. According to Paragraph 374 of the report, "The creation ofVishalandhrais an ideal to which numerous individuals and public bodies, both in Andhra and Telangana, have been passionately attached over a long period of time, and unless there are strong reasons to the contrary, this sentiment is entitled to consideration ". AboutTelangana,paragraph 378 reads: "One of the principal causes of opposition of Vishalandhra also seems to be the apprehension felt by the educationally backward people of Telangana that they may be swamped and exploited by the more advanced people of the coastal areas". In its analysis, the SRC opposed an immediate merger. Paragraph 386 reads, "After taking all these factors into consideration we have come to the conclusion that it will be in the interests of Andhra as well as Telangana, if for the present, the Telangana area is to constitute into a separate State, which may be known as the Hyderabad State with provision for its unification with Andhra after the general elections likely to be held in or about 1961 if by a two thirds majority the legislature of the residuary Hyderabad State expresses itself in favor of such unification". The central government, led by Nehru, merged Andhra State and Telangana to form Andhra Pradesh on 1 November 1956 after ensuring safeguards to Telangana in the form of agentleman's agreement.

History of United Andhra Pradesh

See also:Andhra State,Visalandhra movement,andAndhra Pradesh (1956–2014)

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  Potti Sreeramulu,whose fast unto death in 1952 led to the formation ofAndhra State
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  Nagarjuna Sagar Dam(completed in 1967)
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  NT Rama Rao,a film actor, who became chief minister of Andhra Pradesh in 1983
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  Mee Seva office(initial launch of the E-Seva Project in 2001)

In an effort to gain an independent state based on linguistic identity and to protect the interests of the Telugu-speaking people ofMadras State,Potti Sreeramulufasted to death in 1952. As the city of Madras became a bone of contention, in 1949 a committee withJawaharlal Nehru,Vallabhbhai Patel,andPattabhi Sitaramayyawas constituted. The committee recommended that Andhra State could be formed provided the Andhras gave up their claim on the city of Madras (nowChennai). After Potti Sreeramulu's death, the Telugu-speaking area ofAndhra Statewas carved out ofMadras Stateon 1 October 1953, withKurnoolas its capital city.Tanguturi Prakasambecame thefirst chief minister.On the basis of theGentlemen's Agreement of 1956,theStates Reorganisation ActcreatedAndhra Pradeshby merging the neighbouring Telugu-speaking areas of theHyderabad Statewith Hyderabad as the capital on 1 November 1956.

TheIndian National Congress(INC) ruled the state from 1956 to 1982.Neelam Sanjiva Reddybecame the firstchief minister.Among other chief ministers,P. V. Narasimha Raois known for implementing land reforms and land ceiling acts and securing reservation for lower castes in politics.Nagarjuna Sagar Dam,completed in 1967, andSrisailam Dam,completed in 1981, are some of the irrigation projects that helped increase the production of paddy in the state.

In 1983, theTelugu Desam Party(TDP) won the state elections, andN. T. Rama Raobecame the chief minister of the state for the first time after launching his party just nine months earlier.This broke the long-time single-party monopoly enjoyed by the INC. He transformed the sub-district administration by forming mandals in place of earlier taluks, removing hereditary village heads, and appointing non-hereditary village revenue assistants.The1989 electionsended the rule of Rao, with the INC returning to power withMarri Chenna Reddyat the helm. In1994,Andhra Pradesh gave a mandate to the Telugu Desam Party again, and Rao became the chief minister again.Nara Chandrababu Naidu,Rao's son-in-law, came to power in 1995 with the backing of a majority of theMLAs.The Telugu Desam Party won both theassemblyandLok Sabhaelectionsin 1999 under the leadership of Chandrababu Naidu. Thus, Naidu held the record for the longest-serving chief minister (1995–2004) of the united Andhra Pradesh.He introducede-governanceby launchinge-Sevacentres in 2001 for paperless and speedy delivery of government services. He is credited with transforming Hyderabad into an IT hub by providing incentives for tech companies to set up centres.

In2004,Congress returned to power with a new chief ministerial face,YS Rajashekara Reddy,better known as YSR. The main emphasis during Reddy's tenure was on social welfare schemes such as free electricity for farmers, health insurance, tuition fee reimbursement for the poor, and the national rural employment guarantee scheme. He took over the free emergency ambulance service initiated by a corporation and ran it as a government project. INC won the2009 electionsunder the leadership of YSR in April.He was elected chief minister again but was killed in ahelicopter crashthat occurred in September 2009. He was succeeded by CongressmenKonijeti RosaiahandNallari Kiran Kumar Reddy;the latter resigned over the impending division of the state to formTelangana.

During its 58 years as a unified state, the state weathered separatistmovements from Telangana(1969) andAndhra(1972) successfully.A new party calledTelangana Rashtra Samithi,formed in April 2001 byKalvakuntla Chandrashekar Rao(KCR), reignited the Telanganga movement. A joint action committee formed with political parties, government employees, and the general public spearheaded the agitation. When KCR's health deteriorated due to his fast-unto-death programme, the central government decided to initiate the process to form an independent Telangana in December 2009. This triggered theSamaikyandhra movementto keep the state united. TheSrikrishna committeewas formed to give recommendations on how to deal with the situation. It gave its report in December 2010.The agitations continued for nearly 5 years, with the Telangana side harping on the marginalisation of food culture, language, and unequal economic development and the Samaikyandhra movement focusing on the shared culture, language, customs, and historical unity of Telugu-speaking regions.

Bifurcation of Andhra Pradesh

Telangana (in white) and Andhra Pradesh (in yellow) after bifurcation

See also:Andhra Pradesh Reorganisation Act, 2014

On 30 July 2013, theCongress Working Committeeunanimously approved a resolution recommending the formation of a Telangana state. In February 2014, a bill was placed beforeParliamentTheAndhra Pradesh Reorganisation Act, 2014was passed, allowing the formation of a Telangana state of ten districts from north-western Andhra Pradesh despite opposition by the state legislature.The bill received the assent of thepresident,and was published inThe Gazette of Indiaon 1 March.The bill included the provision to retainHyderabadas the capital for up to ten years and the provision to ensure access to educational institutions for the same period.The bill received the assent of the president and was published in the gazette on 1 March 2014.The new state of Telangana came into existence on 2 June 2014 after approval from thepresident of India,with the residual state continuing as Andhra Pradesh.The present form of Andhra Pradesh is the same as that ofAndhra State,except forBhadrachalamtown, which continues in Telangana.A number of petitions questioning the validity of the Andhra Pradesh Reorganisation Act have been pending before theSupreme Courtconstitutional bench since April 2014.

Final elections

In the final elections held in the unified state in2014,the TDP got a mandate in its favour, defeating its nearest rival, theYSR Congress Party,a breakaway faction of the Congress founded byY. S. Jagan Mohan Reddy,son of former Chief Minister Y. S. Rajasekhara Reddy.N. Chandrababu Naidu,the chief of the TDP, became the chief minister on 8 June 2014.In 2017,the government of Andhra Pradeshbegan operating from its new greenfield capital,Amaravati,for which 33,000 acres were acquired from farmers through an innovative land pooling scheme.Interstate issues with Telangana relating to the division of assets of public sector institutions and organisations of the united state and the division of river waters are not yet resolved.

Capitals of Andhra Pradesh

Main article:List of capitals of Andhra Pradesh

Amaravatiis the legislative capital and thede factoseat of governmentofAndhra Pradesh.The city is located on the banks of the Krishna River inGuntur District.Built on the southern banks of the Krishna River in the Guntur district, it was selected because it was close to the geographical center of the state.

Amaravati was founded by former Andhra Pradesh Chief MinisterN. Chandrababu Naiduin 2014 as theGreenfield administrative capital cityof the Andhra Pradesh state, and itsfoundation stonewas laid atUddandarayunipalemby thePrime Minister of India,Narendra Modion 22 October 2015.

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The office of theChief Minister of Andhra Pradeshhas operated fromVelagapudisince April 2016. TheAndhra Pradesh Legislatureremained in Hyderabad until March 2017, when it relocated to newly constructed interim legislative buildings in Velagapudi.

Amaravati, formerly known asDhānyakatakam,is important in thecultural heritageandhistoryofAndhra Pradesh.Its history dates back to second century BCE, when it was the capital of theSatavahana Dynastyof theAndhras,one of the earliest Indian empires and the ancestral dynasty of Andhra Pradesh. The Satavahanas inaugurated theTelugu New YearfestivalUgadi.

The city once aholy siteofMahayana Buddhismand had a largestupaknown asAmaravati Stupawhich later fell into ruins. It was the center of Buddhistlearningandart,visited by manybuddhist followers.Buddhist inscriptions,sculpturesandGautam Buddha Statueremain. Buddhistrelicsfrom the region were destroyed or exported to Chennai Museum and theBritish Museumduring theBritish Rajand can be seen there today. TheAmaravati Marblesdepict manyBuddhist art,inscriptionsandbuddhist stupas.Along withNagarjuna Kondais viewed as one of the richestholy sitesofBuddhismin all of India.

The capital recorded its first-ever legislation 2,200 years ago. The capital region includesancient Amaravati.The area was ruled by the Mauryas, Satavahanas, Andhra Ikshvakus, Vishnukundina, Pallavas, Cholas, Kakatiyas, Delhi Sultanate, Reddys, Musunuri Nayaks, Bahmani Sultanate, Vijayanagara Empire, Sultanate of Golconda and Mughal Empire successively before the founding of theNizam of Hyderabadin 1724. It was ceded to theKingdom of Francein 1750 but was captured by the British in 1759. Gunturreturned to the Nizamate in 1768 but was ceded to Britain again in 1788. It was briefly occupied byHyder Ali,then ruled byVasireddy Venkatadri Nayudu.It was part of theMadras Presidencyduring the British colonial period.

Under theAndhra Pradesh Reorganisation Act, 2014,Hyderabadbecame the capital of the newly-formed state ofTelangana,post-bifurcation ofAndhra Pradesh.However, Hyderabad would remain as the joint capital of both states for a period not exceeding ten years. Hence, Amaravati is being built to serve as the capital of Andhra Pradesh.

The foundation for the city was laid atUddandarayunipalemon 22 October 2015. ThePrime Minister of India,Narendra Modi;theChief Minister of Andhra Pradesh,N. Chandrababu Naidu;theminister of Housing and Urban Poverty Alleviation,Urban DevelopmentandInformation and BroadcastingMuppavarapu Venkaiah Naidu;then GovernorE. S. L. Narasimhan;the Japanese minister for economy trade and industry,Yosuke Takagi;and theSingaporean Minister for Trade and Industry,S. Iswaran,laid the foundation for the city.

Dynasties

• Chola Dynasty
• Satavahana
• Shakas
• Andhra Ikshvaku
• Brihatpalayana
• Ananda Gotrika
• Vishnukundina
• Kalachurisof Chedi
• Salankayana
• Pallavas
• Vengi
• Pandyan dynasty
• Rashtrakuta dynasty
• Kakatiya dynasty
• Musunuri Nayaks
• Reddy dynasty
• Paricheda
• Qutb Shahi
• Gupta dynasty

See also

• History of Visakhapatnam
• History of India

Bibliography

• Gade, Jayaprakash Narayana (2016),Water Resources and Tourism Promotion in Telangana State,Zenon Academic Publishing,ISBN978-9385886041
• Ninan, M. M. (2008),Madathil Mammen Ninan,Madathil Mammen Ninan,ISBN978-1438228204
• Rao, P. Raghunatha (1994),History And Culture Of Andhra Pradesh: From The Earliest Times To The Present Day,Sterling Publishers,ISBN81-207-1719-8
• Sadasivan, Balaji (2011),The Dancing Girl: A History of Early India,Institute of Southeast Asian Studies,ISBN9789814311670
• Sastry, P. V. Parabhrama (1978). N. Ramesan (ed.).The Kākatiyas of Warangal.Hyderabad: Government of Andhra Pradesh.OCLC252341228.
• Sharma, R. K. (1980),The Kalachuris and their times,Sundeep Prakashan
• Talbot, Cynthia (2001).Precolonial India in Practice: Society, Region, and Identity in Medieval Andhra.Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-513661-6.

External links

• Planning Commission Study of Andhra Pradesh's Development and Regional in balances