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Comparisons between Israel and Nazi Germany

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Not to be confused withGaza genocideorThe Holocaust and the Nakba.
22 October 2023: Pro-Palestinian demonstrators inColumbus, Ohio,displaying a poster that reads "Isreal [sic] are the new Nazis "amidstIsrael–Hamas war protests in the United States.

Comparisons between Israel and Nazi Germanyoccur frequently in the political discourse ofanti-Zionism.[1][2]Given the legacy ofthe Holocaust,the legitimacy of and intent behind these accusations are a matter of debate, particularly with regard to their potential nature as a manifestation ofantisemitism.Historically, figures like British historianArnold J. Toynbeehave drawn parallels or alleged a relationship betweenZionismandNazism;British professorDavid Feldmansuggests that these comparisons are often rhetorical tools without specific antisemitic intent. On the other hand, theAnti-Defamation Leaguesees these comparisons as attempts atHolocaust trivialization.[3][4]French philosopherBernard-Henri Lévyargues that such comparisons not only lack historical and moral equivalence, but also risk inciting anti-Jewish sentiment.[5]

According to American political scientistIan Lustick,comparing the two countries is "a natural if unintended consequence of the immersion ofIsraeli Jewsin Holocaust imagery. "[6]Israeli-American Holocaust historianOmer Bartovhas drawn an analogy between the indoctrinated dehumanization of the adversary in the Germany army under Nazism and the attitudes displayed by young Israeli troops in theIsraeli war in Gaza (2024).[7]A wide variety of political figures and governments, especially those onthe left,have often invoked these comparisons, with the most prominent and influential example being that ofSoviet anti-Zionism,which took root in response to Israel's integration with theFirst Worldin the aftermath of the1967 Arab–Israeli War.[8]In the 21st century, politicians who have done so at least once include Turkish presidentRecep Tayyip Erdoğan,[9]Brazilian presidentLula da Silva,[10]Venezuelan presidentHugo Chávez,[11]Colombian PresidentGustavo Petro,[12]and British parliamentarianDavid Ward.[13]

History

Comparisons betweenZionismandNazismpredate the foundation ofIsraelin 1948.British Armyofficer and politicianEdward Spears,who "best highlighted the Gentile use of the Zionist-Nazi analogy",[14]wrote that:

Political Zionismas it is manifested in Palestine today preaches very much the same doctrines asHitler... Zionist policy inPalestinehas many features similar to Nazi philosophy... the politics ofHerrenvolk... the Nazi idea ofLebensraum,is also very in evidence in the Zionist philosophy... the training of youth is very similar under both organizations that have designed this one and the Nazi one.[15]

German-Jewish linguist and anti-fascistVictor Klemperer,who survived theHolocaustand chose not to move to Israel but stay in Germany after 1945, wrote in hisLTI - Lingua Tertii Imperii(The Language of the Third Reich) that bothZionismandNazismare essentiallyneo-Romantic nationalistideologies. The components of this Romantic nationalism, according to Klemperer, are "the dethronement of reason, the animalization of man, the glorification of the idea of power, of the predator, of the blond beast... and, most importantly, a strong biologization of the concept of a people, the belief in a" sacred mission "of a certain tribe or nation."[16]Klemperer asserts that in the writings of bothAdolf Hitlerand Zionism's founderTheodor Herzlthis Romantic nationalism is apparent:

The problem is that Hitler and Herzl feed to a very large extent on the same heritage. I have already identified the German root of Nazism, it is that partial, bigoted and perverted form of Romanticism. If I add Romanticism made kitschy, then I have defined exactly the intellectual and stylistic common ground between the two Führers. Herzl’s model, who is referred to lovingly on a number of occasions, isWilhelm II.[17]

In 1948,Hannah Arendt,Albert Einsteinand a number of other Jewish public figures signed an open letter which compared a Jewish political party to Nazism, writing that, "Among the most disturbing political phenomena of our times is the emergence in the newly created state of Israel of the 'Freedom Party' (Tnuat Haherut), a political party closely akin in its organization, methods, political philosophy, and social appeal to the Nazi and Fascist parties. "[18][19]

English historianArnold J. Toynbeebelieved that sinking back into the barbarity of Nazism was something that threatened not only Israel but the Western world generally. He described the contemporary Israeli "a Janus-figure, part American farmer technicians, part Nazisicarius".[15]Comparing what Israel did to the Arabs, he considered that it was, morally but not statistically, worse than what Nazis did to Jews.[20][21]This formed part of his critique of Zionism. In the final volume of hisA Study of History,Toynbee reconsidered his view that Zionism was like Nazism. He wrote that:

I think that, in the Zionist movement, Western Jews have assimilated gentile Western Civilization in the most unfortunate possible form. They have assimilated the West's nationalism and colonization. The seizure of the houses, lands, and property of the 900,000 Palestinian Arabs who are now refugees is on a moral level with the worst crimes and injustices committed, during the last four or five centuries, by gentile Western European conquerors and colonists overseas.'[4]

Toynbee sustained this viewpoint in the face of several critical responses, notably byJacob TalmonandEliezer Berkovits.Talmon argued that Toynbee's conclusion reflected his contempt for Western civilization's subjugation of so many peoples, about which Toynbee felt guilty and which he traced back to the idea of aChosen peopleabsorbed via Christianity from Judaism. Berkovitz argued Toynbee's loathing of Nazism as a caricature of the West betrays a tacit self-contempt, which carries over into his attitude to Zionism. Toynbee responded that there was some truth in both these observations, and while reaffirming his belief in the cogency of the analogy, admitted that, on reflection, his condemnation of Zionism's guilt in this regard was disproportionate.[22]

The Israeli philosopherYeshayahu Leibowitzintroduced the term "Judeo-Nazis". He argued that continuedmilitary occupationof thePalestinian territorieswould lead to the moral degradation ofIsraeli Defense Force(IDF), with individuals committing atrocities for state security interests.[23][24]In 1988, Holocaust survivorYehuda Elkanawarned that the tendency in Israel to see all potential threats as existential and all opponents as Nazis would lead to Nazi-like behavior byJews.[25]During theFirst Intifada,historianOmer Bartovwas enraged byYitzhak Rabin's call to "break the bones" ofPalestiniansand wrote him a letter arguing that, based on Bartov's research, the IDF could be similarly brutalized as theGerman Armywas during World War II.[26]One Israeli nationalist toldAmos Ozthat he did not care if Israel was called a Judeo-Nazi state, it was "better [to be] a living Judeo-Nazi than a dead saint."[27]In 2018,Noam Chomskycited Leibowitz, arguing that he was right in his prediction that the occupation was producing Judeo-Nazis.[28]

According to political scientistIan Lustick,a professor at theUniversity of Pennsylvania,such comparisons are "a natural if unintended consequence of the immersion of Israeli Jews in Holocaust imagery", and the term "Holocaust inversion" for Nazi comparisons is used by those who see the Holocaust as a template for Jewish life.[6]

In the context of theSix-Day War,the administration of theSoviet Unioncompared Israeli tactics to those ofNazi Germanyduring the Second World War in official commentary.[8]After the victory ofLikudin the1977 Israeli legislative election,Holocaust metaphors began to be used by the Israeli right-wing to describe their left-wing opponents.[29]During theIsraeli disengagement from Gaza,some settlers donned yellow stars to compare themselves to Holocaust victims, protesting the government's measures.[24]In 2016,Yair Golan,the Israeli general and deputy chief of staff of the IDF, sparked a controversy during a speech atYom HaShoah.Golan stated:

If there is something that frightens me about the memory of the Holocaust, it is seeing the abhorrent processes that took place in Europe, and Germany in particular, some 70, 80 or 90 years ago, and finding manifestations of these processes here among us in 2016.[30]

These remarks were condemned by the prime ministerBenjamin Netanyahu.[30]Later, Golan retracted and said that he did not intend to compare Israel to Nazi Germany, releasing a statement in which he said "It is an absurd and baseless comparison and I had no intention whatsoever to draw any sort of parallel or to criticize the national leadership. The IDF is a moral army that respects the rules of engagement and protects human dignity."[31]He later again compared right wing Israeli politicians to Nazis, drawing criticism from the right in Israel.[32]

Debate on potentially antisemitic nature

The subject of comparisons between Israel and Nazi Germany and whether or not such comparisons are antisemitic has received much commentary by academics worldwide who have studied history and politics,[33]including those who have deemed it to be a form ofHolocaust trivializationcalled "Holocaust inversion" due to the potential implication it minimizes the scope of Nazi crimes.[34]

Deborah Lipstadt,theU.S. Special Envoy for Combating Antisemitism,has referred to comparisons between Nazi Germany and Israel as "soft-core" Holocaust denial, as contrasted with "hard-core" denial as practiced by David Irving, who sued Lipstadt in acelebrated legal case.She defines "soft-core denial" as "not denying the facts, but either inverting it so the victims become the perpetrators". She said in a 2009 interview that soft-core denial makes "a false comparison, and that dilutes what the Holocaust was. It’s a much more slippery kind of manifestation" than hard-core denial, she stated.[5]

According toKenneth L. Marcus,the aim of those who employ Holocaust inversion is to "shock, silence, threaten, insulate, and legitimize.... No one tells Holocaust survivors – or a nation of Holocaust survivors and their children – that they are Nazis without expecting to shock." Even when it is frequently used, the use of Holocaust inversion is still shocking, which facilitates its repeated use. He asserts that the tying together of Nazi motifs with Jewish conspiracy stereotypes has a chilling effect on Jewish supporters of Israel. He also says that by implying guilt, this discourse is threatening because it implies a required punishment. As this discourse is performed in the context of political criticism of Israel, it insulates those who use it from the resistance that most forms ofracismface in post-World War IIsociety. Finally, he states that inversion not only legitimizes anti-Israel activities but also legitimizes anti-Jewish activities that would otherwise be hard to conduct.[clarification needed]According toBernard-Henri Lévy,this erodes societal safeguards allowing "people to feel once again the desire and, above all, the right to burn all the synagogues they want, to attack boys wearing yarmulkes, to harass large number of rabbis... in order for anti-Semitism to be reborn on a large scale."[35]

According to historianBernard Lewis,the belief that the Nazis were no worse than Israel is has "brought welcome relief to many who had long borne a burden of guilt for the role which they, their families, their nations, or their churches had played in Hitler's crimes against the Jews, whether by participation or complicity, acquiescence or indifference."[34] In Austria, while overt antisemitism has been limited following the Holocaust, theFreedom Party of Austriais associated with using comparisons between Nazi Germany and Israel to delegitimize political opponents.[36]

According to Lustick, many Israelis are "already repelled by actions against Palestinians they cannot help but associate with Nazi persecution of Jews."[30]British scholarDavid Feldmanargued that comparisons in relation to the2014 Gaza Warhave not been motivated by a broader anti-Jewish subjectivity but by targeted criticism of Israeli policy in military actions.[3]

TheWorking Definition of Antisemitism,which was adopted by theInternational Holocaust Remembrance Alliance,theU.S. Department of State,and other organizations, has offered several examples in which criticism of Israel may be antisemitic, including "drawing comparison of contemporary Israeli policy to that of the Nazis."[37]This definition is controversial because of concerns that it could be seen as defining legitimate criticisms of Israel as antisemitic and has been used to censor pro-Palestinian activism. Alternative definitions such as theJerusalem Declaration on Antisemitismhave been proposed.[38]

In an official statement, theAnti-Defamation League,an Americansocial activistorganization involved with theU.S. Jewish community,has declared that "[a]bsolutely no comparison can be made between the complex Israeli-Palestinian conflict and the atrocities committed by the Nazis against the Jews" given that "[w]hile one can criticize Israel's treatment of the Palestinians, in contrast to the Holocaust, there is not now, nor has there been, a significant Israeli ideology, movement, policy or plan to exterminate the Palestinian population." The statement also labeled comparisons inherently antisemitic.[39]

Critics of such comparisons like Lesley Klaff andBernard-Henri Lévyargue that such comparisons not only lack historical and moral equivalence but also risk inciting anti-Jewish sentiment.[34][13]Klaff also see equating Israel with Nazis as a form of incitement and racial aggravation against Jews.[13]According to genocide researcherEyal Levin,Holocaust Inversion is becoming part of the iconography of anew antisemitism.This phenomenon, according to Levin, has spread globally, particularly in the Arab and Muslim world and also become prevalent in Western Europe and America, often appearing in what he considers anti-Israel demonstrations and media portrayals.[40]

In the 21st century

In 2024, Israeli historianOmer Bartovspoke with Israelis who had been fighting in Gaza and compared their attitudes to those he had found in his research on German soldiers during World War II: "Having internalised certain views of the enemy – the Bolsheviks asUntermenschen;Hamas as human animals – and of the wider population as less than human and undeserving of rights, soldiers observing or perpetrating atrocities tend to ascribe them not to their own military, or to themselves, but to the enemy ".[41]

United Kingdom

In the United Kingdom, erstwhileMember of ParliamentforBradford East,theLiberal DemocratpoliticianDavid Ward,created controversy after signing the ceremonial Book of Remembrance in the Houses of Parliament onHolocaust Memorial Day,with him writing: "I am saddened that theJews,who suffered unbelievable levels of persecution duringthe Holocaust,could within a few years of liberation from thedeath campsbe inflicting atrocities onPalestiniansin the new state of Israel and continue to do so on a daily basis in theWest BankandGaza."He later responded to criticism of his statement by alleging that"a huge operationout there "had distorted what he meant.[13]As a result of the scrutiny over the January 2013 controversy, the Liberal Democrats' leadership threatened Ward with formal disciplinary action over his arguments.[42]

Roger Watersof the British rock bandPink Floydhas repeatedly compared Israel to Nazi Germany. In a 2013 interview withCounter Punch,he accused "the Jewish lobby"of being very powerful in the United States and said," There were many people that pretended that the oppression of the Jews was not going on. From 1933 until 1946. So this is not a new scenario. Except that this time it’s the Palestinian People being murdered. "[43]Americanrabbiand writerShmuley Boteachregarded this comparison asantisemitic,writing inThe Observer,"Mr. Waters, the Nazis were a genocidal regime that murdered 6 million Jews. That you would have the audacity to compare Jews to monsters who murdered them shows you have no decency, you have no heart, you have no soul."[44]In a 2017 hour-long video live chat onFacebook,Waters again compared Israel to Nazi Germany.[45]

Turkey

In July 2018, Turkish presidentRecep Tayyip Erdoğan,while addressingGrand National AssemblyMPs inAnkara,said that the "spirit ofHitler"lives on in Israel, commenting specifically that he believes" no difference [exists] between Hitler's obsession witha pure raceand the understanding that these ancient lands are just for the Jews. "He also called Israel" the world's mostZionist,fascist,raciststate. "The statements were condemned by Israeli prime ministerBenjamin Netanyahu,who describedErdoğan's ruleas "a dark dictatorship" and stated that Erdoğan "ismassacring SyriansandKurdsand has jailed tens of thousands of his own citizens. "[9][46]The spat between the two leaders took place following the Israeli government's adoption ofBasic Law: Israel as the Nation-State of the Jewish People.

Palestine

In August 2022, thePresident of the State of Palestine,Mahmoud Abbas,accused Israel of having committed "50 Holocausts" during a visit toBerlin,Germany.Abbas had responded to a reporter's question about the upcoming 50th anniversary of the 1972Munich massacrecommitted by the internationally active Palestinian militant groupBlack September,who were at that time affiliated with Abbas'Fatah Party.When asked if he intended to apologize for the attack, Abbas responded by listing allegations of atrocities committed by Israel.Olaf Scholz,theChancellor of Germany,grimaced at the use of the word "Holocausts" but said nothing. Scholz condemned the remarks later. He asserted:

Especially for us Germans, anyrelativization of the Holocaustis unbearable and unacceptable.

The German publicationBildlabeled the incident as antisemitic.[47][48]In response, Abbas said that his answer was not intended to deny the singularity of the Holocaust, which he stated that he condemned in the strongest terms, but that he had intended to discuss the "crimes and massacres committed against the Palestinian people since theNakbaat the hands of the Israeli forces "in his view.[49]

Tunisia

In 2023, Tunisian PresidentKais Saedsaid, "WhileTunisiansprotected Jews during the Holocaust, today elderly women and children are being bombed inGaza."[50][51]RabbiPinchas Goldschmidt,president of the Conference of European Rabbis, said such remarks incited hate againstTunisian Jews.[52]

Brazil

On 18 February 2024, the President of BrazilLula da Silvastirred up controversy due to his statement comparing the actions of Israel in theIsrael–Hamas warto theHolocaust.[10]

See also

References

Notes

  1. ^Klaff, Lesley."Holocaust Inversion and contemporary antisemitism".Fathom.Retrieved4 May2022.
  2. ^Gerstenfeld, Manfred (2008-01-28)."Holocaust Inversion".Wall Street Journal.ISSN0099-9660.Retrieved2021-06-11.
  3. ^abRosenfeld 2019,p. 175-178, 186.
  4. ^abA. J. Toynbee,A Study of History,OUP 1964 vol.12 p.627.
  5. ^abKlein, Amy (2009-04-19)."Denying the deniers: Q & A with Deborah Lipstadt".Jewish Telegraphic Agency.Retrieved2024-01-20.
  6. ^abLustick 2019,p. 52.
  7. ^Omer Bartov,As a former IDF soldier and historian of genocide, I was deeply disturbed by my recent visit to IsraelThe Guardian23 August 2024
  8. ^abDruks, Herbert (2001).The Uncertain Alliance: The U.S. and Israel from Kennedy to the Peace Process.Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 50–51.ISBN9780313314247.
  9. ^ab"Turkish president calls Israel fascist and racist over nation state law".ITV.24 July 2018.Retrieved4 May2022.
  10. ^ab"Israel livid as Brazil's Lula says Israel like 'Hitler,' committing genocide in Gaza".The Times of Israel.18 February 2024.Retrieved18 February2024.
  11. ^Dow Jones Newswiresreported that, on August 10, while giving a speech in eastern Venezuela, Chávez said Venezuelans are "making a call to world leaders, for the love of God, let's halt this crazyfascistaggression against innocent people. Are we human or what are we?... I feel indignation for Israel's assault on the Palestinian people and the Lebanese people. They dropped bombs on shelters.... It's a Holocaust that is occurring there. "-Venezuela President Asks International Leaders To Halt Israeli Offensive.[permanent dead link]Dow Jones Newswire,Morning Star,August 10, 2006.
  12. ^"How have Latin American countries responded to the Israel-Hamas war?".Al Jazeera.20 October 2023.Archivedfrom the original on 3 July 2024.Retrieved9 September2024.
  13. ^abcdKlaff, Lesley."Holocaust Inversion and contemporary antisemitism".Fathom.Retrieved4 May2022.
  14. ^Rory Miller,Divided Against Zion: Anti-Zionist Opposition to the Creation of a Jewish State in Palestine, 1945-1948,Routledge2013ISBN978-1-315-03843-8p.147. See also pp.16-18,23ff.
  15. ^abMartin Kramer,https://books.google /books?id=9Ko0DwAAQBAJ&hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=analogy+Zionism+Nazism&pg=PT225&printsec=frontcoverThe War on Error: Israel, Islam and the Middle East,Routledge2017ISBN978-1-351-29532-1
  16. ^"Reactionary German Romanticism".Anasintaxi Newspaper, issue 385.2013.
  17. ^"(Bloomsbury Revelations) Victor Klemperer-Language of the Third Reich_ LTI_ Lingua Tertii Imperii-Bloomsbury Academic (2013)".
  18. ^Masha Gessen,'In the Shadow of the Holocaust:How the politics of memory in Europe obscures what we see in Israel and Gaza today.'New Yorker9 December 2023.
  19. ^"Einstein and the ghost of Herut 70 years on".Arab News.2018-04-23.Retrieved2024-09-23.
  20. ^Hedva Ben-Israel,Debates with Toynbee: Herzog, Talmon, FriedmanIsrael Studies,Spring, 2006, Vol. 11, No. 1 pp. 79-90 pp.81-82.
  21. ^Yair Rosenberg,When an Israeli Ambassador Debated a British Historian on Israel’s Legitimacy—and Won. The Montreal face-off between Yaacov Herzog and Arnold Toynbee offers ways of discussing the Jewish state that still feel freshTablet31 January 2014
  22. ^Toynbee ibid.p.627
  23. ^Feldhay, Rivka (2013). "The Fragile Boundary between the Political and the Academic".Israel Studies Review.28(1): 1–7.doi:10.3167/isr.2013.280102.
  24. ^abElkad-Lehman, Ilana (2020). "'Judeo-Nazis? Don't talk like this in my house' voicing traumas in a graphic novel – an intertextual analysis ".Israel Affairs.26(1): 59–79.doi:10.1080/13537121.2020.1697072.S2CID212958444.
  25. ^Bartov 2018,p. 192.
  26. ^Bartov 2018,p. 191.
  27. ^Oz, Amos (1983).""Better a Living Judeo-Nazi Than a Dead Saint"".Journal of Palestine Studies.12(3): 202–209.doi:10.2307/2536162.ISSN0377-919X.JSTOR2536162.
  28. ^Confino, Jotam (14 November 218)."Chomsky to i24NEWS: 'Judeo-Nazi tendencies in Israel a product of occupation'".i24NEWS.Retrieved8 April2022.
  29. ^Steir-Livny 2019,p. 284.
  30. ^abcLustick 2019,p. 143.
  31. ^Beaumont, Peter (5 May 2016)."Israeli military chief backtracks from 1930s Germany comparison".The Guardian.
  32. ^Ben-David, Ricky; Schneider, Tal; Magid, Jacob; Bachner, Michael; Sharon, Jeremy (October 3, 2019)."Incoming MK Yair Golan again compares right-wing to Nazis, drawing ire".The Times of Israel.RetrievedNovember 24,2023.
  33. ^Rosenfeld 2019,p. 175–178, 186.
  34. ^abcMarcus, Kenneth L. (2010).Jewish Identity and Civil Rights in America.Cambridge University Press. p. 56.ISBN978-1-139-49119-8.
  35. ^Marcus, Kenneth L. (2010).Jewish Identity and Civil Rights in America.Cambridge University Press. pp. 63–64.ISBN978-1-139-49119-8.
  36. ^Stoegner, Karin (2016)."'We are the new Jews!' and 'The Jewish Lobby'–antisemitism and the construction of a national identity by the Austrian Freedom Party ".Nations and Nationalism22(3): 484–504.
  37. ^Anti-Zionism and Antisemitism: The Dynamics of Delegitimization,chapter by Alan Johnson, page 177
  38. ^Neve Gordon and Mark LeVine (March 26, 2021)."The problems with an increasingly dominant definition of anti-Semitism (opinion)".Inside Higher Ed.Retrieved8 April2022.
  39. ^"Allegation: Israel's Actions Against the Palestinians Can be Compared to the Nazis".ADL.org.Retrieved18 May2022.
  40. ^Lewin, Eyal (2017).Blaming the Jews for Acting like Nazis: The Rhetoric of Holocaust Inversion.
  41. ^"As a former IDF soldier and historian of genocide, I was deeply disturbed by my recent visit to Israel".The Guardian.13 August 2024.Retrieved13 August2024.
  42. ^"Lib-Dem David Ward MP censured over Israel criticism".BBC News.28 January 2013. Archived fromthe originalon 7 May 2017.Retrieved18 May2022.
  43. ^Barat, Frank (2013-12-06)."An Interview with Roger Waters".CounterPunch.org.Retrieved2023-05-31.
  44. ^Boteach, Shmuley (2013-12-12)."The Anti-Semitic Stench of Pink Floyd".Observer.Retrieved2023-05-31.
  45. ^Spiro, Amy (16 July 2017)."Roger Waters compares Israel to Nazi Germany in Facebook Q&A".The Jerusalem Post.Retrieved4 November2023.
  46. ^"Erdogan calls Israel world's 'most fascist, racist' state".France 24.Agence France-Presse.24 July 2018.
  47. ^"Palestinian President Abbas skirts apology for Munich attack".The Independent.16 August 2022.Retrieved7 September2022.
  48. ^"In Berlin, Abbas says Israel committed 'holocausts' against the Palestinians; Scholz grimaces silently, later condemns remarks".The Times of Israel.16 August 2022.Retrieved7 September2022.
  49. ^"Statement by the President of Palestine regarding what was stated in the response in joint press conference with German Chancellor Olaf Scholz in Berlin".WAFA. 17 August 2022.Retrieved4 November2023.
  50. ^Friedman, Gabe (2023-05-16)."Days after synagogue attack, Tunisian president criticizes Israel and says his country saved Jews in WWII".Jewish Telegraphic Agency.Retrieved2023-05-31.
  51. ^Ben Bouazza, Bouazza (2023-05-11)."Deadly Tunisian synagogue attack was premeditated and targeted temple, interior minister says".AP NEWS.Retrieved2023-05-31.
  52. ^"Days After Two Jews Shot Dead, Tunisian President Compares Israel to Nazis".jewishlink.news.18 May 2023.Retrieved2023-05-31.

Bibliography

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