History of the Joseon dynasty

This article explains thehistory of theJoseondynasty,which ruledKoreafrom 1392 to 1897.

The history of Joseon is largely divided into two parts: the early period and the late period; some divide it into three parts, including a middle period. The standard for dividing the early and the late periods is theImjin War(1592–1598). The standard for dividing the early and the middle periods is theJungjong coup(1506), while the standard for dividing the middle and the late periods is theImjin War(1592–1598) or theQing invasion(1636–1637).

The whole period of the Joseon dynasty through also to 1910 is included in the royal archives now part of the National Museum of the Annals of the Joseon dynasty atPyeongchangopened in the autumn of 2023.

Rise to prominence

By the late 14th century, the 400-year-oldGoryeo dynastyestablished byWang Geonin 918 was tottering, its foundations collapsing from years of war andde factooccupation by the disintegratingMongol Empire.The legitimacy of the royal family itself was also becoming an increasingly disputed issue within the court, as the ruling house was claimed to not only have failed to govern the kingdom effectively, but was also supposedly tarnished by generations offorced intermarriagewith theYuan dynastyand rivalries among its various branches, whileKing U's biological mother being a knownslaveled some to debate his descent fromKing Gongmin.Influential aristocrats, generals, and ministers struggled for royal favor and domination of the court, resulting in deep division among variousfactions.With the ever-increasing number of raids conducted byJapanese piratesandthe invasionsof theRed Turbans,those who came to dominate the royal court were the reform-mindedSinjin factionof thescholar-officialsand the opposingGwonmun factionof the oldaristocratic families,as well as generals who could fight off the foreign threats: namelyYi Seong-gyeand a former superior and rival,Ch'oe Yŏng.

Following the struggle between the emergingMing dynastyunderZhu Yuanzhang(the laterHongwu Emperor) and the MongolYuan dynasty,Goryeo remained neutral with its monarchs attempting to maintain friendly diplomatic relations with both as the conflict remained inconclusive.The royal court in Goryeo split into two factions: the group led by General Yi (favouring the militarily more powerful Ming) and the camp led by General Ch'oe (royalists standing by the Goryeo royal family). When a Ming messenger came to Goryeo in 1388 (the 14th year of King U) to demand the return of a significant portion of Goryeo's northern territory, General Ch'oe seized the chance and argued for the invasion of theLiaodong Peninsula.(Goryeo was the successor state of the ancient kingdom of Goguryeo; as such, restoringManchuriaas part of Korean territory was part of its foreign policy throughout its history.) A staunchly opposed Yi was chosen to lead the invasion; however, atWihwa Islandon theYalu River,he revolted andtraveled back to Gaegyeong(modern-dayGaeseongand the capital of Goryeo). He proceeded to eliminate General Ch'oe and his followers and began acoup d'état,overthrowing King U in favor of his son,King Chang,in 1388. He later killed King U and his son after a failed restoration and forcibly placed a royal named Yo on the throne, who becameKing Gongyang.After indirectly enforcing his grasp on the royal court through the puppet king, Yi proceeded to ally himself with members of the Sinjin aristocracy, such asJeong DojeonandJo Jun.One of his first acts as thede factogeneralissimoof Goryeo was to pass the Gwajeon Law, which effectively confiscated land from the wealthy and generally conservative Gwonmun aristocrats and redistributed it among Yi's supporters in the Sinjin camp. In 1392 (the fourth year of King Gongyang), Yi's fifth son,Yi Bang-won,after failing to persuade a noteworthy aristocrat named Jeong Mong-ju, a supporter of the old dynasty, to swear allegiance to the new reign, had Jeong Mong-ju killed by five assassins, includingJo Yeong-gyu,at Seonjuk Bridge near Gaegyeong, eliminating a key figure in the opposition to Yi Seong-gye's rule. That same year, Yi dethroned King Gongyang, exiled him toWonju,and ascended the throne. The Goryeo dynasty had come to an end after almost 500 years of rule.

Elimination of the vestiges of Goryeo

King Taejo's portrait

In the beginning of his reign, Yi Seong-gye, nowKing Taejo,intended to continue using the name Goryeo for the country he ruled and simply change the royal line of descent to his own, thus maintaining the facade of continuing the 500-year-old Goryeo tradition. However, numerous threats of mutiny from the drastically weakened but still influential Gwonmun nobles—who continued to swear allegiance to the remnants of the Goryeo dynasty, now the demoted Wang clan—and the overall belief in the reformed court that a new dynastic title was needed to signify the change led him to declare a new dynasty in 1393. He called it the Kingdom of Great Joseon in an effort to revivean older dynastyby the same name. However, the new dynasty came to be referred to, even by historians today, simply by the name of its ruling house.

With the declaration of the new royal house, concerns were voiced on how to handle the remaining descendants of the deposed Wang family. King Taejo and his officials felt that if the legitimacy of their rule were ever questioned by the remaining members of the Goryeo dynasty, they might have to suppress a mass rebellion or even risk losing the recently gained throne. In the end, Taejo had his prime minister,Jeong Dojeon,summon the Wang family to the coast of theYellow Seaand instruct them to board a ship bound for Ganghwa Island, where they were told they would live quietly out of the government's sight. However, the entire ploy was a trap. A crew member on board was instructed beforehand to smash a hole in the hull as soon as the ship had entered sufficiently deep waters. The ship sank, and the members of the Goryeo dynasty akin to the recent Kings of Mongolian descent were drowned. According to an urban legend, after the fate became known of the Wangs gullible enough to board the doomed ship reached their relatives on the mainland, most of them changed their surnames from Wang ( vương ) to Ok ( ngọc ) by adding an extra brush stroke, thus hiding their true descent. Meanwhile, the female lines and were spared and those who were of the Wang clan but distant enough to have no claim over the Goryeo throne were forced to change their surnames to that of their maternal side. Nonetheless, most Korean clans up to the time now have the lineage of Goryeo kings due to intermarriage.

Calls for a new capital followed the demise of those closest to the throne of the Goryeo dynasty. Although Gaegyeong had served well as the seat of government for over 400 years, it was a tradition for new dynasties in Korea to move their capitals, as this was considered fortuitous according to the Chinesefeng shuiphilosophy ofgeomancy.Gaegyeong was also thought to have long since lost the energy required to maintain a permanent capital.

Three sites were officially considered for the new capital: the foot ofMount Gyeryongand the cities of Muak and Hanyang. The location near Mount Gyeryong was rejected because of its relatively rough terrain and lack of convenient communication. Muak was seriously considered before King Taejo decided that Hanyang was the most fitting candidate. Hanyang outranked its rivals in various respects. Not only was it easily accessible from sea and land, and geographically at the center of theKorean Peninsula,but the fertileHan Rivervalley on which the ancient city was situated had historically been the most contested region among theThree Kingdoms of Korea.For centuries, Hanyang had also been said to be blessed, and Korean geomancers claimed that the city occupied a sacrosanct place flowing with geomantic energy. Furthermore, it had large mountains to the north and smaller mountains to the south for defense, with a large plain in between; thus, the city would fit the customary north–south axis. In 1394, Hanyang was declared the new capital and formally renamed Hanseong. (It would eventually become the current capital of South Korea,Seoul.) That year, the foot of Mount Bugak was chosen for the foundation of the main palace. Development and construction of the city and its complicated system of avenues, gates, walls, civilian residences, educational facilities, government buildings, and five main palace complexes began in 1394 as well. The official royal residence,Gyeongbok Palace,was completed in 1395, while the less important Changdeok Palace was completed in 1405. Other royal palaces followed, and by the end of the first half of the 15th century, the capital had been completed.

Early strife

Gyeongbokgung

King Taejo had two wives, both of whom bore him sons. His first wife, Queen Sineui, who died before the overthrow of Goryeo, gave birth to six sons. Taejo's wife upon his ascension to the throne, Queen Sindeok, had two sons. When the new dynasty was established, Taejo brought up the issue of which son would be his successor. Although Taejo's fifth son by Queen Sineui,Yi Bang-won,had contributed most to his father's rise to power, he harbored a profound hatred of two of his father's key allies in the court, Prime Minister Jeong Do-jeon andNam Eun.Both sides were fully aware of the mutual animosity and felt threatened. When it became clear that Yi Bang-won was the most worthy successor to the throne, Jeong used his influence on the king to convince him that the wisest choice would be the son whom Taejo loved most, not the son he felt was best for the kingdom. In 1392, the eighth son of King Taejo (the second son of Queen Sindeok)—Grand Prince Uian (Yi Bang-seok)—was appointed Prince Royal, or successor to the throne. After the sudden death of the queen, and while King Taejo was still in mourning, Jeong conspired to kill Yi Bang-won and his brothers to secure his position in the court. In 1398, upon hearing of this plan, Yi Bang-won immediately revolted and raided the palace, killing Jeong, his followers, and the two sons of the late Queen Sindeok. This became known as the First Strife of Princes.

Aghast at the fact that his sons were willing to kill one another for the crown, and psychologically exhausted from the death of his second wife, King Taejo immediately crowned his second son—Yi Bang-gwa, laterKing Jeongjong—as the new ruler. Soon after, he departed to the northern city ofHamhung.

One of King Jeongjong's first acts as monarch was to revert the capital toKaesong,where he is believed to have been considerably more comfortable. Meanwhile, Yi Bang-won, not discouraged by the fact that his elder brother held the throne, began plotting to be established as Royal Prince Successor, the traditional title for brothers appointed as heir presumptives to the throne when the incumbent had no issue. However, Yi Bang-won's plans were opposed by Taejo's fourth son, Yi Bang-gan, who also yearned for power. In 1400, the tensions between Yi Bang-won's faction and Yi Bang-gan's camp escalated into an all-out conflict that came to be known as the Second Strife of Princes. In the aftermath of the struggle, the defeated Yi Bang-gan was exiled toTosan,while those who had urged him to battle Yi Bang-won were executed. Thoroughly intimidated, King Jeongjong immediately invested Yi Bang-won as heir presumptive and voluntarily abdicated. That same year, Yi Bang-won finally assumed the throne of Joseon, becomingKing Taejong.In 1401, the Joseon Dynasty was officially admitted into atributaryrelationship with theMing dynastyof China.

In the beginning of Taejong's reign, Taejo refused to relinquish the royal seal that signified the legitimacy of a king's rule. Uncomfortable at the fact that his father did not recognize him as ade jureruler because of the family deaths he had caused, Taejong sent several messengers, among them his childhood friend Bak Sun, to recover the royal seal. However, Taejo assassinated every messenger that came into sight of his guards as a sign of his fury at Taejong, who remained unaware of their fates. This episode became known as theCase of the Hamhung Envoys,and the term "Hamhung envoy" is still used in theKorean languageto refer to a person who has gone on an assignment and has not been heard from.

Consolidation of power

With his father unwilling to pass over the royal seal he needed for recognition, Taejong began to initiate policies he believed would prove his intelligence and right to rule. One of his first acts as king was to abolish the privilege enjoyed by the upper echelons of the government and aristocracy to maintain private armies. This effectively severed their ability to muster large-scale revolts, and drastically increased the number of men employed in the national military.

Taejong's next act as king was to revise the law concerning the taxation of land ownership and the documentation of state subjects. Although many aristocrats who benefited from King Taejo's property redistribution laws, from the Gwonmun aristocrats to the members of the Sinjin faction, had managed to avoid taxation by deliberately hiding land they acquired, King Taejong's re-investigation of land ownership in 1405 put an end to such practices. With the discovery of previously hidden land, national income increased twofold. In addition, King Taejong initiated the first population survey in 1413 and ordered the documentation of family names and clans, places of birth and death, and dates of birth and death for all Korean men. All males over the age of 16, whichever class in society they occupied, were also required by law to carry wooden tablets on which their name, birth date, and other information was engraved. Many historians regard this legislation as the predecessor of the Korean resident identification and social security system. It was also effective in preventing men from evading their mandatory military service.

Geunjeongjeon (Throne Hall)

In 1399 (the second year of King Jeongjong), Taejong had played an influential role in scrapping theDopyeong Assembly—a council of the old government that held a monopoly on court power during the waning years of the Goryeo dynasty—in favor of theState Council of Joseon,a new branch of central administration that revolved around the king and his edicts. After passing the subject documentation and taxation laws, King Taejong issued a decree that decisions passed by the Euijeong Department could only come into effect with the approval of the king. This ended the custom in which court ministers and advisers made decisions by debating and negotiating among themselves, with the king as an onlooker, and thus brought royal power to new heights. Shortly afterward, Taejong also created a branch of the government, known as theSinmun Office,to hear cases in which subjects felt they had been exploited or treated unfairly by government officials or aristocrats.

In 1418, Taejong abdicated. Two months later, in August,Sejongascended to the throne. However, Taejong retained certain powers at court, particularly regarding military matters, until he died in 1422. King Sejong was an effective military planner. In May 1419, under the advice and guidance of his father, he embarked on theGihae Eastern Expeditionagainst Japanese pirates who had been operating out ofTsushima.(Before the Gihae expedition, Korea had cleared out pirates in 1389 and 1396.)

In September 1419, thedaimyōof Tsushima, Sadamori, capitulated to the Joseon court. In 1443, TheTreaty of Gyehaewas signed, in which the Daimyo was granted the right to conduct trade with Korea on 50 ships per year, in exchange for sending tribute to Korea and helping stop any Japanese coastal pirate raid on Korean ports.

On the northern border, Sejong established four forts and six posts (사군육진;Bốn quận sáu trấn) to safeguard his people from the hostile Chinese andJurchens(who later became theManchus) living in Manchuria. In 1433, he sentKim Jong-seo(Korean:김종서;Hanja:Kim tông thụy ), a prominent general, north to destroy the Jurchens. Kim's military campaign captured several castles, pushed north, and restored Korean territory, roughly the present-day border between North Korea and China.

During the rule of Sejong, Korea saw technological advances innatural science,agriculture,literature,andtraditional medicine.Because of his success, Sejong received the title "King Sejong the Great of Joseon". His most remembered contribution is the creation ofHangul,the Korean Alpha bet, in 1443. Before that, Korean literati had used theHanjawriting system—traditional Chinese characters with Korean pronunciation and meaning—and a written language known asHanmun,which was basicallyClassical Chinese,for official court documents. Everyday written use of Hanja and Hanmun ended gradually in the latter half of the 20th century.

Six martyred ministers

After King Sejong's death, his sonMunjongcontinued his legacy but died of illness in 1452, two years after becoming king. Munjong's sonDanjongthen became king at the age of 12, but his uncleSejodeposed him and took control of the government himself, becoming the seventh king of Joseon in 1455. Aftersix ministers loyal to Danjongtried to assassinate Sejo in order to return Danjong to the throne, Sejo executed the six ministers and also killed Danjong, who was in exile. Despite having snatched the throne from his young nephew, Sejo proved to be an able ruler. He strengthened the administrative system, enabling the government to determine exact population numbers and to mobilize troops effectively. He also revised land ordinances to improve the national economy and encouraged the publication of books. Most importantly, he compiled the Grand Code for State Administration, which became the cornerstone of dynastic administration and provided the first written form of constitutional law in Korea.

Sejo's sonYejongsucceeded him to become the eighth king, but died two years later in 1469. Yejong's nephewSeongjongthen ascended to the throne. His reign was marked by prosperity, economic growth, and the rise ofneo-Confucianscholars calledSarim,who were encouraged by Seongjong to enter court politics. Seongjong established Hongmungwan (홍문관, hoằng văn quán ), a royal library and advisory council composed of Confucian scholars, with whom he discussed philosophy and government policies. He ushered in a cultural golden age that rivaled King Sejong's reign, with the publication of numerous books on geography, ethics, and other topics. He also launched several military campaigns against the Jurchens to stabilize the northern border.

Literati purges

Main articles:Korean literati purgesandJungjong coup

Seongjong's sonYeonsangun,whose reign was marked bya series of bloody purges of neo-Confucian scholarsbetween 1498 and 1506, is often consideredthe worst tyrant in the Joseon Dynasty. His behavior became erratic after he learned that his biological mother was not Queen Jung-hyeon but deposed Consort Yoon, who had been forced to drink poison after poisoning one of Seongjong's concubines out of jealousy and leaving a scratch mark on Seongjong's face. When he was shown a piece of clothing allegedly stained with blood that his mother had vomited after drinking poison, he beat to death two of the concubines who had accused Consort Yoon and pushed Grand Queen Insu, who died afterward. He executed government officials who supported Consort Yoon's death, along with their families; he also executed Sarim scholars for writing texts critical of Sejo's usurpation of the throne. He seized a thousand women from the provinces to serve as palace entertainers and appropriated theSeonggyungwan,the Royal University, as a personal pleasure ground. He abolished Hongmungwan and the Office of Censors, whose function was to criticize inappropriate actions and policies of the king. He banned the use of Hangul after commoners criticized him with posters written in that Alpha bet. After twelve years, he was deposed in a coup that placed his half-brotherJungjongon the throne in 1506.

Jungjong was a fundamentally weak king because of the circumstances that placed him on the throne, but his reign also saw significant reforms led by his ministerJo Gwang-jo,the charismatic leader of Sarim scholars. He established a local self-government system calledHyang'yakto strengthen local autonomy and communal spirit; sought to reduce the gap between rich and poor by distributing land to farmers more equally and by limiting the amount of land and the number of slaves that one could own; promulgated Confucian writings widely with vernacular translations; and reduced the number of bureaucrats. According toAnnals of Joseon Dynasty,no official dared to take a bribe or exploit the populace during this time because Jo applied the law so strictly. These radical reforms were very popular with commoners but were fiercely opposed by the conservative officials who had helped to put Jungjong on the throne. They plotted to make Jungjong doubt Jo's loyalty by writing "Jo will become the king"(주초위왕, đi tiếu vi vương ) with honey on leaves, so that caterpillars left behind the phrase like a supernatural manifestation. Jo was executed, and most of his reform measures died with him in theThird Literati Purge of 1519.For nearly 50 years afterward, court politics were marred by bloody and chaotic struggles between factions backing rival consorts and princes. In-laws of the royal family wielded great power and contributed to much of the corruption.

Factional struggle

Main article:Sarim

TheSarimfaction, which suffered a series of political defeats during the reign ofYeonsangun,Jungjong,andMyeongjong,gained control of the government underSeonjo,but was soon split into aWestern factionand anEastern faction,which in turn split intoNorthernandSouthernfactions. The Western faction also eventually split into the Old Learning and New Learning factions. Changes in power between these factions were often accomplished with charges of treason and accompanied by bloody purges, initiating a cycle of revenge.

One example is the GichukTreason Case of 1589(기축옥사), in which an Easterner, Jeong Yeo-rip, was accused of conspiracy to start a rebellion. Jeong had formed a society with a group of supporters who had received military training to fight against Japanese marauders. There is still dispute about the nature and purpose of Jeong's group, which reflected a desire for a classless society and spread throughout the Honam region. Jeong Cheol, the head of the Western faction, was in charge of investigating the case and used it to carry out a widespread purge of Easterners who had the slightest connection with Jeong Yeo-rip. A thousand Easterners were killed or exiled.

Japanese invasions

Main article:Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–98)

TheTurtle ship.The historical existence of the ironclad roof is disputed.

Japanese piratesattacked Korea with a gun and land as many as 529 times in the period and 312 times in the Joseon period. The only job of the Korean navy was to secure the maritime trade against the pirates. The navy maintained superiority over the pirates by using advanced gunpowder technologies, such as cannons andfire arrows(e.g.,singijeondeployed byhwacha).

Duringthe Japanese invasions of Korea from 1592 to 1598,Japanese warlordToyotomi Hideyoshi,hoping to conquerMingChina with Portuguese guns, invaded Korea with hisdaimyōand their troops in 1592 and 1597. Factional divisions in the Joseon court, inability to assess Japanese military capability, and failed attempts at diplomacy led to poor preparation on Joseon's part. Using European firearms, the Japanese were able to occupy most of the southern peninsula within months, with bothPyongyangand Hanseong (present-day Seoul) captured. According to theAnnals of Joseon Dynasty,the Japanese were joined by rebelling Koreanslaves,who burned down the palace ofGyeongbokgungand its storehouse of slave records.

Local resistance,however, slowed down the Japanese advance, and decisive naval victories by AdmiralYi Sun-sinleft control of sea routes in Korean hands, severely hampering Japanese supply lines. Furthermore,MingChina intervened on the side of the Koreans, sending a large force in 1593 that helped push back the Japanese. During the war, the Koreans developed powerful firearms, high-quality gunpowder, andTurtle ships.

The Joseon and Ming forces defeated the Japanese, who retreated back to their homeland, but victory came at a deep price. Farmlands were devastated, irrigation dikes were destroyed, and villages and towns were burned down. The population was first plundered and then dispersed, and tens of thousands of skilled workers (celadonware makers, craftsmen, artisans, etc.) were either killed or kidnapped and taken to Japan as captives to help the Japanese develop their crafts. The Japanese also pilfered many thousands of Joseon historical and royal boiis, many of which are preserved in Japanese museums.

In 1598, the Japanese withdrew their troops from Korea after Hideyoshi died. As the Japanese retreated, Admiral Yi Sun-sin ordered a vigorous pursuit by the Koreans. However, Yi was killed by a single bullet in theBattle of Noryangon December 16, 1598.

As a result of the wars, the Japanese took the ears and noses of some 38,000 Koreans as trophies (a commonsamuraipractice) and built theMimizukamonument inKyōto.The long war reduced the productive capacity of farmlands from 1,708,000 kyol (a land unit) to 541,000 kyol. Following the war, relations between Korea and Japan were completely suspended, and Japan was cut off from the technology of continental Asia. After the death of Hideyoshi, however, negotiations between the Korean court and theTokugawa shogunatewere carried out via the Japanese lord on Tsushima.

In 1604,Tokugawa Ieyasu,needing to restore commercial relations with Korea in order to regain access to the technology of the mainland, met Korea's demands and released some 3,000 captive Koreans. As a result, in 1607, a Korean mission visitedEdo,and diplomatic and trade relations were restored on a limited basis.

Manchu invasions

Following these events, the Korean kingdom became increasinglyisolationist.In addition, the Ming dynasty was weakened, partly because of the war between Korea and Japan, and the newQing dynastywas established. The Koreans decided to build tighter borders, exert more control over inter-border traffic, and wait out the initial turbulence of theManchuoverthrow of the Ming.

Despite these limits, Korea had extensive trade withMongolia,Northern Asia,China, and Japan. However, at times, trade with Japan was limited to missions appointed by the king in order to prevent piracy and maintain orderly trade, which had been a problem even in the Goryeo period.

Korea was twice invaded by the Manchus, in 1627 (theFirst Manchu Invasion of Korea) and 1637 (theSecond Manchu Invasion of Korea). Korea surrendered to the Manchus and became a tributary state of the Qing dynasty, which at that time involved two-way trade missions with China.

Political factions

Main article:Political factions in Joseon Dynasty

Throughout the Joseon era, various regional and ideological factions struggled for dominance of the political system. In the earliest years of Joseon, tension between the capital faction and theYeongnam-basedSarimfaction predominated. VillageSeowon,which combined the functions of Confucian shrines with educational institutions, often reflected the factional alignment of the local elites. In areas where the Western faction dominated, key figures of Western thought were enshrined. In the 16th century, a nationwide split occurred between theEastern faction(Dong-in) andWestern faction(Seo-in). The Eastern faction in turn split under the reign ofSeonjobetween the hard-lineNorthern faction(Buk-in) and the moderateSouthern faction(Nam-in).The Western faction later split between theOld Learning(Noron) and theYoung Learning(Soron) factions.

These splits were often driven by questions of royal succession or appropriate royal conduct. For example, the split between the Northerners and Southerners was driven by questions involving the proper successor to Seonjo, who had no legitimate son. The Northerners came to support theGwanghaegun;accordingly, they flourished under his reign (1608–1623) but were swept from power by the Westerners after the succession ofInjo.

Under the reigns ofYeongjoandJeongjoin the 18th century, the kings pursued a strict policy of equality, favoring no faction over another.However, during Jeongjo's reign, strife re-emerged between theByeokpaandSipa,two groups which cut across the earlier factions and differed in their attitudes toward Yeongjo's murder of his son, who was also Jeongjo's father. In the 19th century, the playing field shifted once more, and in-law families rather than scholarly factions came to dominate the throne. For most of the 19th century, the Jangdong branch of theAndong Kim clanwas in control of the government; however, there was a brief interlude in which control shifted to the Pungyang Jo clan.

WhenHeungseon Daewonguntook power, factional politics started to decline, and disappeared by the end of the 19th century.

Late Joseon period

Hwaseong FortressinSuwon.

After the Manchu invasions, Joseon experienced a nearly 200-year period of peace.King YeongjoandKing Jeongjoled a new renaissance of the Joseon dynasty.King Sukjongand his sonKing Yeongjotried to solve the problems resulting from factional politics.

Yeongjo's grandson,King Jeongjo,made various reforms throughout his reign, notably establishingKyujanggak,an imperial library. Its purpose was to improve the cultural and political position of Joseon and to recruit gifted officers to run the nation. King Jeongjo also spearheaded bold new social initiatives, opening government positions to those who would have previously been barred because of their social status. He had the support of manySilhakscholars, and in addition, the Silhak scholars supported Jeongjo's regal power. King Jeongjo's reign also saw the further growth and development of Joseon's popular culture.

During the 19th century, drought and floods alternately struck rice fields and farms in Korea and caused great famines. Making matters worse, rulers increased taxes on crops and required more free labor from the starving peasants. Anti-government and anti-landlord sentiment boiled over into violent uprisings.

In 1812,Hong Gyeong-naeled the peasants of Gasan in the northern part of Korea in an armed rebellion and occupied the region for several months. An army was sent to quell the rebellion but only succeeded after a savage scorched-earth campaign. Throughout Korea, all the way toJeju Island,peasants continued to defy the king and ministers inSeoul,as well as the local nobility and wealthy landlords. In 1862, a group of farmers inJinju,inGyeongsang Province,rose up against their provincial officials and the wealthy landowners in response to exploitation of destitute farmers. The whole of Joseon was plunged in confusion.Choe Je-u(최제우, thôi tế ngu, 1824–1894) established the ideology ofDonghak(Eastern learning) in the 1860s, and started aseditiousandsecessionistmovement that involvedpeasantsforming into an anti-government militia that took over parts of southern Korea from 1862 to 1864.Roman Catholicismwas also introduced in this period, butChristianityin all its forms was brutally oppressed by the Korean government until the late 1880s.

In 1863,King Gojongtook the throne. His father, RegentHeungseon Daewongun,ruled for him until Gojong reached adulthood. Daewongun is largely said to have been responsible for the brutal suppression of Christianity in Korea during his regency. In the mid-1860s, he was the main proponent of isolationism and the instrument of the persecution of native and foreign Catholics, a policy that led directly to theFrench campaign against Korea in 1866.The early years of his rule also witnessed an effort to restore the dilapidatedGyeongbok Palace,the seat of royal authority. During Daewongun's reign, factional politics and power wielded by the Andong Kim clan disappeared.

In 1873, King Gojong announced his direct royal rule. With the subsequent retirement of Daewongun, Queen Min (later calledEmpress Myeongseong) gained complete control over her court and placed her family in high positions.

Western intervention

See also:French Campaign against Korea, 1866;United States expedition to Korea (1871);andTreaty of Ganghwa

The French campaign against Korea in 1866 is also known as Byeonginyangyo (병인양요,Western Disturbance of the Byeong-in Year). It refers to the French occupation ofGanghwa Islandin retaliation for the execution of FrenchJesuitpriests proselytizing illicitly in Korea. The campaign, which lasted nearly six weeks, was the first armed encounter between Korea and a Western power. The overall result was a French retreat and a check on France's influence in the region. The violent encounter also confirmed Korea in its isolationism for another decade.

TheUnited States expedition to Korea in 1871,also known as Sinmiyangyo (신미양요,Western Disturbance of the Sinmi Year), was the first American military action in Korea. It, too, took place predominantly on and around Ganghwa Island. The American military expeditionary force arrived to support an American diplomatic delegation sent to establish trade and diplomatic relations with Korea, to ascertain the fate of theGeneral Shermanmerchant ship, and to establish a treaty assuring aid for shipwrecked sailors. The conservative nature of the Joseon government and the assertiveness of the Americans led to a misunderstanding between the two parties that changed a diplomatic expedition into an armed conflict. The United States won a minor military victory, but because the Koreans refused to open the country to the Americans (and the U.S. forces in Korea did not have the authority or strength to press the issue), the United States failed to secure its diplomatic objectives.

In 1875, theUn'yō,a small Japanese warship, was dispatched to survey coastal waters without Korean permission. It attacked a Korean port and withdrew back to Japan. The Japanese took the opportunity to demand a treaty. TheTreaty of Ganghwabecame the firstunequal treatysigned by Korea; it gave extraterritorial rights to Japanese citizens in Korea, forced the Korean government to open three ports—Busan,Incheon,andWonsan—to Japanese and foreign trade, and made Korea establish its independence from China in foreign relations.

Decline

An early version of theKorean flag.

In the 19th century, tensions mounted betweenQing ChinaandJapan,culminating in theFirst Sino-Japanese War(1894–1895). Much of this war was fought on the Korean Peninsula. Japan, having acquired Western military technology after theMeiji Restoration,had forced Joseon to sign the Treaty of Ganghwa in 1876. Japan encroached on Korean territory in search of fish, iron ore, and natural resources. It also established a strong economic presence, heralding the beginning of Japanese imperial expansion in East Asia.

Imo Rebellion and Gapsin Coup

Main articles:Imo IncidentandGapsin Coup

As the dynasty declined, the king began to rely on newer, rifle-using armies. They were paid well, and members of the old army, who used spears and oldmatchlocks,lost much of their pay. The old army revolted in response. Heungseon Daewongun was restored to power, but the Qing generalYuan Shikaisoon had him abducted by Chinese troops and taken to China, thus foiling his return. Four years later, Daewongun returned to Korea.

On December 4, 1884, five revolutionaries led a small army toEmpress Myeongseong's brother's house and initiated acoup d'étât.It failed in three days. Some coup leaders, includingKim Ok-gyun,fled to Japan, and others were executed.

Donghak Peasant Revolution

Main article:Donghak Peasant Revolution

TheDonghak Peasant Revolutionwas an anti-government, anti-yangban,and anti-foreign campaign.

The peasants demanded land redistribution, lower taxes, democracy, and human rights. Taxes were so high that most farmers had been forced to sell their ancestral homesteads to rich landowners at bargain prices. As a result, the peasant class developed intense anti-Japanese and anti-yangban sentiments. The immediate causes of the rebellion were the actions ofJo Byong-gap,a government official whose rule was viewed by some as tyrannical and corrupt. On January 11, 1894, peasant leaderJeon Bong-jundefeated the government forces at the battle ofGo-bu,and Jo's properties were handed out to the peasants. In the meantime, the Joseon government army attacked Jeonju, and the government and the peasant army concluded an agreement. However, the Joseon government then asked the Chinese government for urgent assistance in ending the revolt. After notifying the Japanese in accordance with theConvention of Tientsin,China sent troops into Korea. It was the catalyst for theFirst Sino-Japanese War.

In late June 1894, pro-Japanese forces hatched a plan to wipe out the peasant army in cooperation with the Japanese troops stationed inIncheonandSeoul.On October 16, the peasant army moved towardGongjufor the final battle, which was a trap: The Japanese and the pro-Japanese government troops were waiting for them. The peasant army was defeated in theBattle of Ugeumchi.The Japanese had cannons and other modern weapons, whereas the Korean peasants were armed only with bows and arrows, spears, swords, and someflintlockmuskets. A few months later, Jeon was captured and executed.

The revolution failed, but many of the peasants' grievances would later be addressed through theGabo Reform.

Assassination of Empress Myeongseong

Main article:Assassination of Empress Myeongseong

In 1895, Empress Myeongseong (referred to as "Queen Min" by the United Statesand Japan) was assassinated by Japanese agents;she had tried to counter Japanese interference in Korea and was considering turning to Russia or China for support. The Japanese minister to Korea,Miura Gorō,orchestrated the plot against her. A group of Japanese agents, along with theHullyeondaeArmy,entered the royal palace in Seoul, and an agent killed the empress and desecrated her body in the north wing of the palace.

Establishment of the Korean Empire

Main article:Korean Empire

Independence Gate,built in 1896

The Chinese defeat in the 1894 war led to theTreaty of ShimonosekibetweenChinaandJapan,which officially guaranteed Korea's independence from its tributary status with China. For Japan, it was a step toward regionalhegemonyin Korea. After that, Korea built theIndependence Gateand stopped paying tributes to theQing dynasty.The Joseon court, pressured by encroachment from larger powers, felt the need to reinforce national integrity and declared theKorean Empirein 1897.Gojongassumed the title of emperor in order to assert Korea's independence. He tried to promote theGwangmu Reform,but failed because of opposition from the general populace and the Japanese.

Technically, 1897 marks the end of the Joseon period, as the official name of the empire was changed. However, the dynasty continued to reign, albeit perturbed by Japanese interventions.

Japanese occupation

In a complicated series of maneuvers and counter-maneuvers, Japan pushed back a Russian fleet at theBattle of Port Arthurin 1905. After the conclusion of the 1904–1905Russo-Japanese Warwith theTreaty of Portsmouth,the way was open for Japan to take control of Korea.

After the signing of theProtectorate Treatyin 1905, Korea became aprotectorateof Japan.Itō Hirobumibecame the first resident general of Korea. He was assassinated by aKorean independence activist,An Jung-geun,in 1909 at the train station atHarbin.

Following the Protectorate Treaty, Gojong sent representatives to theHague Peace Conventionof 1907 to try to re-assert his sovereignty over Korea. Although the Korean representatives were blocked by the Japanese delegates, they did not give up, and later held interviews with newspapers. The Japanese forced Gojong to abdicate, and his sonSunjongsucceeded to the throne.

In 1910, in the face of opposition from many Koreans, theJapanese EmpireannexedKorea by force.

See also

• History of Korea