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Huachuanqian

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This article is about Chinese "flower hole coins" (Huachuanqian). For Chinese "flower coins" (Huaqian), seeChinese numismatic charm.
AYuanfeng Tongbao( nguyên phong thông bảo )cash coinfrom theNorthern Song dynastywith a "flower (or 'rosette') hole" in the middle.

Cash coins with flower (rosette) holes(traditional Chinese:Hoa xuyên tiền;simplified Chinese:Hoa xuyên tiền;pinyin:huā chuān qián) are a type of cash coin with an octagonal hole as opposed to a square one, they have a very long history possibly dating back to the firstBan Liang( nửa lượng ) cash coins cast under theState of Qinor theHan dynasty.[1]Cash coins are characterised by their round shape and square hole, but Huachuanqian are cash coins with an octagonal hole.[2]These octagonal holes are mostly found inChinese cash coins,but are in some rare instances also found inJapanese,Korean,andVietnamese cash coins.

During theimperial periodinChinese historya relatively small number of Chinese cash coins were minted with what are termed "flower holes", "chestnut holes" or "rosette holes", these holes were octagonal but resembled the shape of flowers.[3]The exact origin and purpose of these variant holes is currently unknown but several hypotheses have been proposed by Chinese scholars.[4]While Huachuanqian are believed to have disappeared in China following thetransition from Ming to Qing,they continued to appear among Korean cash coins until the Koreansabolished their cash coins.

Westernnumismatic sources often refer to these cash coins as having "star" holes.[5]Amongcoin collectorsHuachuanqian sell for a premium compared to their square holed counterparts with the same inscription.[5]If the shape of these holes were only hexagonal then they were referred to as "turtle shell hole coins" ( mai rùa xuyên tiền ).[6]

While initially the field of Chinese numismatics neglected the study of Huachuanqian, after an article published in the journalChinese Numismaticsin 1994 brought this phenomenon to mainstream attention, wider interest in these cash coins was generated and they have since been seen as their own separate category of cash coins.

Characteristics

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From theWarring States periodof theZhou dynastyuntil the early 20th century the standard cash coin was round with a square central hole.[7][8]The round shape of the coin symbolised the supposed round shape of the sky, while the centre hole in this analogy is said to represent the planet earth ( trời tròn đất vuông ).[9][10]The body of these early round coins was called their "flesh" ( thịt ) and the central hole was known as "the good" ( hảo ).[9]Cash coins were generally cast as opposed to being hammered.[11]

Over the millennia that they were issues by various dynastic states, the square hole in the centre of cash coins had experienced numerous, but minor changes over their long history.[12]These changes resulted in the square hole in the centre being slightly bigger, smaller, elongated, misshaped, or at times they were filled with some excess metal from the production process.[12]Despite these changes, the design and shape of cash coins have remained consistent throughout most of themonetary history of China,making cash coins easily recognised as being distinctively "Chinese" for over 2000 years.[12][2]However, a relatively small number of cash coins that circulated in Chinese history notably had a differently shaped central hole with a recognisably artistic flair, namely hexagonal and octagonal central holes.[12][2]

The Chinese typically refer to these eight-sided holed cash coins as having a "flower hole" ( hoa xuyên ), a "rosette hole", or a "chestnut hole".[12]Besides the Mandarin termHuachuanqian( hoa xuyên tiền ) they are also known asLinghuachuanqian( lăng hoa xuyên tiền ).[13]

While some believe that these "flower hole" cash coins were accidentally created due to the incompetence of mint workers who produced faulty cash coins, others believe that these "flower holes" weren't mere accidental creations and had some sort of significance, meaning that they were intentionally created.[12]

Huachuanqian are characterised by the fact that they have very distinct 8-sided central holes on both their obverse and reverse sides, though the number of sides can vary.[6]Furthermore, vast majority of known "flower (rosette) holed" cash coins tend to have very clear inscriptions.[6]Besides "flower holes", there are also "turtle shell holes" which have 6 sides instead of 8.[6]

All sides of the hole are usually contained within the border of the cash coin's inner rim, which surrounds the hole in the middle.[14][6]

History

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Production and circulation of Huachuanqian

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The exact origins of the first appearance of Huachuanqian is difficult to determine as there are no written records that document them.[12]However, archeological evidence has determined that the earliest known cash coins with "flower" holes had the inscriptionBan Liang( nửa lượng ) and could have been cast either during theQin dynastyperiod or by the succeedingHan dynasty.[12]While these early contenders are quite well documented, other early examples of Huachuanqian include a number of types ofXin dynasty coinages,includingHou Quan( hóa tuyền ) cash coins and a variety of the Huo Bu ( hóa bố ) coin, a type of coinage produced during the reign of EmperorWang Mangwhich resembled ancient Zhou dynasty periodshovel- or spade shaped-money.[12]Huachuanqian with the inscriptionWu Zhu( năm thù ) are thought to be exceptionally rare and cash coins with "flower holes" aren't commonly seen throughout the first half of the first millennium.[15]While the Huachuanqian is most closely associated with the establishment of theTang dynastywhere they became less rare, these earlier examples date 7 centuries before this occurred, meaning that they are much older than traditionally thought.[12]

By the early Tang dynasty period, the appearance of Huachuanqian was already commonly seen in general circulation.[12]Over time they would become more common as during the middle to later years of the Tang dynasty period, the Huachuanqian would circulate all over the various territories of the empire.[12]Chinese scholarDing Fubaonoted that the appearance of Huachuanqian was most closely associated withKaiyuan Tongbaocash coins and those of the Northern Song period.[16]

In the periods subsequent to the Tang dynasty Huachuanqian would continue to be manufactured on fairly large numbers.[12]A significant amount of Huachuanqian could be found throughout theSong dynastyperiod.[12]Meanwhilethe coinageproduced by theKhitan-ledLiao dynastywas largely based on theNorthern Song dynasty coinageand likewise also feature a number of cash coins with "flower holes".[16][12]Song dynasty cash coins with "flower (rosette) holes" can be found in allcalligraphic styles of writingincludingseal script,clerical script,regular script,running script,andgrass script.[16][12]However, Huachuanqian would become less commonly seen during the reign of theSouthern Song dynastyperiodEmperor Xiaozong.[12]The reason for this decline in the quantity of Huachuanqian can possibly be attributed to 2 major reforms to the designs of the currency that appeared during his reign.[12]Namely, until the year 1180 the Song dynasty produced "matched cash coins" ( đối tiền,duì qián) which were cash coins with identical inscriptions written in different styles ofChinese calligraphy,after these coins were superseded by cash coins that included the year of production on their reverse sides the practice of casting cash coins with "flower holes" also seems to have drastically decreased.[12]This practice started during the 7th year of the production of theChunxi Yuanbao( thuần hi nguyên bảo ), which was produced from 1174 until the year 1189.[12]This practice started with the traditional Chinese character "Bảy" (7) appearing on the reverse sides of Chunxi Yuanbao cash coins in the year 1180, which was also the same year that the government of the Song dynasty abolished the issuance of "matched cash coins".[12]Due to this it is hypothesised that "flower holes" were added to Chinese cash coins to signify a year or period of the year or possibly a location where a cash coin was produced (see below).[12]

While the appearance of Huachuanqian saw an abrupt decline after Emperor Xiaozong ascended to the Chinese throne, Huachuanqian would continue to be produced, though now in drastically reduced quantities, during the subsequent dynasties.[12]

During theMing dynastyperiod "flower holes" were still (rarely) recorded inHongwu Tongbao( Hồng Vũ thông bảo ) andYongle Tongbao( Vĩnh Nhạc thông bảo ) cash coins, with theChongzhen Tongbao( Sùng Trinh thông bảo ) series being the last recorded known cash coins to have "flower holes".[12]

Modern studies and research into Huachuanqian

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Centuries after their production manycoin collectorsregarded Huachuanqian as "rubbish" ( rác rưởi phẩm ) coins and often mockingly referred to as "wildchrysanthemum"( dã cúc hoa ) money.[17]It wasn't until the numismatic researcherZhang Hongming( trương hoành minh ) reported on them in an article entitled "The history and origins of Flower Hole Coins" ( hoa xuyên tiền thời đại cùng nguồn gốc vấn đề ) inChinese Numismatics( Trung Quốc tiền tệ ) published in 1994 that collector interest in Huachuanqian grew causing the Chinese coin collecting community to value Huachuanqian more causing it to grow into its own specialised sub-field of Chinese numismatics.[18][17]The 4th issue ofChinese Numismaticsthe same year published a group of letters from readers, authors, and editors, after reading the response papers and letters, Zhang Hongming was deeply inspired to respond and expand his research into this field.[18]These articles filled a big gap in the study of Chinese Huachuanqian.[18]

Hypotheses concerning their origin

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Traditional explanation for flower hole coins - Mould shift

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Chinese cash coins cast in clay, stone, or bronze moulds

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The traditional explanation as to why a small number of cash coins have "flower holes" is due to the fact that early cash coins were produced using clay, stone, or bronze coinmoulds.[12][19]Cash coins weretypically cast,contrasted to WesternEurasiancoins which were typicallyhammered.[20][21][12]Historians still debate when the "stack casting" method was first used, some believe that it originated during the Warring States period while others than it started sometime during the Western Han dynasty period by commoners.[19][22]Ancient Chinese texts reporting on the appearance and circulation of cash coins with "flower (rosette) holes" traditionally concluded that their creation was the result of the 2 halves of the coin mould accidentally being shifted during the production process of the ancient Chinese casting method.[12]The casting process in these early moulds worked in a way that two mould-sections were placed together, then the core of the mould was placed into the top area, then the bronze smiths would pour molten metal into an opening that was formed by a cavity that was located in its centre.[23][24][25]This explanation claims that during the pouring of molten metal into the coin mould the top and bottom halves of the coin mould would rotate or shift changing the way that the central square hole would end up creating the hexagonal or octagonal hole typically of these coins.[12]

A number of Chinese andTaiwanesenumismatists and numismatic publications over the years have proposed this hypothesis, including theConcise Dictionary of Ancient Coins( đơn giản rõ ràng tiền cổ từ điển ) published in 1988[26]and the bookPractical knowledge of Chinese coins( Trung Quốc tiền tệ thực dụng tri thức sách tranh ) published in 1989.[27]However, this hypothesis has been heavily scrutinised by numismatists afterwards. For example, numismatic researcherGary Ashkenazyof thePrimalTrekwebsite notes that this traditional explanation is problematic as a mould shift wouldn't just shift the orientation of the central hole, but it would shift everything including theChinese charactersand any other symbols that were present on the obverse side of the cash coin.[12]Gary Ashkenazy notes that as all symbols and inscriptions found on cash coins with "flower holes" tend to be as crisp and distinct as their ordinary square holed counterparts, debunking this traditional hypothesis as being "obviously inadequate".[12]Numismatic researcher Zhang Hongming also notes these issues with this common hypothesis, further noting that cash coins which were cast with errors are known as "wrong money" ( sai phạm tiền, sai phạm tiền ) and don't typically resemble Huachuanqian.[28]

Furthermore, all 8 sides of the "flower hole" and all 6 sides of the "turtle shell hole" are typically contained within the border of the cash coin's inner rim, which surrounds the hole in the middle of the coin.[12]This means that Huachuanqian cannot have been created as the result of either a mould or sand tray shift, because then the inner rim's inside which surrounds the actual hole would likely also feature more sides if this hypothesis was correct.[12]Finally, the issue with this hypothesis is the fact that 4 "additional" sides form a standard-sized square would merely be rotated about 45 degrees from the primary square central hole rather than create the effect we see in Huachuanqian.[12]

Chinese cash coins cast in sand moulds

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Cash coins with "flower holes" became more common with the introduction of theKaiyuan Tongbao( khai nguyên thông bảo ) during the reign ofEmperor Gaozuof theTang dynasty.[29][12]During the Tang dynasty the "stack casting" with clay moulds was slowly phased out in favour of the "sand castingmethod "( nghề đúc pháp ), this new methodology of coin casting usedmother coins( mẫu tiền ) allowing for a consistent design to be used when mass-producing cash coins.[30][12]

Using this method, it isn't possible for a mould to shift as there was no longer a hard mould that could shift as was the case in the earlier casting method, meaning that "flower holes" could under no circumstances have been createdduringthe casting process and were most likely created by hand after they were already cast.[12]

Flower holes were intentionally created by hand

[edit]

As the "flower holes" present in the Huachuanqian could not have been caused by an error at any time in the manufacturing process, it is reasoned that they were likely created sometime after the cash coins were already extracted from the coin moulds.[12][28]Following the removal of the cash coins from their moulds, the coins would appear as if they were "leaves" of a "coin tree"( tiền thụ ) where they had to be broken off, all excess copper-alloy had to be manually chiseled or filed off from the central holes.[12][28]This is because the cash coins were still connected to each other by the channel-like "branches" that permitted the molten metal to be flown throughout the coin mould.[12][28]The rod used during this post-removal chiseling process was square so that once the cash coins, with their square holes in the middle, were stacked onto the rod the coins could no longer rotate.[12][28]The coin mint workers could then use a file to remove any metal excess sprue (stubs) leftover around the rims that were made during the casting process, making sure that in the result the outer rims of the cash coins were round.[12][28]

It is suspected that the "flower holes" and "turtle shell holes" were produced during chiseling process, presumably while the employee of the manufacturing mint was doing the final details of the cash coins.[12][28]As manually filing and chiseling cash coins was both an additional expense as well as time-consuming it is likely that the creation of "flower holes" and "turtle shell holes" was ordered by the manufacturer.[12][28]

While the possibility exists that a small number of Huachuanqian were indeed the accidental creation of casting errors by mint workers using chisels to clear excess metal that had flown into the central hole area during coin casting process.[12][28]However, as the quality of Tang and Song dynasty coinages was quite high it's unlikely that the supervisors would have allowed for a large number of these variant coins to be produced, pass quality control or be allowed to enter circulation.[31][12]

Possible meanings

[edit]

While it is not known why Huachuanqian were produced as no historical records explain their appearance, a number of hypotheses exist to explain their possible meaning.[12][28]While their creation may at times have been an error, the fairly large quantities of Huachuanqian that found their way into general circulation during the Tang and Song dynasty periods in particular, two Chinese dynasties which were generally renowned for their practice of producing cash coins with both high standards and high quality, would indicate that the common presence of Huachuanqian was likely an intentional embellishment.[12][28]It is therefore believed that the presence of "flower holes" and "turtle shell holes" may have had an important significance.[12][28]

The hypotheses explaining their possible significance include:

Cash coins with "turtle shell holes"

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AShaosheng Yuanbao( Thiệu thánh nguyên bảo ) cash coin with a "turtle shell hole".

Cash coins with "turtle shell holes"(traditional Chinese:Mai rùa xuyên tiền;simplified Chinese:Mai rùa xuyên tiền;pinyin:Guījiǎ chuān qián) are similar to Huachuanqian, but rather than having eight-sided holes, these "turtle shell holes" are six-sided.[32][12]Like Huachuanqian, the Guijiachuan have been subject to numismatic study and are often grouped together with the Huachuanqian when discussing their origins, circulation, and possible hidden meanings.[33][34]

Japan, Korea, and Vietnam

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WhileJapanese,Korean,andVietnamese cash coinsare based on Chinese cash coins both in design and in production, the quality of the cash coins produced inJapan,Korea,andVietnamvaries greatly.[12]The manufacturing techniques of these cash coins was also identical to those employed by Chinese cash coins.[19][35]Yet, only very, very few cash coins from countries in theSinosphereoutside of China seem to display "flower holes". The general absence of "flower holes" in Japanese, Korean, and Vietnamese cash coins strengthens the hypothesis that Huachuanqian were intentionally created instead of being a result of poor casting quality, as "flower holes" would then be as common or more common in these other cash coins.[12]

An example of a Korean cash coin with an eight-sided "flower hole" ( "rosette hole" ) includes aSangpyeong Tongbo[ko]( thường bình thông bảo ) cash coin cast at the "Government Office of Pukhan Mountain Fortress", with the mint markkyŏng( kinh ).[36]While Huachuanqian were very scarce in Chine until the Song dynasty period, cash coins with "flower holes" were gradually becoming rarer in subsequent dynasties and probably stopped being produced around theend of the Ming dynasty,which ended in 1644.[36]Meanwhile, this Sangpyeong Tongbo cash coin with a "flower hole" was produced in 1830, several centuries after the last recorded Huachuanqian were seen in China.[36]

List of cash coins with "flower holes" or "turtle shell holes"

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See also:List of Chinese cash coins by inscription

List of recorded cash coins with "flower holes":

Inscription Traditional Chinese Simplified Chinese Period
(Dynasty)		 Type of hole Diameter Weight Image
Chinese cash coins
Ban Liang[a][12] Nửa lượng Nửa lượng Western Han dynasty "Flower hole" 32 millimeters 3.8 grams
Ban Liang[37] Nửa lượng Nửa lượng Western Han dynasty "Flower hole" 24 millimeters 3.3 grams
Huo Quan[b][12] Hóa tuyền Hóa tuyền Xin dynasty "Flower hole" 28 millimeters 2.1 grams
Wu Zhu[c][12] Năm thù Năm thù Eastern Han dynasty "Flower hole" 23.5 millimeters 2.2 grams
Wu Zhu[38] Năm thù Năm thù Eastern Han dynasty "Flower hole"
Zhi Bai Wu Zhu Thẳng trăm năm thù Thẳng trăm năm thù Three Kingdoms period "Flower hole" 26.37 millimeters 4.48 grams
Taiping Baiqian[d][12] Thái bình trăm tiền Thái bình trăm tiền Three Kingdoms period "Flower hole" 19.5 millimeters 0.7 grams
Kaiyuan Tongbao[12] Khai nguyên thông bảo Khai nguyên thông bảo Tang dynasty "Flower hole" 25 millimeters 3.1 grams
Qianyuan Zhongbao[12] Càn nguyên trọng bảo Càn nguyên trọng bảo Tang dynasty "Flower hole" 23 millimeters 3.5 grams
Qianyuan Zhongbao[e][12] Càn nguyên trọng bảo Càn nguyên trọng bảo Tang dynasty "Flower hole" 35 millimeters 15 grams
Dali Yuanbao[12] Đại lịch nguyên bảo Đại lịch nguyên bảo Tang dynasty "Flower hole" 22.5 millimeters 2.6 grams
Kaiyuan Tongbao - Yan[f][12] Khai nguyên thông bảo - duyện Khai nguyên thông bảo - duyện Tang dynasty "Flower hole" 24 millimeters 3.1 grams
Kaiyuan Tongbao - Zi Khai nguyên thông bảo - tử Khai nguyên thông bảo - tử Tang dynasty "Flower hole"
Tianhan Yuanbao[g][12] Thiên hán nguyên bảo Thiên hán nguyên bảo Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period "Flower hole" 23 millimeters 3.4 grams
Qiande Yuanbao[h][12] Càn đức nguyên bảo Càn đức nguyên bảo Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period "Flower hole" 23.8 millimeters 3.1 grams
Chunhua Yuanbao[5] Thuần hóa nguyên bảo Thuần hóa nguyên bảo Northern Song dynasty "Flower hole" 24.4 millimeters 3.3 grams
Zhidao Yuanbao[i][12] Đến nói nguyên bảo Đến nói nguyên bảo Northern Song dynasty "Flower hole" 25 millimeters 3.5 grams
Jingde Yuanbao[j][12] Cảnh đức nguyên bảo Cảnh đức nguyên bảo Northern Song dynasty "Flower hole" 25.9 millimeters 3.7 grams
Xiangfu Yuanbao[k][12] Dạng phù nguyên bảo Dạng phù nguyên bảo Northern Song dynasty "Flower hole" 25 millimeters 3.5 grams
Tianxi Tongbao[l][12] Thiên hi thông bảo Thiên hi thông bảo Northern Song dynasty "Flower hole" 25 millimeters 3.5 grams
Tiansheng Yuanbao[m][12] Thiên thánh nguyên bảo Thiên thánh nguyên bảo Northern Song dynasty "Flower hole" 24.5 millimeters 2.6 grams
Mingdao Yuanbao[n][12] Minh nói nguyên bảo Minh nói nguyên bảo Northern Song dynasty "Flower hole" 26 millimeters 4.2 grams
Huangsong Tongbao[o][12] Hoàng Tống thông bảo Hoàng Tống thông bảo Northern Song dynasty "Flower hole" 25 millimeters 3.5 grams
Huangsong Tongbao[5] Hoàng Tống thông bảo Hoàng Tống thông bảo Northern Song dynasty "Flower hole" 24.5 millimeters 3.35 grams
Zhihe Tongbao[p][12] Đến cùng thông bảo Đến cùng thông bảo Northern Song dynasty "Flower hole" 25 millimeters 3.6 grams
Zhihe Tongbao[q][12] Đến cùng thông bảo Đến cùng thông bảo Northern Song dynasty "Flower hole" 25 millimeters 3.4 grams
Jiayou Tongbao[r][12] Gia hữu thông bảo Gia hữu thông bảo Northern Song dynasty "Flower hole" 24.8 millimeters 3.3 grams
Jiayou Tongbao[5] Gia hữu thông bảo Gia hữu thông bảo Northern Song dynasty "Flower hole" 24 millimeters 3.87 grams
Jiayou Yuanbao[5] Gia hữu nguyên bảo Gia hữu nguyên bảo Northern Song dynasty "Flower hole" 24 millimeters 3.32 grams
Zhiping Yuanbao[s][12] Trị bình nguyên bảo Trị bình nguyên bảo Northern Song dynasty "Flower hole" 25 millimeters 3.5 grams
Zhiping Yuanbao[t][12] Trị bình nguyên bảo Trị bình nguyên bảo Northern Song dynasty "Flower hole" 24 millimeters 4 grams
Zhiping Tongbao[u][12] Trị bình thông bảo Trị bình thông bảo Northern Song dynasty "Flower hole" 24.7 millimeters 4.1 grams
Xining Yuanbao[v][12] Hi ninh nguyên bảo Hi ninh nguyên bảo Northern Song dynasty "Flower hole" 24.5 millimeters 5.5 grams
Xining Yuanbao[w][12] Hi ninh nguyên bảo Hi ninh nguyên bảo Northern Song dynasty "Flower hole" 24.5 millimeters 3.8 grams
Xining Yuanbao[39] Hi ninh nguyên bảo Hi ninh nguyên bảo Northern Song dynasty "Flower hole" 24 millimeters 4.1 grams
Xining Zhongbao[x][12] Hi ninh trọng bảo Hi ninh trọng bảo Northern Song dynasty "Flower hole" 29 millimeters 8 grams
Xining Zhongbao[y][12] Hi ninh trọng bảo Hi ninh trọng bảo Northern Song dynasty "Flower hole" 32 millimeters 8.4 grams
Yuanfeng Tongbao[z][12] Nguyên phong thông bảo Nguyên phong thông bảo Northern Song dynasty "Flower hole" 30 millimeters 7.3 grams
Yuanfeng Tongbao[aa][12] Nguyên phong thông bảo Nguyên phong thông bảo Northern Song dynasty "Flower hole" 25 millimeters 3.6 grams
Yuanyou Tongbao[ab][12] Nguyên hữu thông bảo Nguyên hữu thông bảo Northern Song dynasty "Flower hole" 24 millimeters 3.2 grams
Yuanyou Tongbao[ac][12] Nguyên hữu thông bảo Nguyên hữu thông bảo Northern Song dynasty "Flower hole" 30.5 millimeters 8.5 grams
Yuanyou Tongbao[ad][12] Nguyên hữu thông bảo Nguyên hữu thông bảo Northern Song dynasty "Flower hole" 25 millimeters 3.5 grams
Shaosheng Yuanbao[ae][12] Thiệu thánh nguyên bảo Thiệu thánh nguyên bảo Northern Song dynasty "Flower hole" 24 millimeters 4 grams
Shaosheng Yuanbao[af] Thiệu thánh nguyên bảo Thiệu thánh nguyên bảo Northern Song dynasty "Turtle shell hole" 24.09 millimeters 2.6 grams
Shaosheng Yuanbao[ag][12] Thiệu thánh nguyên bảo Thiệu thánh nguyên bảo Northern Song dynasty "Flower hole" 31 millimeters 7.3 grams
Shaosheng Yuanbao[ah][12] Thiệu thánh nguyên bảo Thiệu thánh nguyên bảo Northern Song dynasty "Flower hole" 24.5 millimeters 3.6 grams
Yuanfu Tongbao[12] Nguyên phù thông bảo Nguyên phù thông bảo Northern Song dynasty "Flower hole" 25 millimeters 3 grams
Shengsong Yuanbao[12] Thánh Tống nguyên bảo Thánh Tống nguyên bảo Northern Song dynasty "Flower hole" 24.5 millimeters 3 grams
Shengsong Yuanbao[ai][12] Thánh Tống nguyên bảo Thánh Tống nguyên bảo Northern Song dynasty "Flower hole" 24.5 millimeters 3.5 grams
Chongning Zhongbao[40] Sùng Ninh trọng bảo Sùng Ninh trọng bảo Northern Song dynasty "Flower hole" 38 millimeters 12 grams
Daguan Tongbao[41] Lộng lẫy thông bảo Lộng lẫy thông bảo Northern Song dynasty "Flower hole"
Shao xing Yuanbao[aj][12] Thiệu Hưng nguyên bảo Thiệu Hưng nguyên bảo Southern Song dynasty "Flower hole" 29.2 millimeters 7.6 grams
Chunxi Yuanbao[ak][12] Thuần hi nguyên bảo Thuần hi nguyên bảo Southern Song dynasty "Flower hole" 30 millimeters 6.7 grams
Shaoxi Yuanbao[al][12] Thiệu hi nguyên bảo Thiệu hi nguyên bảo Southern Song dynasty "Flower hole" 24.4 millimeters 3.4 grams
Qingyuan Tongbao[am][12] Khánh nguyên thông bảo Khánh nguyên thông bảo Southern Song dynasty "Flower hole" 35 millimeters 3.8 grams
Shaoding Tongbao[an][12] Thiệu định thông bảo Thiệu định thông bảo Southern Song dynasty "Flower hole" 24.3 millimeters 3.7 grams
Duanping Tongbao Giữ thăng bằng thông bảo Giữ thăng bằng thông bảo Southern Song dynasty "Flower hole"
Kaiqing Tongbao[12] Khai khánh thông bảo Khai khánh thông bảo Southern Song dynasty "Flower hole" 25 millimeters 3.5 grams
Zhongxi Tongbao[12] Trọng hi thông bảo Trọng hi thông bảo Liao dynasty "Flower hole" 24 millimeters 2.7 grams
Da'an Yuanbao[42][12] Bình phục nguyên bảo Bình phục nguyên bảo Liao dynasty "Flower hole" 24.3 millimeters 3.2 grams
Shouchang Yuanbao[12] Thọ xương nguyên bảo Thọ xương nguyên bảo Liao dynasty "Flower hole" 23.8 millimeters 3.7 grams
Qiantong Yuanbao[12] Càn thống nguyên bảo Càn thống nguyên bảo Liao dynasty "Flower hole" 24 millimeters 3.4 grams
Tianqing Yuanbao[12] Thiên khánh nguyên bảo Thiên khánh nguyên bảo Liao dynasty "Flower hole" 24 millimeters 3.4 grams
Zhenglong Yuanbao[12] Chính long nguyên bảo Chính long nguyên bảo Jin dynasty "Flower hole" 25 millimeters 4.3 grams
Hongwu Tongbao[12] Hồng Vũ thông bảo Hồng Vũ thông bảo Ming dynasty "Flower hole" 23 millimeters 3.9 grams
Yongle Tongbao[ao][12] Vĩnh Nhạc thông bảo Vĩnh Nhạc thông bảo Ming dynasty "Flower hole" 25.5 millimeters 3.4 grams
Chongzhen Tongbao[ap][12] Sùng Trinh thông bảo Sùng Trinh thông bảo Ming dynasty "Flower hole" 23.5 millimeters 2.5 grams
Korean cash coins
Sangpyeong Tongbo - Kyŏng O[36] Thường bình thông bảo - kinh năm Thường bình thông bảo - kinh năm Joseon "Flower hole"
Sangpyeong Tongbo - Chun NeDang O[aq][43] Thường bình thông bảo - xuân bốn đương năm Thường bình thông bảo - xuân bốn đương năm Joseon "Flower hole" 32 millimeters
Vietnamese cash coins
Minh Đức Thông Bảo[44] Minh đức thông bảo Minh đức thông bảo Mạc dynasty "Flower hole" 25 millimeters 5.5 grams

Explanatory notes

[edit]
  1. ^This Ban Liang cash coin was cast during theWestern Han dynastyperiod under the reign ofEmpress Lü Zhiand is an8zhuBan Liang( tám thù nửa lượng tiền ). Flower holes on coins from the early Han dynasty are generally very scarce, and are among the earliest Huachuanqian that are known to exist.
  2. ^This inscription, Huo Quan ( hóa tuyền ), could be translated as "wealth coin" or "money coin", and were created in the year 14 CE during the reign of emperorWang Mang.Huo Quan cash coins with "flower holes" are typically considered to be among the most early examples of Huachuanqian. Notably, the "flower hole" on some of these Huo Quan specimens may not be as obvious as that on the cash coins that followed it.
  3. ^Besides being a Huachuanqian, this specimen also displays a number of special characteristics occasionally found on cash coins. Below the square central hole are 3 "dots" present on the cash coin which the Chinese often refer to as "stars" ( tinh ). Above the square central hole are further 2 vertical lines which are believed to represent the number "two" ( nhị ), and connecting these two lines is an incused line creating what some believe is the Chineseseal scriptcharacter for "work" ( công ).
  4. ^Cast by the Kingdom ofShu Han.This is a small and thin specimen.
  5. ^This particular Qianyuan Zhongbao cash coin has a double outer rim. This type of dual rim is known in China as achonglun( trọng luân ), which was intentionally done to indicate that this cash coin has a nominal value of 50wén,meaning that 1 of these was equal to 50 ordinary cash coins.
  6. ^This particular specimen is aHuichang Kaiyuan Tongbaocash coin. The Chinese characteryan "" ( duyện ) located above the "flower hole" of the Huachuanqian indicates that this Huichang Kaiyuan cash coin that was cast at the mint located atYan Provincein present-dayShandong.
  7. ^The inscription is read clockwise as Tianhan Yuanbao ( thiên hán nguyên bảo ). This cash coin was produced during the first year of the Tian Han reign, the year 917, under ofKing Wang Jianof theFormer Shu(First Shu) Kingdom. This particular Tianhan Yuanbao cash coin specimen exhibits a "flower (rosette) hole".
  8. ^The inscription of this cash coin is read clockwise.
  9. ^The inscription is written inrunning scriptand is read clockwise.
  10. ^Northern Song cash coins are known to be finely cast, this specific series of cash coins notably has deep well-made characters. The inscription is read clockwise, beginning at the top, and is written inregular script.
  11. ^The inscription of this Xiangfu Yuanbao ( dạng phù nguyên bảo ) cash coin is read clockwise and is written using the regular script calligraphic style.
  12. ^The inscription of this Tianxi Tongbao ( thiên hi thông bảo ) cash coin is read clockwise and is written using the regular script calligraphic style..
  13. ^The inscription of this Tiansheng Yuanbao ( thiên thánh nguyên bảo ) cash coin is read clockwise and is written using the regular script calligraphic style.
  14. ^The inscription of this Mingdao Yuanbao ( minh nói nguyên bảo ) cash coin is read clockwise and is written using the regular script calligraphic style.
  15. ^The inscription of this Huangsong Tongbao ( hoàng Tống thông bảo ) cash coin is read top-to-bottom and then right-to-left. The inscription is written inseal scriptand the coin has a "flower hole".
  16. ^The inscription of this Zhihe Tongbao ( đến cùng thông bảo ) cash coin is read top-to-bottom and then right-to-left. The inscription is written in regular script and the coin has a "flower hole".
  17. ^The inscription of this Zhihe Tongbao ( đến cùng thông bảo ) cash coin is read top-to-bottom and then right-to-left. The inscription is written in seal script and the coin has a "flower hole".
  18. ^The inscription of this Jiayou Tongbao ( gia hữu thông bảo ) cash coin is read top-to-bottom and then right-to-left. The inscription is written in seal script and the coin has a "flower hole".
  19. ^The inscription of this Zhiping Yuanbao ( trị bình nguyên bảo ) cash coin is read clockwise and is written using Chinese seal script.
  20. ^The inscription of this Zhiping Yuanbao ( trị bình nguyên bảo ) cash coin is read clockwise and is written using the regular script calligraphic style.
  21. ^The inscription of this Zhiping Tongbao ( trị bình thông bảo ) cash coin is read top-to-bottom and then right-to-left. The inscription is written in regular script and the coin has a "flower hole". The inscription of this cash coin is distinctive in that the character "Ping" ( bình ), located at the bottom of the coin below the square hole, is written with 3 strokes at the bottom instead of merely 1.
  22. ^The inscription of this Xining Yuanbao ( hi ninh nguyên bảo ) cash coin is read clockwise and is written using the regular script calligraphic style. The cash coin is a bit thicker than most Song dynasty period cash coins of the same size, which explains its weight of 5.5 grams.
  23. ^The inscription of this Xining Yuanbao ( hi ninh nguyên bảo ) cash coin is read clockwise and is written using Chinese seal script.
  24. ^Inscription written in Chinese seal script. Beginning in the year 1071, larger denomination cash coins, which were initially valued at 10wén(equal to 10 regular cash coins) each, were manufactured. These large denomination cash coins were issued to pay for military expenses. However, later these cash coins were gradually devalued to be equal to 3wénand finally to 2wén.
  25. ^The inscription of this Xining Zhongbao ( hi ninh trọng bảo ) cash coin is read clockwise and is written using the regular script calligraphic style.
  26. ^The inscription of this Yuanfeng Tongbao ( nguyên phong thông bảo ) cash coin is written in "running" (cursive) script and is read clockwise, starting at the top. Not only does this Huachuanqian have a rather very prominent "flower hole", it also has a notably distinctive design on its rim (or "border" ). The design of this rim has a number S-shaped curves and dots which could one of theYin and Yang ( âm dương ), or Supreme Ultimate ( Thái Cực, "Taiji" ), symbol representing the basic polarities of the universe of light/dark, male/female, etc.Alternatively, this elaborate rim design can also be seen asstylised dragons chasing pearls.While at times the imperial Chinese government would create such cash coins which have these elaborate and distinctive rims, most coins that look like this arecharms or amulets.
  27. ^The inscription of this Yuanfeng Tongbao ( nguyên phong thông bảo ) cash coin is read clockwise and is written using the running script calligraphic style.
  28. ^The inscription of this Yuanyou Tongbao ( nguyên hữu thông bảo ) cash coin is read clockwise and is written using Chinese seal script.
  29. ^Like the above cash coin with the same inscription. It read clockwise and is also written using Chinese seal script. A notable difference however, is that this specimen is considered to be a "large" cash coin, which at a higher denomination.
  30. ^Same inscription as the above, written in running script.
  31. ^The inscription of this Shaosheng Yuanbao ( Thiệu thánh nguyên bảo ) cash coin is read clockwise and is written using Chinese seal script.
  32. ^The inscription of this Shaosheng Yuanbao ( Thiệu thánh nguyên bảo ) cash coin, like the above one of the same inscription, is read clockwise and is written using Chinese seal script.
  33. ^Like the above cash coin with the same inscription (Shaosheng Yuanbao). It read clockwise and is also written using Chinese seal script. A notable difference however, is that this specimen is considered to be a "large" cash coin, which had a denomination of 10wén(or 10 ordinary cash coins).
  34. ^Same as the above, but written in running script.
  35. ^It is written in running script and the inscription is read clockwise beginning at the top.
  36. ^The inscription of this 2wénShao xing Yuanbao ( Thiệu Hưng nguyên bảo ) cash coin is read clockwise and is written using Chinese seal script. It has a crescent (or "moon" ) above the hole and a "star" (circle below the central hole on its reverse.
  37. ^The inscription of this Chunxi Yuanbao ( thuần hi nguyên bảo ) "large" cash coin is read clockwise and is written using Chinese seal script. It has a crescent (or "moon" ) above the hole and a "star" (circle below the central hole on its reverse.
  38. ^The inscription of this Shaoxi Yuanbao ( Thiệu hi nguyên bảo ) cash coin is read clockwise and is written using the regular script calligraphic style. The reverse side of this cash coin has the Chinese character yuan ( nguyên ) below the central "flower hole" which could be translated as "first", meaning that it was cast in the year Shaoxi 1 (1190).
  39. ^Has the Chinese character "Tam" (3) on the reverse indicating that it was cast in the year Qingyuan 3 (1197).
  40. ^Has the Chinese character "Sáu" (6) on the reverse indicating that it was cast in the year Shaoding 6 (1233).
  41. ^This particular Yongle Tongbao ( Vĩnh Nhạc thông bảo ) cash coin was recovered from a Ming dynasty period shipwreck in theSouth China Sea.
  42. ^ThisMing dynasty period cash coinis likely one of the last of the Chinese cash coins produced with a "flower hole".
  43. ^Issued by the Ch'unch'on Township Military Office ( xuân xuyên quản lý doanh ) in the year 1883, nominal value of 5mun.

References

[edit]
  1. ^《 đơn giản rõ ràng tiền cổ từ điển 》 lại rằng: "Hoa xuyên vì tiền cổ đúc kim loại, đục lỗ sai vị không thành hình vuông, gọi chi ' lăng hoa xuyên '." Thấy chư đưa tin hoa xuyên tiền, sớm nhất xuất hiện ở Tần nửa lượng tiền thượng.
  2. ^abcZhang Hongming ( trương hoành minh ) -The timespan and origins of Flower Hole Money( hoa xuyên tiền thời đại cùng nguồn gốc vấn đề ) - "Chinese Numismatics", Issue 3, 1994 (《 Trung Quốc tiền tệ 》1994 năm đệ 3 kỳ ). - Quote: "Phương khổng tiền ngoại hình trước sau vẫn duy trì hình tròn hình thái, đục lỗ bộ phận tắc có một ít tiểu nhân biến hóa. Có một loại bị mọi người xưng là" hoa xuyên "Hoặc" mai rùa xuyên "Đục lỗ, này tiền xuyên hình dạng sáu giác hoặc bát giác, cực kỳ mới mẻ độc đáo độc đáo...".
  3. ^Chen Lianting ( trần liên đình ) - như thế nào tìm kiếm hoa xuyên tiền - Shouchang Jie, issue 88, 2008 ( cất chứa giới, 88, 2008). Quote: "Ở phương khổng tiền thượng, nở rộ một đóa kỳ dị tiểu hoa, đây là riêng một ngọn cờ hoa xuyên tiền. Cái gọi là hoa xuyên tiền, là chỉ phương khổng tiền xuyên khuếch bộ vị bên ngoài hình thượng có chút vi diệu biến hóa. Này tiền đục lỗ trình bát giác hình thái, xuyên tựa đóa hoa, mới mẻ độc đáo độc đáo. Nó thay đổi phương khổng tiền đơn điệu hình thức, ở biểu hiện hình thức thượng càng có độc đáo nghệ thuật mị lực. Loại này dị hình đục lỗ tiền, xưng là hoa xuyên tiền ( như đồ 1).".
  4. ^Yu Fang ( với phóng ) -A Group of Letters Concerning the Article "The timespan and origins of Flower Hole Money"( về 《 hoa xuyên tiền thời đại cùng nguồn gốc vấn đề 》 một văn gởi thư một tổ ) - "Chinese Numismatics", Issue 4, 1994 (《 Trung Quốc tiền tệ 》1994 năm đệ 4 kỳ ).
  5. ^abcdefRobert Kokotailo (2002)."Medieval Chinese Coins - The Northern Sung Dynasty".Calgary Coin Gallery.Retrieved16 August2023.
  6. ^abcdeZhang Xianzhong ( trương trước trung ) -Analysis of flower hole money( hoa xuyên tiền thiển tích ) - "Anhui Numismatics" 2009 No. 2 (《 An Huy tiền tệ 》2009 năm đệ 2 kỳ ).
  7. ^"zhiqian tiền đồng, standard cash".By Ulrich Theobald (Chinaknowledge).25 May 2016.Retrieved27 August2018.
  8. ^Department of Economic History – London School of EconomicsMoney and Monetary System in China in 19–20th Century: an OverviewArchived2018-02-06 at theWayback Machineby Debin Ma. Economic History Department London School of Economics Dec. 2011 Chapter contribution to Encyclopedia of Financial Globalization edited byCharles Calomirisand Larry Neal forthcoming with Elsevier. Published: January 2012. Retrieved: 05 February 2018.
  9. ^ab"huanqian hoàn tiền, round coins of the Warring States and the Qin Periods".By Ulrich Theobald (Chinaknowledge).24 June 2016.Retrieved13 February2020.
  10. ^BELAUBRE Jean, "Un technicien méconnu du monnayage: René Mercier et la sapèque Bảo Đại, 1933". Bulletin de la Société Française de Numismatique, avril 1980, n°4, pp. 685-687. (inFrench).
  11. ^Zhou Weirong ( chu vệ vinh ) - 'Zhongguo chuantong zhuqian gongyi chutan' ( Trung Quốc truyền thống đúc tiền công nghệ sơ thăm ) [A primary research of Chinese-traditional coin-cast techniques], inZhongguo qianbi lunwen ji( Trung Quốc tiền tệ luận văn tập ) [A collection of papers on Chinese numismatics], 4 (2002), pp. 198–214. Zhou Weirong (2002a), pp. 13-20. 14
  12. ^abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzaaabacadaeafagahaiajakalamanaoapaqarasatauavawaxayazbabbbcbdbebfbgbhbibjbkblbmbnbobpbqbrbsbtbubvbwbxbybzcacbcccdcecfcgchcicjckclcmcncocpcqcrcsctcucvcwcxcyczdadbdcdddedfdgdh"Chinese Coins with Flower (Rosette) Holes – hoa xuyên tiền.".Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture).16 November 2016.Retrieved16 August2023.
  13. ^Deng Chuanzhong ( Đặng truyền trung ) - thiển nghị hoa xuyên tiền nguồn gốc cùng khởi nguyên - "Anhui Numismatics" 2006 No. 2 (《 An Huy tiền tệ 》2006 năm đệ 2 kỳ ).
  14. ^Jiang Xunqian ( Tưởng huấn trước ) - thí tích "Sinh ra hoa xuyên tiền nguồn gốc" - Xi'an Finance ( Tây An tài chính ), 1995. Quote: "Chính hợp quy tắc tiêu chuẩn tiền cổ tệ là" ngoại bên trong vườn phương ", nhưng là cá biệt tiền tệ ở bên trong quách ( đục lỗ ) hình vuông xuất hiện âm chỗ hổng, sử hợp quy tắc nội khuếch hình vuông biến thành âm dương không đợi ngũ giác, sáu giác, bảy giác, bát giác hình dạng, căn cứ bất đồng hình".
  15. ^Cheng Zhenghang ( trình chính hàng ) -Rare Wu Zhu cash coin with flower hole( hi thấy hoa xuyên năm thù tiền ) - "Inner Mongolia Financial Research", Issue S4, 2003 (《 nội Mông Cổ tài chính nghiên cứu 》2003 năm đệ S4 kỳ ).
  16. ^abcDong Liangyi ( đổng lương nghĩa ) - thí nói hoa xuyên tiền nguồn gốc - "Jiangsu Numismatics" 2011 No. 1 (《 Giang Tô tiền tệ 》2011 năm đệ 1 kỳ ).
  17. ^abChen Lianting ( trần liên đình ) - hoa xuyên tiền chi sáu tông "Nhất" - "China Collection", Issue 9, 2007 (《 Trung Quốc cất chứa 》2007 năm đệ 9 kỳ ).
  18. ^abcXu Peiji ( từ bồi cơ ) -《 hoa xuyên tiền thời đại cùng nguồn gốc vấn đề 》 nhặt của rơi - "Jiangsu Numismatics" Issue 4, 2009 (《 Giang Tô tiền tệ 》2009 năm đệ 4 kỳ ) - Changzhou Numismatic Society ( Thường Châu đồng cân tệ học được ).
  19. ^abcCao Jin ( tào tấn ) (2015)."Mints and Minting in Late Imperial China Technology Organisation and Problems".Academia.edu.Retrieved11 August2023.
  20. ^Crawford, Michael Hewson. -Roman Republican Coinage, Vol. 1(Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1974). Page: 589.
  21. ^Hai-ping Lian, Zhong-ming Ding, and Xiang Zhou -Clay molds for casting metal molds used in minting techniques in the Han DynastySciences of Conservation and Archaeology 24 (Supplement), 87-97.
  22. ^Hua Jueming ( hoa giác minh ). 'Stack moulding techniques in ancient China', in the Foundry Trade Journal International, 20 (1983), pp. 242–246.
  23. ^Peng Xinwei( Bành tin uy ). -Zhongguo huobi shi( Trung Quốc tiền sử, "A history of Chinese currency" ) –Shanghai:Shanghai renmin chubanshe, 1965. Page: 41. (inMandarin Chinese).
  24. ^Glahn, Richard von. -Fountain of Fortune: Money and Monetary Policy in China, 1000-1700(Berkeley,California:University of California Press,1996). Page: 48.
  25. ^Vogel, Hans Ulrich. 'Chinese Central Monetary Policy, 1600-1844', in Late Imperial China, 8/2 (1987), pp. 1-52. Wagner, Donald B. Ferrous Metallurgy (Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,2008). Page: 15.
  26. ^1988 năm bản 《 đơn giản rõ ràng tiền cổ từ điển 》 giải thích “Hoa xuyên. Tiền cổ thiêu đúc trung đục lỗ sai vị không thành hình vuông gọi chi 『 giao hoa xuyên 』.” (inMandarin Chinese).
  27. ^1989 năm bản 《 Trung Quốc tiền tệ thực dụng tri thức sách tranh 》 “Hoa xuyên, gồm có tiền trong vòng tịch in lại, này đục lỗ không phải chính quy hình vuông giả. Hoa xuyên là bởi vì đúc tiền trong quá trình tiền phạm sai động mà trí.” “Mai rùa xuyên, chỉ tiền trong vòng quách in lại, tiền đục lỗ trở thành đa giác trạng giả.” (inMandarin Chinese).
  28. ^abcdefghijklmnoTan Yijiong ( đàm ý quýnh ) & Huang Xin ( hoàng hâm ) - cũng nói hoa xuyên tiền nguồn gốc, tính chất kịp thời đại vấn đề —— kiêm cùng trương hoành minh tiên sinh thương thảo - "Regional Finance Research", Issue S1, 1997 (《 khu vực tài chính nghiên cứu 》1997 năm đệ S1 kỳ ).
  29. ^Trần liên đình - "Sùng Ninh" hoa xuyên tiền phong thái - cất chứa 10, 2009 - đang ở phương khổng tiền trung, thường xuất hiện một loại hoa xuyên hiện tượng. Loại này cái gọi là hoa xuyên, là chỉ phương khổng tiền xuyên khuếch bộ vị bên ngoài hình thượng có một ít vi diệu biến hóa, này tiền đục lỗ trình bát giác, xuyên tựa đóa hoa, mới mẻ độc đáo độc đáo. Hoa xuyên hiện tượng, sớm nhất xuất hiện với Tần đại "Nửa lượng" phương khổng tiền thượng, theo sau, các đời các đại, đều có. (inMandarin Chinese).
  30. ^Hua Jueming ( hoa giác minh ) and Zhang Hongli ( trương hoành lễ ) - 'Songdai zhuqian gongyi yanjiu' ( thời Tống đúc tiền công nghệ nghiên cứu ) [A research of the coin casting technology in the Song Dynasty], inZiran kexue shi yanjiu( khoa học tự nhiên sử nghiên cứu ) [Studies in the history of natural sciences], 1 (1988), pp. 38–47.
  31. ^Wang Youmin ( uông có dân ) -A brief discussion about Flower Hole Coins( giản nói hoa xuyên tiền ) - "Anhui Numismatics" Issue 3, 2011 (《 An Huy tiền tệ 》2011 năm đệ 3 kỳ ).
  32. ^Zhang Hongming ( trương hoành minh ) - hoa xuyên tiền thời đại cùng nguồn gốc vấn đề - China Numismatics ( Trung Quốc tiền tệ ), 33-36, 1994. Quote: "Có một loại bị mọi người xưng là" hoa xuyên "Hoặc" mai rùa xuyên "Đục lỗ, này tiền xuyên hình dạng sáu giác hoặc bát giác, cực kỳ mới mẻ độc đáo độc đáo".
  33. ^1984 năm bản 《 Trung Quốc tiền tệ thường thức tuyển biên ) sở thu đổng chí cường thị văn chương cho rằng: “Hoa xuyên, đục lỗ không trình hình vuông mà thành bát giác hình giả, kêu hoa xuyến, cũng kêu biến hoa xuyến. Thành sáu giác hình giả kêu mai rùa xuyến.” (inMandarin Chinese).
  34. ^"Chinese Numismatics" 《 Trung Quốc tiền tệ 》- 2008 năm đệ 2 kỳ. 《 Hồ Bắc Ngạc Châu tân thấy thái bình trăm kim cập tương quan vấn đề tham thảo 》. (inMandarin Chinese).
  35. ^Schroeder, Albert. -Annam: études numismatiques(Paris:Imprimerie nationale, E. Leroux, 1905). Pl. XXIV, XXV. (inFrench).
  36. ^abcd"Korean Coins – Hàn Quốc tiền tệ – History of Korean Coinage".Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture).16 November 2016.Retrieved15 August2023.The last Chinese coins with flower holes were probably cast at the end of the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644 AD). This particular Korean coin is most unusual because very few non-Chinese coins with flower holes have been found.
  37. ^Tiều tiểu vệ - hoa xuyên nửa lượng hình thành thí tích - An Huy tiền tệ, 12-12, 2008. (inMandarin Chinese).
  38. ^Chen Lianting ( trần liên đình ) -"Wu Zhu" cash coins in flower hole style( "Năm thù" hoa xuyên tiền phong thái ) - Shouchang Jie ( cất chứa giới ), 105-106, 2007. (inMandarin Chinese).
  39. ^Qin Cao, trainee Curator of Asian Coins at the British Museum. (2020)."Unique ID: LVPL-4F4637 - COIN".British Museum.Retrieved16 August2023.
  40. ^Ku Quan ( khổ tuyền ) -A long hook "Ning" ( ninh ) Chongning Zhongbao flower hole coin( một quả trường câu "Ninh" Sùng Ninh trọng bảo hoa xuyên tiền ) - "Anhui Numismatics" 2006 No. 2 (《 An Huy tiền tệ 》2006 năm đệ 2 kỳ ). Quote: "2005 năm ngày 26 tháng 10, người viết với phong dương một nông dân trong tay đặt mua một quả Sùng Ninh trọng bảo chiết mười tiền. Nên tiền đầy người hồng lục rỉ sắt, khuếch ngoại khoan nội hẹp, kính 38mm, xuyên 8mm, hậu 2mm, trọng 12g, quang bối.".
  41. ^Qin Shouliang ( Tần thọ lương ) -Daguan Tongbao flower hole Coin( lộng lẫy thông bảo hoa xuyên tiền ) - "Jiangsu Numismatics" 2010 No. 2 (《 Giang Tô tiền tệ 》2010 năm đệ 2 kỳ ).
  42. ^Calgary Coins and Antiques Gallery – Cast Chinese Coins –MEDIEVAL CHINESE COINS – TARTAR, MONGOL, MING DYNASTIES (A.D. 960 to 1644).Retrieved: 01 July 2018. Quote: "S-1070-71.Bronze 1 cash. Obverse:" TA-AN YUAN-PAO ". Reverse: blank. Average (1 specimen) 24.5 mm, 3.51 grams. There are some varieties in this type, with Schjoth noting one with a star hole, and another with a small dot in the upper left corner.".
  43. ^"상평통보 당오전".National Museum of Korea(in Korean). 2023.Retrieved15 August2023.
  44. ^Chen Lianting ( trần liên đình ) -Minh Đức Thông Bảo (Mingde Tongbao) flower hole coin( minh đức thông bảo hoa xuyên tiền ) - "Favourites" Issue 11, 2009 (《 cất chứa 》2009 năm đệ 11 kỳ ) -Chongqing( Trùng Khánh ).

Sources

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  • Trung Quốc đại bách khoa toàn thư ( Trung Quốc lịch sử ), Trung Quốc đại bách khoa toàn thư nhà xuất bản 1994,ISBN7-5000-5469-6.
  • Trung Quốc lịch đại tệ hóa - A History of Chinese Currency (16th Century BC – 20th Century AD), 1983 Jointly Published by Xinhua (New China) Publishing House N.C.N. Limited M.A.O. Management Group Ltd.ISBN962 7094 01 3.(inMandarin Chinese).
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