History of infantry
| Part of a series on |
| War Outline |
|---|
 |
Although the terminfantrydates from the 15th century, the foot troops of the previous eras in history who fought with a variety of weapons before the introduction of thefirearmsare also referred to as infantry. During the Ancient and Middle Ages infantry were often categorized by the types ofweaponsandarmourthey used, such asheavy infantryandlight infantry.Generally, light infantry acted asskirmishers,scouts,and as ascreening forcefor the more heavily armed and armored heavy infantry, the latter of which often made up the bulk of many historic armies.
With theintroduction of firearms,line infantrywould come to dominate the makeup of most armies, their name reflective of both their formations and fighting style. During this time period, light infantry often served as elitemarksmenwhile retaining their scouting, skirmishing, and screening roles. This era would also see the founding of manynaval infantry or marineunits.
With theintroduction of advanced modes of transportationsuch asmotor vehicles,armored fighting vehicles,andaircraft,new tactics and infantry designations were developed, such asmotorized,mechanized,andairborne infantry.Specialized units, such asmountain infantrywere also created. Light infantry, in the modern sense, has come to represent generalist professional infantry units whom, despite their non-specialized nature, often play an important role incombined arms warfare.
The wordinfantrywas borrowed into otherRomance languagesfrom theLatininfantem,a "foot soldier" who served in groups composed of those soldiers who were too-inexperienced or too low inrankfor membership to thecavalry.As a meaning for anorganisedtype ofcombattroops, the word dates to 1579 in the Frenchinfantrieand Spanishinfanteria.[1]However, inmilitary historyit has become a common English term to apply to troops from earlierhistorical periods.
With the notable exception of theMongol Empire,infantry has represented the largest component in most armies of the past, as well as the present. While the specific weapons have varied, the common factor is that these soldiers have relied on their feet fortacticalmovements, but since the introduction of therailand motor transport have beenoperationallytransported behind the front-lines, and have made use of strategicairliftwith the introduction of aircraft into warfare.
DuringAncient history,infantry was essentially an armed mob, fighting in loosely organized opposing lines, under the vocal direction of individualcommandersin the immediate vicinity of the troops' hearing range. However, the benefits of uniform, equipment, weaponry and, above all, training led to the development of formations able to carry out pre-arranged tactical maneuvers in the heat of battle.
Since that time, infantry organization has focused on finding a balance between heavily armed formations that emphasise firepower and ability to withstand direct assaults, and more lightly armed but also more mobile units able to manoeuvre around the battlefield faster, to exploit tactical opportunities. Mobility, armament, and protection have been the three competing primary factors that complement and compete in the balanced approach to development of infantry doctrine throughout history.
Classical period[edit]
Infantry was the primary combat arm of theClassical period.Examples of infantry units of the period are theImmortalsof thePersian Empire,thehoplitesofancient Greeceand thelegionsofImperial RomeandAuxiliaries (Roman military)troops. In contrast to the strictly organized immortals, phalanxes and legions, most armies of the ancient world also employed units ofirregulars(oftenmercenaries) who wore less armor and fought in more open formations usually asskirmishers.
As theDecline of the Roman Empireoccurred, the huge swathe of lands under their sway became the territory ofGermanic tribes,such as theVandals,Goths,andVisigothsin the 5th century. The political and military resources necessary for the maintenance of such rigid-formation units largely disappeared until thelater Middle Ages.
Middle Ages[edit]
For most of theMiddle Ages,warfareand society were dominated by thecavalry(horse-mounted soldiers), composed of individualknights.Knights were generally drawn from thearistocracy,while the infantry levies were raised fromcommoners.This situation slowed the advance ofinfantry tacticsand weapon technologies; those that were developed by the end of the Middle Ages included the use ofpikesorhalberdsto counter the long reach of knights'lances,and the increased use of ranged weaponry to counter the cavalry's advantages of momentum, speed, height, and reach. However, from 1350 onwards theknightsthemselves usually dismounted for battle, becoming super-heavy infantry themselves, as a countermeasure to development of massedarcherytactics which would bring their horses down. This led to development ofcombined armstactics of archery and dismounted knights.
Early modern period[edit]
While bows remained in use long after the development offirearms,technological fine-tuning along with the development of thematchlockallowed firearms to supersede even the fearedWelsh and English Longbowas the ranged weapon of choice for infantry during thelate renaissanceandearly modern period.The bow also declined in favor because of the ease with whichmusketeerscould be trained (days or weeks to attain moderate proficiency, as opposed to many years for the longbow).
Between the rising popularity of gunpowder weapons, particularly the lighterarquebusand heaviermusket,and the stunning success of the SwissReisläuferand the GermanLandsknechte,these two weapons came to dominate renaissance warfare, at least in western and central Europe. During theBurgundian Wars,and later theItalian Wars,Swiss pikemen had great success, on the defensive againstheavy cavalryand on the offensive against traditionalMedieval Infantry.But at theBattle of Cerignola,anentrenchedSpanishforce of 8,000, including 1,000 Arquebusiers, was able to defeat a French army of 32,000, mainly Swiss Pike andGendarmes,but with a 2:1 superiority inartilleryas well. This battle proved how effective hand-held gunpowder weapons could be, and their popularity increased steadily until they had replaced melee weapons entirely.
At Cerignola, the Spanish had deployed inmixedformations of Pike and Shot, called "Coronels". These would eventually evolve into theTercio,a mixed formation of Pike and Shot, and also, initiallySword– though over time the ratio of shot to pike increased steadily, and the Swordsmen were phased out entirely. After the SpanishTercios,many other nations combined firearms with extremely longpikesinto units that were virtually invincible against cavalry formations.
In the late 16th and early 17th centuries, theDutchStadholderMaurice of Nassauinitiated a series of reforms to reduce the size of the unwieldy Tercio, and increase its firepower by reducing the number ofranks,thinning the formation. The much smallerDutch Regimentsconsisted of twobattalionsof 550 men each, which could form up together or fight separately on the battlefield. Each was composed of a number of companies, which were administrative, not tactical, units. This method of infantry organization, using the same terms and almost the same numbers, became nigh-universal in militaries of the 18th century.
As firearms became more effective during the 17th century, the ratio of musket to pike was increased from a common standard of about 1:1 around the start of the 17th century to about 2:1 in the middle of the century, and 4:1 or even 6:1 by the end of the 17th century. Another trend was the thinning of infantry formations. The Spanish Tercio was around 25 ranks deep when at full strength. The Dutch Battalion was 10 ranks deep, and the Swedish Brigade was reduced to six or sometimes even four ranks deep. TheSwedish reformsunderGustavus Adolphuswere instrumental in displaying to all of Europe the potential of firepower, and the effectiveness of maximising it by thinning ranks. By the 18th century, the standard infantry line would be three ranks deep, and this trend would continue untilWorld War I,reducing to two ranks in theNapoleonic Era,then toskirmish linesby the end of theAmerican Civil War.
Eventually, with the development of thebayonet,the pikemen were dropped from the formation, resulting in the first examples of an infantry unit as recognizable today[clarification needed]– though the pike was still used occasionally throughout the 18th century, particularly in theGreat Northern WarandEastern Europein general.
By the beginning of the 18th century,[citation needed]line infantryappeared and quickly became the main and most common type of infantry in the European countries. Line infantry was armed with smooth-bore muskets with bayonets.
In the 18th centurylight infantryappeared. Askirmishforce screening the main body of infantry became so important to any army in the field that eventually all the major European powers developed specialised skirmishing light infantry. Light infantry, such asGermanJägersorAustro-HungarianPandours,was armed with primitive rifles. As these rifles took a long time to load (up to one minute as opposed to three to five shots a minute for muskets), light infantry played an auxiliary role.
Modern era[edit]
Before the development ofrailroadsin the 19th century, infantry armies got to the battlefield by walking, or sometimes byship.TheRepublic of Veniceset up the "Fanti da mar", the first corps of troops specifically trained for fighting from ships, in the 15th century or possibly even before; the oldest still-existing Marine corps in the world was established in the 16th century by the Spanish (Infanteria de Marina), followed in the 17th century by other European countries including the United Kingdom. Because of Britain's island status, a large army was unnecessary; however, infantry soldiers were still required for eventual landings. A typical Royal Navy warship carried 600 men, of which 120–180 would have beenRoyal Marines.These men usually had a deck to themselves and had little to do with sailing the vessel; Their non-combat roles typically included training and drill, along with assisting ship’s officers in maintaining good order and discipline among the crew. The men were proficient in the use of metal-working, gunpowder and modern weapons of the day and would form landing parties when exploring. The Marines also defended the vessel if boarded and would repair damaged weapons and cannons after a battle.
In the mid-19th century – up to and through theAmerican Civil War– the United States made extensive use of infantry both in battle, as well as part of opening thewestern frontierto settlement. TheBuffalo Soldierswere an example of the use of both infantry andcavalryduring the period immediately following that war and well beyond. In the 1890s and later, some countries, such as Italy with theirBersaglieri,usedbicycle infantry,but the real revolution in mobility started in the 1920s with the use of motor vehicles, resulting inmotorized infantry.
During the 19th century, advances in firearms technology rendered the use of close formations obsolete. Widespread use of rifled guns (including cannons), and the advent of reliablebreech-loading weaponsand automated weapons like theGatling gun,altered the tactical landscape. These weapons fired at greater range with accuracy, and technological improvements in aiming them also simplified the targeting of large bodies of enemy forces. By the late 19th century, the concept of fighting in formation was on the wane, and the distinctions between skirmishers andheavy infantryhas now disappeared. DuringWorld War Idue to the increasing lethality of more modern weapons, such asartilleryandmachine guns,infantry tactics shifted totrench warfare.
Action inWorld War IIdemonstrated the importance of protecting the soldiers while they are moving around, resulting in the development ofmechanized infantry,who use armored vehicles for transport. World War II also saw the first widespread use ofparatroopers.These were soldiers that parachuted from airplanes into combat, and they played key roles in several campaigns in the European theater.[2]
After 1945[edit]
In theVietnam War,infantry has often depended on technology other than its own feet for delivery into battle. One such example is theUnited States Army's pioneering use ofhelicoptersto deliver infantry quickly between key locations on the battlefield. Formations such as those now form a part of manyarmed forcesand are referred to asairmobileinfantry, and delivering infantry into battle on helicopters is known as anair assault.
Most other present day infantry is either motorized or mechanised, supported byarmored fighting vehicles,artillery,andaircraft,but along withlight infantry,which does not use armored fighting vehicles, is still the only kind of military force that can take and hold some terrain types (such as urban or other close terrain), and thus remains essential to fighting wars.
The purpose of infantry uniform has also completed its transition from a simple means of identifying allies and rank (as it was throughout much of the modern era) to practical combat gear with a focus on camouflage and protection.[3]
References[edit]
- ^"infantry"at Online Etymology Dictionary
- ^pp. 59, 71, English & Gudmundsson
- ^"The British Infantry Uniform in Wartime » JBIOnline".Archived fromthe originalon 2013-10-11.Retrieved2013-10-10.