History of Spain (1808–1874)

Spain
*España*
Spain España
1813–1873
	Flag Coat of arms
	Motto:Plus Ultra; ( "Further Beyond" )
	Anthem:Marcha Real; ( "Royal March" ); (1813–1822; 1823–1873); ; Himno de Riego; ( "Anthem of Riego" ); (1822–1823);
	The Kingdom of Spain after thelossof its American territories.
Capital	Madrid
Common languages	Spanish
Religion	Catholicism
Demonym(s)	Spanish,Spaniard
Legislature	Cortes Generales
•Upper house	House of Peers; (1834–1836); Senate; (from 1836);
•Lower house	Congress of Deputies
History
•Cortes of Cádiz	1 July 1813
•1822 territorial division of Spain	1822
•1833 territorial division of Spain	1833
• Disestablished	1873
Currency	Spanish dollar; (1813–1869); Spanish peseta; (1869–1873);
ISO 3166 code	ES
Preceded by	Succeeded by
	Napoleonic Spain
Spanish Republic
United Provinces of New Granada
United Provinces of the Río de la Plata
Paraguay
Chile
First Mexican Empire
Gran Colombia
Protectorate of Peru
Republic of Spanish Haiti
	as First Secretary of State; as President of the Council of Ministers;

Spainin the 19th century was a country in turmoil. Occupied byNapoleonfrom 1808 to 1814, a massively destructive "liberation war"ensued. Following theSpanish Constitution of 1812,Spain was divided between the 1812 constitution's liberal principles and theabsolutismpersonified by the rule ofFerdinand VII,who repealed the 1812 Constitution for the first time in 1814, only to be forced to swear over the constitution again in 1820 after a liberalpronunciamiento,giving way to the briefTrienio Liberal(1820–1823).

Economic transformations throughout the century included the privatisation of communal municipal lands—not interrupted but actually intensified and legitimised during the Fernandine absolutist restorations^[1]—as well as the confiscation of Church properties. The early century saw the loss of the bulk of theSpanish coloniesin theNew Worldin the 1810s and 1820s, except forCubaandPuerto Rico.

The regency ofMaria Christinaand the reign ofIsabella IIbrought reforms repelling the extremes of the absolutistOminous Decade(1823–1833). Civil wars broke out in the country—the so-calledCarlist Wars—pitting the government forces against the reactionaryCarlists,a legitimist movement in favour of theancien régime.Disaffection with Isabella's government from many quarters led to repeated military intervention in political affairs and to several revolutionary attempts against the government, including the 1854 revolution. The1868 Glorious revolutiondeposed Isabella and installed a provisional government, leading up to the election of a constituent assembly underuniversal manhood suffragethat elaborated the1869 constitution.The brief spell ofAmadeo of Savoyas constitutional monarch was followed after his abdication by the proclamation of theFirst Spanish Republic,which was replaced after a 1874 coup by thereign of Alfonso XII,bringing the Bourbon dynasty back to power.

Abdications of Charles IV and Ferdinand VII (1808)

The reign ofCharles IVwas characterized by his lack of interest in governing. His wifeMaria Luisadominated him, and both husband and wife backedManuel de Godoyas first minister. Many of Godoy's decisions were criticised and increasingly Charles's son and heir,Ferdinandgathered support against his detested father. A mob supporting Ferdinand attacked Godoy at the palace of Aranjuez, arresting him. Charles IV under pressure abdicated in favor of his son, nowFerdinand VII.Napoleon had already invaded Portugal 1807, and had troops on the ground in Spain already. Napoleon called on Ferdinand to come toBayonne,where he was currently situated. Ferdinand went, expecting Napoleon to affirm his status as king of Spain. Unbeknownst to Ferdinand, Napoleon also summoned Charles IV. Napoleon called on Ferdinand to abdicate in favor of his father, who had abdicated under pressure. Charles did not want to leave a path open for his detested son to be his heir, and abdicated in favor of Napoleon himself. Napoleon at this point designated his older brother,Joseph Bonaparteas king of Spain. An assembly of Spaniards ratified theBayonne Constitution,Spain's first, which Joseph I signed. Although the constitution never came into full force, the fact that it provided for representation from regions of Spain and elsewhere in theSpanish Empire,namely Spanish America and the Philippines, set an important precedent.

Napoleon's 1808 invasion and Spanish resistance, (1808–1814)

Although there were a few Spaniards who supported Napoleon's seizure of power in Spain, many regional centers rose up and formedjuntasto rule in the name of the ousted Bourbon king,Ferdinand VII.Spanish America also created juntas to rule in the name of the king, sinceJoseph Iwas considered an illegitimate sovereign. Bloody warfare raged in Spain and Portugal in thePeninsular War,much of which was fought using guerrilla tactics.

Spain's first national assembly (1810–1814)

TheCortes of Cádizwas the first national assembly to claim sovereignty in Spain and the Spanish Empire. It represented the abolition of the old kingdoms and the recognition of overseas components of the Spanish Empire for representation. The opening session was held on 24 September 1810.

In November 1809, the army of the Central Junta was routed at theBattle of Ocaña.French forces took control of southern Spain and the Junta retreated toCádiz.Cádiz was besieged by the French from 5 February 1810 to 24 August 1812but never captured. The Central Junta dissolved itself on 29 January 1810, and set up a five-person Regency. The five regents then convened the meeting of the "Cortesof Cádiz ", operating as a government in exile.

The delegates to theCorteswere to be representatives of the provinces and colonies, but the Regency was unable to hold elections in much of Spain or the Americas. The Regency therefore tried to establish interim territorial representation in the assembly, which approved a decree that it represented the Spanish nation, with sovereignty over Spain and Americas.

TheCortesopened its session in September 1810 on theIsle of Leon.TheCortesconsisted of 97 deputies, of whom 47 were Cadiz residents serving as alternates.

TheSpanish Constitution of 1812was established on 19 March 1812 by theCortesof Cádiz. It abolished theInquisitionandabsolute monarchy,and established the principles of universal male suffrage, national sovereignty, constitutional monarchy, and freedom of the press, and supported land reform and free enterprise.

Reaction (1814–1820)

On 24 March 1814, six weeks after returning to Spain, Ferdinand VII abolished the constitution. KingFerdinand VII's refusal to agree to the liberalSpanish Constitution of 1812on his accession to the throne in 1814 came as little surprise to most Spaniards; the king had signed on to agreements with the clergy, the church, and with the nobility in his country to return to the earlier state of affairs even before the fall ofNapoleon.The decision to abrogate the Constitution was not welcomed by all, however. Liberals in Spain felt betrayed by the king whom they had decided to support, and many of the localjuntasthat had pronounced against the rule ofJoseph I Bonapartelost confidence in the king's rule. The army, which had backed the pronouncements, had liberal leanings that made the king's position tenuous. Even so, agreements made at theCongress of Vienna(where Spain was represented byPedro Gómez Labrador, Marquis of Labrador) starting a year later would cement international support for the old,absolutistregime in Spain.

TheSpanish Empirein the New World had largely supported the cause of Ferdinand VII over the Bonapartist pretender to the throne in the midst of theNapoleonic Wars.Joseph I had promised radical reform, particularly the centralization of the state, which would cost the local authorities in the American empire their autonomy from Madrid. The Spanish Americans, however, did not supportabsolutismand wanted self-governance. The juntas in the Americas did not accept the governments of the Europeans, neitherthe Frenchor Spaniards.

Trienio Liberal (1820–1823)

A conspiracy of liberal mid-rankingofficersin the expedition being outfitted atCádiz mutiniedbefore they were shipped to the Americas. Led byRafael del Riego,the conspirators seized their commander and led their army aroundAndalusiahoping to gather support; garrisons across Spain declared their support for the would-be revolutionaries. Riego and his co-conspirators demanded that the liberalConstitution of 1812be restored. Before the coup became an outright revolution, King Ferdinand agreed to the demands of the revolutionaries and swore by the constitution. A"Progresista"(liberal) government was appointed, though the king expressed his disaffection with the new administration and constitution.

Three years of liberal rule (theTrienio Liberal) followed. TheProgresistagovernmentreorganized Spain into 52 provinces,and intended to reduce the regional autonomy that had been a hallmark of Spanish bureaucracy sinceHabsburg rulein the 16th and 17th centuries. The opposition of the affected regions – in particular,Aragon,Navarre, andCatalonia– shared the king's antipathy for the liberal government. Theanticlericalpolicies of theProgresistagovernment led to friction with theRoman Catholic Church,and its attempts to bring about industrialization alienated ancient tradeguilds.TheInquisition—which had been abolished by bothJoseph Bonaparteand theCortes of Cádizduring the French occupation—was ended again by theProgresistagovernment, summoning up accusations of being nothing more thanafrancesados(Francophiles), who only six years before had been forced out of the country. More radical liberals attempted to revolt against the entire idea of a monarchy, constitutional or otherwise, in 1821; theserepublicanswere suppressed, though the incident served to illustrate the frail coalition that bound theProgresistagovernment together.

The election of aradicalliberal government in 1823 further destabilized Spain. The army – whose liberal leanings had brought the government to power – began to waver when the Spanish economy failed to improve, and in 1823, a mutiny inMadridhad to be suppressed. TheJesuits(who had been banned byCharles IIIin the 18th century, only to be rehabilitated byFerdinand VIIafter his restoration) were banned again by the radical government. For the duration of liberal rule, King Ferdinand (though technicallyhead of state) lived under virtualhouse arrestin Madrid.

TheCongress of Viennaending theNapoleonic Warshad inaugurated the "Congress system"as an instrument of international stability in Europe. While Ferdinand had been rebuffed by the"Holy Alliance"of Russia, Austria, andPrussiain his request for help against the liberal revolutionaries in 1820, by 1822 the "Concert of Europe"was sufficiently uneasy with Spain's liberal government and its surprising hardiness that they were prepared to intervene on Ferdinand's behalf. In 1822, theCongress of Veronaauthorized France to intervene.Louis XVIII of France– himself an arch-reactionary– was only too happy to put an end to Spain's liberal experiment, and a massive army – the "100,000 Sons of Saint Louis"– was dispatched across thePyreneesin April 1823. The Spanish army, fraught by internal divisions, offered little resistance to the well organised French force, who seized Madrid and reinstalled Ferdinand as absolute monarch. The liberals' hopes for a newSpanish War of Independencewere not fulfilled.

The "Ominous Decade" (1823–1833)

Immediately following the restoration of absolutist rule in Spain, KingFerdinand VIIembarked on a policy intended to restore old conservative values to government; theJesuit Orderand theSpanish Inquisitionwere reinstated once more, and some autonomy was again devolved to the provinces ofAragon,Navarre, andCatalonia.Although he refused to accept the loss of the American colonies, Ferdinand was prevented from taking any further action against the rebels in the Americas by the opposition of the United Kingdom and the United States, who voiced their support of the new Latin American republics in the form of theMonroe Doctrine.The recent betrayal of the army demonstrated to the king that his own government and soldiers were untrustworthy, and the need for domestic stability proved to be more important than the reconquest of the Empire abroad. As a result, the destinies of Spain and her empire on the American mainland were to permanently take separate paths.

Although in the interests of stability Ferdinand VII issued a generalamnestyto all those involved in the 1820 coup and the liberal government that followed it, the original architect of the coup,Rafael del Riego,was executed. The liberalPartido Progresista,however, continued to exist as a political force, even if it was excluded from actual policy-making by Ferdinand's restored government. Riego himself was hanged, and he would become amartyrfor the liberal cause in Spain and would be memorialized in theanthemof theSecond Spanish Republic,El Himno de Riego,more than a century later.

The remainder of Ferdinand's reign was spent restoring domestic stability and the integrity of Spain's finances, which had been in ruins since the occupation of theNapoleonic Wars.The end of the wars in the Americas improved the government's financial situation, and by the end of Ferdinand VII's rule the economic and fiscal situation in Spain was improving. A revolt in Catalonia was crushed in 1827, but at large the period saw an uneasy peace in Spain.

Ferdinand's chief concern after 1823 was how to solve the problem of his own succession. He was married four times in his life, and bore two daughters in all his marriages; thesuccessionlaw ofPhilip V of Spain,which still stood in Ferdinand's time, excluded women from the succession. By that law, Ferdinand's successor would be his brother,Carlos.Carlos, however, was areactionaryand an authoritarian who desired the restoration of the traditionalmoralismof the Spanish state, the elimination of any traces ofconstitutionalism,and a close relationship with theRoman Catholic Church.Though surely not a liberal, Ferdinand VII was fearful of Carlos's extremism. War had broken out in neighboring Portugal in 1828 as a result of just such a conflict between reactionary and moderate forces in the royal family – theWar of the Two Brothers.

In 1830, at the advice of his wife,Maria Christina of Bourbon-Two Sicilies,Ferdinand VII decreed aPragmatic Sanctionthat had the effect of fundamental law in Spain. As a result of the sanction, women were allowed to accede to the Spanish throne, and the succession would fall on Ferdinand's infant daughter,Isabella,rather than to his brother Carlos. Carlos – who disputed the legality of Ferdinand's ability to change the fundamental law of succession in Spain – left the country for Portugal, where he became a guest ofDom Miguel,the absolutist pretender in that country's civil war.

Ferdinand VIIdied in 1833, at the age of 49. He was succeeded by his daughterIsabellaunder the terms of the Pragmatic Sanction, and his spouse,Maria Christina,becameregentfor her daughter, who at that time was only three years of age. Carlos disputed the legitimacy of Maria Christina's regency and the accession of her daughter, and declared himself to be the rightful heir to the Spanish throne. A half-century of civil war and unrest would follow.

Spanish American independence (1810–1833)

Already in 1810,CaracasandBuenos Airesjuntas declared their independence from the Bonapartist government in Spain and sent ambassadors to the United Kingdom. The British alliance with Spain had also moved most of the Latin American colonies out of the Spanish economic sphere and into the British sphere, with whom extensive trade relations were developed.

Spanish liberals opposed to the abrogation of theConstitution of 1812whenFerdinand VII's rule was restored, the new American states were cautious of abandoning their independence, and an alliance between local elites, merchant interests, nationalists rose up against the Spanish in the New World. Although Ferdinand was committed to the reconquest of the colonies, along with many of the Continental European powers, the British government was opposed to the move which would hinder her new commercial interests. Latin American resistance to Spanish reconquest of the colonies was compounded by uncertainty in Spain itself, over whether or not the colonies should be reconquered; Spanish liberals – including the majority of military officers – already disdainful of the monarchy's rejection of the constitution, were opposed to the restoration of an empire that they saw as an obsolete antique, as against the liberal revolutions in the New World with which they sympathized.

The arrival of Spanish forces in the American colonies began in 1814, and was briefly successful in restoring central control over large parts of the Empire.Simón Bolívar,the leader of revolutionary forces inNew Granada,was briefly forced into exile in the British colony ofJamaica,then to theRepublic of Haiti.In 1816, however, Bolívar found enough popular support that he was able to return to South America, and in a daring march from Venezuela to New Granada (Colombia), he defeated Spanish forces at theBattle of Boyacáin 1819, ending Spanish rule in Colombia.Venezuelawas liberated on 24 June 1821 when Bolívar destroyed the Spanish army on the fields of Carabobo on theBattle of Carabobo.Argentinadeclared its independence in 1816. Chile was retaken by Spain in 1814, but lost permanently in 1817 when an army underJosé de San Martín,crossed theAndes Mountainsfrom Argentina to Chile, and went on to defeat Spanish royalist forces at theBattle of Chacabucoin 1817.

Mexico,Peru,Ecuador,and Central America still remained under Spanish control in 1820. King Ferdinand VII, however, was dissatisfied with the loss of so much of the Empire and resolved to retake it; a large expedition was assembled inCádizwith the aim of reconquest. However the army was to create political problems of its own.

José de San Martín,who had already helped to liberate Chile andArgentina,enteredPeruin 1820. In 1821, the inhabitants ofLimainvited him and his soldiers to the city. The viceroy fled into the interior of the country. From there he resisted successfully, and it was only with the arrival ofSimón BolívarandAntonio José de Sucrein 1823 that the Spanish royalist forces were defeated at the battles ofJuninandAyacucho,where the entire Spanish Army of Peru and the Viceroy were captured. The Battle of Ayacucho signified the end of theSpanish Empireon the American mainland.

Although Mexico had been in revolt in 1811 underMiguel Hidalgo y Costilla,resistance to Spanish rule had largely been confined to smallguerrillabands in the countryside. The coup in Spain did not change the centralized policies of the government of Trieno Liberal in Madrid and many Mexicans were disappointed. In 1821, Mexico led byAgustin de IturbideandVincente Guerreropresented thePlan de Iguala,calling for an independent Mexican monarchy, in response to the centralism and fears of the liberalism and anticlericalism in Spain. The liberal government of Spain showed less interest in the military reconquest of the colonies than Ferdinand, although it rejected the independence of Mexico in the failedTreaty of Córdoba.The last bastion ofSan Juan de Ulúaresisted to 1825, andIsidro Barradastried to recapture Mexico from Cuba in 1829. With the king Ferdinand VII's death in 1833 Spain finally abandoned all plans of military re-conquest.

The Carlist War and the Regencies (1833–1843)

After their fall from grace in 1823 at the hands of a French invasion, Spanish liberals had pinned their hopes on Ferdinand VII's spouseMaria Cristina of Bourbon-Two Sicilies,who bore some marks as a liberal and a reformer. However, when she became regent for her daughterIsabellain 1833, she made it clear to the court that she intended no such reforms. Even still, an alliance of convenience was formed with theprogresistafaction at court against the conservatives, who backed the rebelInfante Carlos of Spain.

Carlos, who declared his support for the ancient, pre-Bourbonprivileges of thefueros,received considerable support from theBasque country,Aragon, andCatalonia,which valued their ancient privileges fromMadrid.The insurrection seemed, at first, a catastrophic failure for the Carlists, who were quickly driven out of most of Aragon and Catalonia, and forced to cling to the uplands of Navarre by the end of 1833. At this crucial moment, however, Carlos named theBasque Tomás de Zumalacárregui,a veteranguerrillaof thePeninsular War,to be hiscommander-in-chief.Within a matter of months, Zumalacárregui reversed the fortunes of the Carlist cause and drove government forces out of most of Navarre, and launched a campaign into Aragon. By 1835, what was once a band of defeated guerrillas in Navarre had turned into an army of 30,000 in control of all of Spain north of theEbro River,with the exception of the fortified ports on the northern coast.

The position of the government was growing increasingly desperate. Rumors of a liberal coup to oustMaria Cristinaabounded in Madrid, compounding the danger of the Carlist army which was now within striking distance of the capital. Appeals for aid did not fall on deaf ears; France, which hadreplacedthereactionarymonarchy ofCharles Xwith the liberal monarchy ofLouis-Philippein 1830, was sympathetic to the Cristino cause. TheWhiggovernments ofViscount Melbournewere similarly friendly, and organized volunteers and material aid for Spain. Still confident of his successes, however, Don Carlos joined his troops on the battlefield. WhileZumalacárreguiagitated for a campaign to take Madrid, Carlos ordered his commander to take a port on the coast. In the subsequent campaign, Zumalacárregui died after being shot in the calf. There was suspicion that Carlos, jealous of his general's successes and politics, conspired to have him killed.

Having failed to take Madrid, and having lost their popular general, the Carlist armies began to weaken. Reinforced with British equipment and manpower, Isabella found in theprogressistageneralBaldomero Esparteroa man capable of suppressing the rebellion; in 1836, he won a key victory at theBattle of Luchanathat turned the tide of the war. After years of vacillation on the issue of reform, events compelled Maria Cristina to accept anew constitutionin 1837 that substantively increased the powers of the Spanish parliament, thecortes.The constitution also established state responsibility for the upkeep of the church, and a resurgence ofanti-clericalsentiment, led to the disbandment of some religious orders which considerably reduced the strength of theChurchin Spain. TheJesuits– expelled during theTrienio Liberaland readmitted byFerdinand VII– were again expelled by the wartime regency in 1835.

The Spanish government was growing deeper in debt as the Carlist war dragged on, nearly to the point that it became insolvent. In 1836, the president of the government,Juan Álvarez Mendizábal,offered a program ofdesamortización,theEcclesiastical Confiscations of Mendizábal,that involved the confiscation and sale of church, mainly monastic, property. Many liberals, who boreanti-clericalsentiments, saw the clergy as having allied with the Carlists, and thus thedesamortizaciónwas only justice. Mendizábal recognized, also, that immense amounts of Spanish land (much of it given as far back as the reigns ofPhilip IIandPhilip IV) were in the hands of the church lying unused – the church was Spain's single largest landholder in Mendizábal's time. The Mendizábal government also passed a law guaranteeingfreedom of the press.

After Luchana, Espartero's government forces successfully drove the Carlists back northward. Knowing that much of the support for the Carlist cause came from supporters of regional autonomy, Espartero convinced the Queen-Regent to compromise with thefueroson the issue of regional autonomy and retain their loyalty. The subsequentConvention of Vergarain 1839 was a success, protecting the privileges of thefuerosand recognizing the defeat of the Carlists. Don Carlos again went into exile.

Freed from the Carlist threat,Maria Cristinaimmediately embarked on a campaign to undo the Constitution of 1837, provoking even greater ire from the liberal quarters of her government. Failing in the attempt to overthrow her own constitution, she attempted to undermine the rule of the municipalities in 1840; this proved to be her undoing. She was forced to name theprogressistahero of theCarlist War,General Espartero,president of the government. Maria Cristina resigned the regency after Espartero attempted a program of reform.

In the absence of a regent, thecortesnamedBaldomero Esparteroto that post in May 1841. Although a noted commander, Espartero was inexperienced with politics and his regency was markedly authoritarian; it was arguably Spain's first experience with military rule. The government wrangled with Espartero over the choice ofAgustín Argüelles,a radical liberal politician, as the young queen's tutor. From Paris, Maria Cristina railed against the decision and attracted the support of themoderadosin thecortes.The war heroesManuel de la ConchaandDiego de Leónattempted a coup in September 1841, attempting to seize the queen, only months after Espartero was named regent. The severity with which Espartero crushed the rebellion led to considerable unpopularity; thecortes,increasingly rebellious against him, selected an old rival,José Ramón Rodil y Campillo,as their chief minister. Another uprising inBarcelonain 1842 against hisfree tradepolicies prompted him to bombard the city, serving only to loosen his tenuous grip on power. On 20 May 1843,Salustiano Olózagadelivered his famous "Dios salve al país, Dios salve a la reina!" (God save the country, God save the queen!) speech that led to a strong moderate-liberal coalition that opposed Espartero. This coalition sponsored a third and final uprising led by generalsRamón NarváezandFrancisco Serrano,who finally overthrew Espartero in 1843, after which the deposed regent fled to England.

Moderado rule (1843–1849)

Salustiano Olózaga,President of the Council of Ministers

Thecortes,now exasperated by serial revolutions, coups, and counter-coups, decided not to name another regent, and instead declared that the 13-year-oldIsabella IIwas of age. Isabella, now inundated with the competing interests of courtiers espousing an array of ideologies and interests, vacillated as her mother did between them, and served to aggravate those genuinely interested in progress and reform.Salustiano Olózagawas named the first president of the Council of Ministers afterEspartero's fall. His commission to form a government was, however, highly unpopular with thecortes;he allegedly received the authority to dissolve thecortesfrom the queen, but the queen within days withdrew her support for the plan, and cast her lot behind Olózaga's opponent in thecortes,the Minister of StateLuis González Bravo.Olózaga was accused of obtaining the order of dissolution by forcing Queen Isabella to sign against her will. Olózaga had to resign, having only been president of the Council of Ministers for an ephemeral fifteen days. Olózaga, a liberal, was succeeded byLuis González Bravo,a moderate, inaugurating a decade ofmoderadorule. President Luis González Bravo was Isabella's first stable president during her effective kingdom, ruling for 6 straight months (from that moment on he would remain loyal to the queen until the end of her kingdom, acting as her very last president decades later at the outbreak of the1868 Revolution). Isabella's kingdom was to include unstable administration, policies, and governments, due to the various opposition parties that continuously wanted to take over her government – in 1847, for instance, she went through five presidents of the Government.

Luis González Bravo,leading the moderate faction, dissolved thecorteshimself and ruled by royal decree. He declared Spain to be in a state of siege and dismantled a number of institutions that had been set up by theprogressistamovement such as electedcity councils.Fearing anotherCarlistinsurrection in northern Spain, he established theGuardia Civil,a force merging police and military functions to retain order in the mountainous regions that had been the Carlists' base of support and strength, so as to defend Isabella's rightful kingdom from her enemies.

A new constitution, authored by themoderadoswas written in 1845. It was backed by the new Narváez government begun in May 1844, led by GeneralRamón Narváez,one of the original architects of the revolution againstEspartero.A series of reforms promulgated by Narváez's government attempted to stabilize the situation. Thecortes,which had been uneasy with the settlement with thefuerosat the end of theFirst Carlist War,were anxious to centralize the administration. The law of 8 January 1845 did just that, stifling local autonomy in favor ofMadrid;the act contributed to the revolt of 1847 and the revival ofCarlismin the provinces. The Electoral Law of 1846 limited the suffrage to the wealthy and established a property bar for voting. In spite ofBravoand Narváez's efforts to suppress the unrest in Spain, which included lingering Carlist sentiments andprogressistasupporters of the old Espartero government, Spain's situation remained uneasy. A revolt led byMartín Zurbanoin 1845 included the support of key generals, includingJuan Prim,who was imprisoned by Narváez.

Narváez ended the sale of church lands promoted by theprogresistas.This put him into a difficult situation, as theprogresistashad had some progress in improving Spain's financial situation through those programs. The Carlist War, the excesses ofMaria Cristina's regency, and the difficulties of the Espartero government left the finances in a terrible situation. Narváez entrusted the finances to the ministerAlejandro Mon,who embarked on an aggressive program to restore solvency to Spain's finances; in this he was remarkably successful, reforming the tax system which had been badly neglected since the reign ofCharles IV.With its finances more in order, the government was able to rebuild the military and, in the 1850s and 1860s, embark on successful infrastructure improvements and campaigns in Africa that are often cited as the most productive aspects of Isabella's reign.

Isabella was convinced by thecortesto marry her cousin, a Bourbon prince,Francis, Duke of Cádiz.Her younger sisterMaria Louisa Fernandawas married to the French kingLouis-Philippe's sonAntoine, Duke of Montpensier.TheAffair of the Spanish Marriagesthreatened to break the alliance between Britain and France, which had come to a different agreement over the marriage. France and Britain nearly went to war over the issue before it was resolved; the affair contributed to thefall of Louis-Philippein 1848.^[2]^[3]^[4]Fury raged in Spain over the queen's nonchalance with the national interest and worsened her public image.

The builders of the first railway inPeninsular Spain,the Barcelona–Mataróline, which was inaugurated in 1848. Another railway—the Havana–Güines line—had been already opened in Cuba in 1837.^[5]

Partly as a result of this, a major rebellion broke out in northernCataloniain 1846, theSecond Carlist War.Rebels led byRafael Tristanylaunched a guerilla campaign against government forces in the region and pronounced themselves in favor ofCarlos, Conde de Montemolin,carrier of the Carlist cause and son ofInfante Carlos of Spain.The rebellion grew, and by 1848 it was relevant enough that Carlos sponsored it himself and namedRamón Cabreraas commander of the Carlist armies in Spain. A force of 10,000 men was raised by the Carlists; in response to fears of further escalationNarváezwas again named President of the Council of Ministers in Madrid in October 1847. The biggest battle of the war, theBattle of Pasteral(January 1849) was inconclusive; Ramón Cabrera, however, was wounded and lost confidence. His departure from Spain caused the rebellion dissolve by May 1849. The Second Carlist War, though contemporaneous with therevolutions of 1848,is rarely included as part of the same phenomenon, since the rebels in Spain were not fighting for liberal orsocialistideas, but rather conservative and even absolutist ones.

Rule by Pronunciamento (1849–1856)

Ramón Narváezwas succeeded byJuan Bravo Murillo,a practical man and a seasoned politician. Murillo carried the same authoritarian tendencies as Narváez but made serious efforts to advance Spanish industry and commerce. He surrounded himself with technocrats who attempted to take an active role in the advancement of the Spanish economy. An aggressive policy of financial reform was coupled with an equally aggressive policy of infrastructure improvement enabled byAlejandro Mon's financial reforms in the preceding decade. A serious effort to build a rail network in Spain was begun by the Murillo government.

Murillo, facing the issue of anti-clericalism, signed aconcordatwith the Vatican on the issue of religion in Spain; it was conclusively decided thatRoman Catholicismremained thestate religionof Spain, but that the contribution of the church ineducationwould be regulated by the state. In addition, the state renounceddesamortización,the process of selling church lands. Murillo's negotiations with the Papacy were aided by Narváez's role in theRevolutions of 1848 in the Italian states,where he had led Spanish soldiers in the pope's defense against revolutionaries.

Murillo, flush with economic and international successes, announced a series of policies on 2 December 1852 to thecortes.Prominent among the reforms he suggested were the reduction of the powers of thecortesas a whole in favor of Murillo's office as President of the Council of Ministers, and the ability for the executive to legislate by decree in times of crisis. Twelve days later, thecortessuccessfully convinced the queen to sack Juan Bravo Murillo and find a new minister.

The next President of the Council of Ministers,Federico Roncali,governed briefly, and did well to maintain a civil atmosphere with thecortesafter Murillo's flamboyance. The army, dissatisfied with Roncali a few months later, convinced the queen to oust him, replacing him with GeneralFrancisco Lersundi.Thecortes,which by then were unsatisfied with the army's intervening in government affairs, arranged forLuis José Sartorius,theCount of San Luis,to be named President of the Council of Ministers. Sartorius – who had gained power only by betrayingLuis González Bravoand following the fortunes of GeneralNarváez– was notorious for falsifying election results in favor of his co-conspirators and himself. His appointment as President of the Council of Ministers drew violent agitation from the liberal wing of the Spanish government.

In July 1854, amajor rebellionbroke out bringing together a wide coalition of outrages against the state. TheCrimean War,which had broken out in March of that year, had led to an increase in grain prices across Europe and afaminein Galicia. Riots against thepower loomerupted in the cities, andprogresistasoutraged at a decade ofmoderadodictatorship and the corruption of the Sartorius government broke out in revolution. GeneralLeopoldo O'Donnelltook the lead in the revolution; after the indecisiveBattle of Vicálvaro,he issued theManifesto of Manzanaresthat pronounced himself in favor of Spain's formerprogresistadictator,Baldomero Espartero,the man that O'Donnell had actively rebelled against in 1841. Themoderadogovernment collapsed before them and Espartero returned to politics at the head of an army.

Espartero was appointed as President of the Council of Ministers, this time by the very queen for whom he had been regent ten years before. Espartero, indebted to O'Donnell for restoring him to power but concerned about having to share power with another man, tried to get him installed to a post as far away from Madrid as possible – in this case, in Cuba. The attempt failed and only alienated Baldomero Espartero's colleague; instead, O'Donnell was given a seat in Espartero's cabinet as war minister, though his influence was greater than hisportfolio.

The twocaudillos,who came into power with immense popularity, attempted to reconcile their differences and form a coalition party that crossed theprogresista-moderadolines that had dominated and restricted Spanish politics since thePeninsular War.The "Unión Liberal",as it was called, attempted to forge a policy based on progress in industry, infrastructure, public works, and a national compromise on constitutional and social issues.

Baldomero Esparteroattempted to rebuild theprogresistagovernment after ten years ofmoderadoreform. Most of Espartero's tenure was absorbed into promulgating the new constitution he intended to replace themoderadoconstitution of 1845.The resistance of thecortes,however, meant that most of his term was spent deadlocked; the coalition that Espartero relied on was built on both liberals and moderates, who disagreed fundamentally on the ideology of the new constitution and policies. Espartero's constitution included provisions for thefreedom of religion,freedom of the press,and, most importantly, a more liberal suffrage than the Constitution of 1845 allowed for. Even before the constitution had been passed, Espartero endorsedPascual Madoz'sdesamortizaciónagainst communal lands in Spain; the plan was strongly opposed not only by themoderadosin thecortes,but also by the queen and General O'Donnell. Espartero's coalition with O'Donnell collapsed, and the queen namedLeopoldo O'DonnellPresident of the Council of Ministers. He too proved unable to work with the government in any meaningful way; he attempted to compromise Espartero's constitution with the 1845 document by, in a bald assertion of power, declaring the 1845 constitution restored with certain specified exceptions, with or without the approval of thecortes.The act led to O'Donnell's ousting; the "Constitution of 1855" was never successfully put into place.

The end of the old order (1856–1868)

Again,Ramón María Narváez,the symbol of reaction, returned to politics and was named President of the Council of Ministers by Isabella II in 1856, who switched her favor to themoderados;Espartero, frustrated and bitter with political life, retired permanently toLogroño.Narváez's new government undid what little Baldomero Espartero had been able to accomplish while in office; the Constitution of 1845 was restored in its entirety and the legislation that Espartero had put forward was entirely reversed in a matter of months. Isabella grew weary of this, too, and a moderate conservative with a less offensive authoritarian character was found inFrancisco Armero Peñaranda,who took power in October 1857. Without Narváez's authoritarian touch, however, Peñaranda found that it was now as difficult for conservative policies to be successfully enacted by thecortesas it was for Espartero'sprogresistapolicies; themoderadofaction was now divided, with some favoring Leopoldo O'Donnell'sUnión Liberalideal. Isabella then sacked Peñaranda – to the ire of themoderados– and replaced him withFrancisco Javier Istúriz.Istúriz, though Isabella admired him, lacked any support from the conservative wing of the government, and was adamantly opposed byJuan Bravo Murillo.Isabella was then disgusted with themoderadosin any form; O'Donnell's faction was able to give theUnión Liberalanother chance in 1858.

This government – the longest-lasting of all of Isabella's governments – lasted nearly five years before it was deposed in 1863. O'Donnell, reacting against the extremism that came from Espartero's government and themoderadogovernments that followed it, managed to pull some results from a functionalUnión Liberalcoalition of centrist, conciliatorymoderadosandprogresistas,all of whom were exhausted from partisan bickering. Leopoldo O'Donnell's ministry was successful enough in restoring stability at home that they were able to project power abroad, which also helped to pull popular and political attention away from thecortes;Spain supported theFrench expeditiontoCochinchina,the allied expedition sent in support of theFrench intervention in MexicoandEmperor Maximilian,anexpedition to Santo Domingo,and most importantly, asuccessful campaignintoMoroccothat earned Spain a favorable peace and new territories across theStrait of Gibraltar.O'Donnell, even while President of the Council of Ministers, personally took command of the army in this campaign, for which he was namedDuque de Tetuán.A new agreement was made with the Vatican in 1859 that reopened the possibility of legaldesamortizacionesof church property. The previous year,Juan Prim,while a general, had either allowed Jews back onto Spanish territory for the first time since theAlhambra Decreein 1492, or he would do so in 1868.^[6]^[7]

*The battle of Tetuan*byMariano Fortuny.The government ofLeopoldo O'Donnelllaunched a series of successful campaigns againstMorocco,Vietnam,Mexico, andSanto Domingoin the early 1860s

The coalition broke apart in 1863 when old factional lines broke O'Donnell's cabinet: the issue ofdesamortización,brought up again, antagonized the two wings of theUnión Liberal.Themoderados,sensing an opportunity, attacked O'Donnell for being too liberal, and succeeded in turning the queen andcortesagainst him; his government collapsed on 27 February 1863.

Themoderadosimmediately took to undoingLeopoldo O'Donnell's legislation but Spain's economic situation took a turn for the worse; whenAlejandro Mon,who had already saved Spain's finances, proved ineffectual, Isabella turned to her old warhorse,Ramón Narváez,in 1864 to make certain that things did not get out of hand; this only infuriated theprogresistas,who were promptly rewarded for their agitation by another O'Donnell government. GeneralJuan Primlaunched a major uprising against the government during O'Donnell's administration that prefigured future events; the rebellion was crushed brutally by O'Donnell, prompting the same sort of criticism that had toppled Espartero's government years earlier. The queen, listening to the opinion of thecortes,again sacked O'Donnell, and replaced him with Narváez, who had just been sacked two years earlier.

Narváez's support for the queen by this time was lukewarm; he had been sacked and seen enough governments thrown out by the queen in his lifetime that he, and much of thecorteshad great doubts about her ability. The consensus spread; since 1854, aRepublicanparty had been growing in strength, roughly in step with the fortunes of theUnión Liberal,and indeed, theUniónhad been in coalition with the Republicans at times in thecortes.

Sexenio Democrático (1868–1874)

Glorious Revolution

The 1866 rebellion led byJuan Primand the revolt of the sergeants at San Gil barracks, in Madrid, sent a signal to Spanish liberals and republicans that there was serious unrest with the state of affairs in Spain that could be harnessed if it were properly led. Liberals and republican exiles abroad made agreements atOstendin 1866 andBrusselsin 1867. These agreements laid the framework for a major uprising, this time not merely to replace the President of the Council of Ministers with a liberal, but to overthrow Isabella herself, whom Spanish liberals and republicans began to see as the source of Spain's ineffectuality.

Her continual vacillation between liberal and conservative quarters had, by 1868, outragedmoderados,progresistas,and members of theUnión Liberaland enabled, ironically, a front that crossed party lines.Leopoldo O'Donnell's death in 1867 caused theUnión Liberalto unravel; many of its supporters, who had crossed party lines to create the party initially, joined the growing movement to overthrow Isabella in favor of a more effective regime.

The die was cast in September 1868, when naval forces under admiralJuan Bautista Topetemutinied inCádiz– the same place thatRafael del Riegohad launched his coup againstIsabella's father a half-century before. GeneralsJuan PrimandFrancisco Serranodenounced the government and much of the army defected to the revolutionary generals on their arrival in Spain. The queen made a brief show of force at theBattle of Alcolea,where her loyalmoderadogenerals underManuel Pavíawere defeated by General Serrano. Isabella then crossed into France and retired from Spanish politics to Paris, where she would remain until her death in 1904.

Provisional Government

The revolutionary spirit that had just overthrown the Spanish government lacked direction; the coalition of liberals, moderates, and republicans were now faced with the incredible task of finding a government that would suit them better than Isabella. Control of the government passed toFrancisco Serrano,an architect of the revolution againstBaldomero Espartero's dictatorship. Thecortesinitially rejected the notion of a republic; Serrano was named regent while a search was launched for a suitable monarch to lead the country. A truly liberal constitution was written and successfully promulgated by thecortesin 1869 – the first such constitution in Spain since 1812.

The search for a suitable king proved to be quite problematic for the cortes.The republicans were, on the whole, willing to accept a monarch if he was capable and abided by a constitution.Juan Prim,a perennial rebel against the Isabelline governments, was named chief of the government in 1869 and remarked that "to find a democratic king in Europe is as hard as to find an atheist in Heaven!" The aged Espartero was brought up as an option, still having considerable sway among theprogresistas;even after he rejected the notion of being named king, he still gained eight votes for his coronation in the final tally. Many proposed Isabella's young son Alfonso (the futureAlfonso XII of Spain), but many thought that he would invariably be dominated by his mother and would inherit her flaws.Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg,the former regent of neighboring Portugal, was sometimes raised as a possibility. A nomination offered to PrinceLeopold of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringenwould trigger theFranco-Prussian War.

In August 1870, an Italian prince,Amadeoof theHouse of Savoy,Duke ofAosta,was selected. The younger son ofVictor Emmanuel II of Italy,Amadeo had less of the troublesome political baggage that a German or French claimant would bring, and his liberal credentials were strong.

Reign of Amadeo

Amadeo was duly elected King asAmadeo I of Spainon 3 November 1870. He landed inCartagenaon 27 November, the same day thatJuan Primwas assassinated while leaving thecortes.Amadeo swore on the general's corpse that he would uphold Spain's constitution.

However, Amadeo had no experience as king, and what experience his father as King of Italy could offer was nothing compared to the extraordinary instability of Spanish politics. Amadeo was instantly confronted with acortesthat regarded him as an outsider, even after it had elected him King; politicians conspired with and against him; and a 1872–1876Third Carlist Warerupted, chiefly in the north of the Iberian Peninsula. In February 1873, Amadeo declared the people of Spain "ungovernable" and abdicated.

First Spanish Republic (1873–1874)

Following Amadeo's abdication, thecortesproclaimed theFirst Spanish Republic.

Economic and social impact

TheNapoleonic Warshad severe negative effects on Spain's economic development. The Peninsular war ravaged towns and countryside alike. There was a sharp decline in population in many areas, caused by casualties, outmigration, and disruption of family life. The demographic impact was the worst of any Spanish war. The marauding armies seized farmers' crops; more important, farmers lost much of their livestock, their main capital asset. Severe poverty was widespread, reducing market demand.^[8]

The disruption of local and international trade, and the shortages of critical inputs, seriously hurt industry and services. The loss of a vast colonial empire reduced overall wealth. Spain by 1820 had become one of Europe's poorest and least-developed societies. Illiteracy characterized three-fourths of the people. Natural resources such as coal and iron existed but the transportation system was rudimentary, with few canals and navigable rivers. Road travel was slow and expensive. British railroad builders were pessimistic about the potential for freight and passenger traffic and did not invest. Eventually a smallrailway system was builtradiating from Madrid, and bypassing the natural resources.^[8]

The government relied onhigh tariffs,especially on grain, which further slowed economic development. For example, eastern Spain was unable to import inexpensive Italian wheat, and had to rely on expensive homegrown products carted in over poor roads. The export market collapsed apart from some agricultural products.^[8]

References

^Naval flag, introduced as the national flag in 1843.

Citations

^Linares Luján 2020,p. 109.
^Agnes de Stoeckl,King of the French: A Portrait of Louis Philippe, 1773–1850(New York: G.P. Putnam & Sons, 1957) pp. 146–160.
^Albert Guèrard,France: A Modern History,p. 286.
^Georges Duveau,1848: The Making of a Revolution(New York: Vintage Books, 1968) p. 7.
^Fernández Sanz, F. (2001)."El primer ferrocarril español se construyó en Cuba".Revista Hispano Cubana(9). Madrid: 75 – viaBiblioteca Virtual Miguel de Cervantes.
^"Spain Virtual Jewish History Tour".jewishvirtuallibrary.org.
^Rohr, Isabelle (2007).The Spanish Right and the Jews, 1898–1945: Antisemitism and Opportunism.ISBN 9781845191818.
^^a ^b ^cLeandro Prados de la Escosura and Carlos Santiago-Caballero, "The Napoleonic Wars: A Watershed in Spanish History?" [ "EHES Working Papers In Economic History, No. 130" 2018]

Bibliography

Carr, Raymond (2000).Spain: A History.London: Oxford University Press.ISBN 0-19-820619-4.
Esdaile, Charles S. (2000).Spain in the Liberal Age: From Constitution to Civil War, 1808–1939.ISBN 0-631-14988-0.
Gallardo, Alexander (1978).Britain and the First Carlist War.Darby, PA: Norwood Editions.
Linares Luján, Antonio Manuel (2020)."Monarquía absoluta y desamortización municipal: los traspasos a censo perpetuo de Fernando VII".Hispania. Revista Española de Historia.80(264). Madrid:Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas:109–137.doi:10.3989/hispania.2020.004.S2CID 219450130.
Pierson, Peter (1999).The History of Spain.London: Greenwood.ISBN 0-313-30272-3.