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Hurrians

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Hurrians
𒄷𒌨𒊑
The approximate area of Hurrian settlement in the Middle Bronze Age is shown in purple
Regions with significant populations
Near East
Languages
Hurrian
Religion
Hurrian religion

TheHurrians(/ˈhʊəriənz/;Hurrian:𒄷𒌨𒊑,romanized:Ḫu-ur-ri;also called Hari, Khurrites, Hourri, Churri, Hurri) were a people who inhabited theAncient Near Eastduring theBronze Age.They spoke theHurrian language,and lived throughout northernSyria,upper Mesopotamiaand southeasternAnatolia.

The Hurrians were first documented in the city ofUrkesh,where they built their first kingdom. Their largest and most influential Hurrian kingdom wasMitanni.The population of theHittite Empirein Anatolia included a large population of Hurrians, and there is significant Hurrian influence inHittite mythology.[1]By theEarly Iron Age,the Hurrians had been assimilated with other peoples. The state ofUrartulater covered some of the same area.[2]

History

Early Bronze Age

Foundation tablet. Dedication to GodNergalby Hurrian king Atalshen, king of Urkish and Nawar,HaburBassin, circa 2000 BC. Louvre Museum AO 5678.
"Of Nergal the lord of Hawalum, Atal-shen, the caring shepherd, the king of Urkesh and Nawar, the son of Sadar-mat the king, is the builder of the temple of Nergal, the one who overcomes opposition. LetShamashandIshtardestroy the seeds of whoever removes this tablet. Shaum-shen is the craftsman. "[3]

The Khabur River valley became the heart of the Hurrian lands for a millennium.[4]The first known Hurrian kingdom emerged around the city ofUrkesh(modern Tell Mozan) during the third millennium BC.[5]There is evidence that they were initially allied with theAkkadian EmpireofMesopotamia,indicating they had a firm hold on the area by the reign ofNaram-Sin of Akkad(c. 2254–2218 BC). A king of Urkesh with the Hurrian name Tupkish had a queen with the name Uqnitum, Akkadian for "girl of lapis lazuli".[6]

Middle Bronze Age

Hurrian names occur sporadically in northwestern Mesopotamia and the area ofKirkukin modernIraqby theMiddle Bronze Age.Their presence was attested atNuzi,Urkeshand other sites. They eventually occupied a broad arc of fertile farmland stretching from theKhabur Rivervalley in the west to the foothills of theZagros Mountainsin the east. By this point, during the Old Babylonian period in the early second millennium BC, theAmoritekingdom ofMarito the south had subdued Urkesh and made it a vassal state.[7]Urkesh later became a Mitanni religious center.[8]

The Hurrians also migrated further west in this period. By 1725 BC they are found also in parts of northernSyria,such asAlalakh.The mixed Amorite–Hurrian kingdom ofYamhadis recorded as struggling for this area with the earlyHittitekingHattusilis Iaround 1600 BC.[9]Hurrians also settled in the coastal region ofAdaniyain the country ofKizzuwatna,southern Anatolia. Yamhad eventually weakened vis-a-vis the powerful Hittites, but this also opened Anatolia for Hurrian cultural influences. The Hittites were influenced by both the Hurrian cultures over the course of several centuries.

The city ofShibaniba(Tell Billa) may have also played an important role at that time. Possible Hurrian occupation was identified at Tell Billa during the middle of the second millenium BC. In 2022 Tell Billa was proposed as the possible site of the city ofŠimānum(possibly known as Asimānum during the Akkadian Empire).Šimānumwas important during theUr III period(ca 2100 BC).[10]

Late Bronze Age

TheMitanni Empirewas a strong regional power limited by the Hittites to the north, Egyptians to the southwest, Kassites to the southeast, and later by the Assyrians to the east. At its maximum extent Mitanni ranged as far as west asKizzuwatnaby the Taurus mountains,Tunipin the south,Arraphein the east, and north toLake Van.Their sphere of influence is shown in spread Hurrian place names, personal names.[11]Eventually, after an internal succession crisis, Mitanni fell to the Hittites, later to fall under the control of the Assyrians.[12][13]

The Hurrian entity of Mitanni, which first rose to power before 1550 BC,[14][15]was first mentioned in the records of Egyptian pharaohsThutmose I(1506–1493 BC) andThutmose III(1479–1425 BC), the later most notably associated with theBattle of Megiddoin that pharoahs 22 regnal year.[16][17]Most of the time Egyptians referred to the kingdom asNaharin.Later, Mitanni and Hanigailbat are mention in theAmarna Lettersduring the time of Pharaoh Akhenaten (1353–1336 BC). Domestically, Mitanni records have been found at a number of places in the region including several Hittite sites as well asTell Bazi,Alalakh,Nuzi,Mardaman,Kemune,and Müslümantepe among others.[18][19][20]

Another major center of Hurrian influence was the kingdom ofArrapha.Excavations at Yorgan Tepe, ancient Nuzi, proved this to be one of the most important sites for our knowledge about the Hurrians. Hurrian kings such as Ithi-Teshup and Ithiya ruled over Arrapha, yet by the mid-fifteenth century BC they had become vassals of the Great King of Mitanni.[21]

Urartu

At the end of the second millennium BC the Urartians aroundLake VanandMount Araratrose in power forming the Kingdom ofUrartu.During the 11th and 10th centuries BC, the kingdom eventually encompassed a region stretching from theCaucasus Mountainsin the north, to the borders of northernAssyriaand northernAncient Iranin the south, and controlled much of eastern Anatolia. Some scientists consider Urartu to be a re-consolidation of earlier Hurrian populations mainly due to linguistic factors, but this view is not universally held.[22]

Shubaru/Shubria

After the destruction of Mitanni by the Hittites around 1350-1325 BC, the termShubaruwas used in Assyrian sources to refer to the remnants of the Mitanni in the upper Tigris valley. The Shubaru people revolted against the Assyrians multiple times in the last centuries of the second millennium BC. The term is related toShubria,the name of a country located north of the upper Tigris River valley.[23]Shubria was located between Urartu and Assyria and existed as an independent kingdom until its conquest by Assyria in 673–672 BC. The Shubrians worshipped the Hurrian deity Teshub,[24]and several Shubrian names have Hurrian origins. Hurrians formed part of the Shubrian population and may have been the predominant group. Some scholars have suggested that Shubria was the last remnant of Hurrian civilization, or even constituted the original homeland of the Hurrians.[25]Karen Radner writes that Shubria "can certainly be described as [a] (linguistically and culturally) Hurrian" state. According to Radner, a letter from the king of Shubria to an Assyrian magnate from the time of Sargon II was composed in the Hurrian language.[26]

Culture and society

Incense burner. Hurrian period, 1300–1000 BC. From Tell Basmosian (also Tell Bazmusian), modern-day Lake Dukan, Iraq. Currently displayed in Erbil Civilization Museum.

Knowledge of Hurrian culture relies on archaeological excavations at sites such as Nuzi andAlalakhas well as on cuneiform tablets, primarily fromHattusa(Boghazköy), the capital of the Hittites, whose civilization was greatly influenced by the Hurrians. Tablets from Nuzi, Alalakh, and other cities with Hurrian populations (as shown by personal names) reveal Hurrian cultural features even though they were written in Akkadian. Hurriancylinder sealswere carefully carved and often portrayed mythological motifs. They are a key to the understanding of Hurrian culture and history.

The 2nd millennium Hurrians were masterful ceramists. Their pottery is commonly found in Mesopotamia and in the lands west of the Euphrates; it was highly valued in distant Egypt, by the time of theNew Kingdom.Archaeologists use the termsKhabur wareandNuzi warefor two types of wheel-made pottery used by the Hurrians. Khabur ware is characterized by reddish painted lines with a geometric triangular pattern and dots, while Nuzi ware has very distinctive forms, and are painted in brown or black.[27][28]They were also skilled at glass working.[29]

The Hurrians had a reputation inmetallurgy.It is proposed that theSumerianterm for "coppersmith"tabira/tibirawas borrowed from Hurrian, which would imply an early presence of the Hurrians way before their first historical mention in Akkadian sources.[30][31]Copper was traded south toMesopotamiafrom the highlands ofAnatolia.The Khabur Valley had a central position in the metal trade, and copper, silver and even tin were accessible from the Hurrian-dominated countriesKizzuwatnaandIshuwasituated in the Anatolian highland. Gold was in short supply, and theAmarna lettersinform us that it was acquired from Egypt. Not many examples of Hurrian metal work have survived, except from the later Urartu. Some small fine bronze lionfoundation pegswere discovered at Urkesh.[32]

Among the Hurrian texts from Ugarit are the oldest known instances ofwritten music,dating from c. 1400 BC.[33][34][35]Among these fragments are found the names of four Hurrian composers, Tapšiẖuni, Puẖiya(na), Urẖiya, and Ammiya.[36]

Religion

Main article:Hurrian religion

The Hurrian culture made a great impact on the religion of the Hittites. From the Hurrian cult centre at Kummanni in Kizzuwatna, Hurrian religion spread to the Hittite people.[37][38]Syncretismmerged the Old Hittite and Hurrian religions. Hurrian religion spread to Syria, whereBaalbecame the counterpart ofTeshub.The Hurrian religion, in different forms, influenced the entire ancientNear East,exceptancient Egyptand southern Mesopotamia.

While theHurrianandUrartianlanguages are related, there is little similarity between corresponding systems of belief.[39]

Hurrian incense container
TheHittitegods Teshub and Hebat, chamber A, Yazilikaya, Hittite rock sanctuary, Turkey

The main gods in the Hurrian pantheon were:

Hurriancylinder sealsoften depict mythological creatures such as winged humans or animals, dragons and other monsters. The interpretation of these depictions of gods and demons remains uncertain. They may have been both protective and evil spirits. Some are reminiscent of the Assyrianshedu.

The Hurrian gods do not appear to have had particular home temples, like in theMesopotamianorAncient Egyptian religion.Some important cult centres were Kummanni in Kizzuwatna and HittiteYazilikaya.Harranwas at least later a religious centre for the moon god, and Shauskha had an important temple inNineve,when the city was under Hurrian rule. A temple ofNergalwas built in Urkesh in the late third millennium BC. The town ofKahatwas a religious centre in the kingdom of Mitanni.

The Hurrian myth "The Songs of Ullikummi", preserved among the Hittites, is a parallel toHesiod'sTheogony;the castration ofUranusbyCronusmay be derived from the castration ofAnubyKumarbi,whileZeus's overthrow of Cronus and Cronus's regurgitation of the swallowed gods is like the Hurrian myth ofTeshuband Kumarbi.[57]It has been argued that the worship ofAttisdrew on Hurrian myth.[58]

Language

Main articles:Hurrian languageandHurro-Urartian languages
TheLouvre lionand accompanying stone tablet bearing the earliest known text inHurrian

The agglutinating and highly ergativeHurrian languageis related to theUrartian language,the language of the ancient kingdom ofUrartu.[59]Together they form theHurro-Urartian language family.The external connections of the Hurro-Urartian languages are disputed. There exist various proposals for agenetic relationship to other language families(e.g. theNortheast Caucasian languages), but none of these are generally accepted.[60]

The Hurrians adopted theAkkadianlanguage andCuneiform scriptfor their own writing about 2000 BC. Texts in the Hurrian language in cuneiform have been found atHattusa,Ugarit(Ras Shamra), as well as in one of the longest of theAmarna letters(EA 27), written by KingTushrattaof Mitanni to PharaohAmenhotep III.[61]It was the only long Hurrian text known until a multi-tablet collection of literature in Hurrian with a Hittite translation was discovered at Hattusa in 1983.[62]

Archaeology

Hurrian settlements are distributed over three modern countries, Iraq, Syria and Turkey. The heart of the Hurrian world is bisected by the modern border between Syria and Turkey. Several sites are situated within the border zone, making access for excavations problematic. A threat to the ancient sites are the many dam projects in theEuphrates,Tigrisand Khabur valleys. Several rescue operations have already been undertaken when the construction of dams put entire river valleys under water.

The first major excavations of Hurrian sites in Iraq and Syria began in the 1920s and 1930s. They were led by the American archaeologist Edward Chiera at Yorghan Tepe (Nuzi), and the British archaeologistMax MallowanatChagar Bazarand Tell Brak. Recent excavations and surveys in progress are conducted by American, Belgian, Danish, Dutch, French, German and Italian teams of archaeologists, with international participants, in cooperation with the Syrian Department of Antiquities. The tells, or city mounds, often reveal a long occupation beginning in theNeolithicand ending in the Roman period or later. The characteristic Hurrian pottery, the Khabur ware, is helpful in determining the different strata of occupation within the mounds. The Hurrian settlements are usually identified from the Middle Bronze Age to the end of the Late Bronze Age, with Tell Mozan (Urkesh) being the main exception.

Important sites

The list includes some important ancient sites from the area dominated by the Hurrians. Excavation reports and images are found at the websites linked. As noted above, important discoveries of Hurrian culture and history were also made at Alalakh, Amarna, Hattusa and Ugarit.

See also

References

  1. ^[H. A. Hoffner, Jr., ed]H. A. Hoffner, Jr., ed, "Perspectives on Hittite Civilization: Selected Writings of Hans G. Güterbock.", Assyriological Studies 26 Chicago: The Oriental Institute, 1997ISBN978-1-88-592304-2
  2. ^[1]Gelb, Ignace J., "Hurrians and Subarians", Studies in Ancient Oriental Civilization No. 22. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1944
  3. ^"Royal inscriptions".urkesh.org.
  4. ^Steinkeller P., "The historical background of Urkesh and the Hurrian beginnings in northern Mesopotamia", In: Buccellati G, Kelly-Buccellati M, eds. Mozan 3: Urkesh and the Hurrians Studies in Honor of Lloyd Cotsen. Malibu: Undena Publications, pp. 75–98, 1998
  5. ^Maiocchi, Massimo, "A Hurrian Administrative Tablet from Third Millennium Urkesh", vol. 101, no. 2, pp. 191-203, 2011
  6. ^Lawler, Andrew, "Who Were the Hurrians?", Archaeology, vol. 61, no. 4, pp. 46–52, 2008
  7. ^Kupper, J.-R., "Lettres royales du temps de Zimri-Lim", Archives royales de Mari 28, Paris, 1998
  8. ^[2]Kelly-Buccellati, Marilyn. "The Urkesh Mittani Horizon: Ceramic Evidence." talugaeš witteš (2020): 237-256
  9. ^Hamblin, William J., "Warfare in the Ancient Near East to 1600 BC", Routledge, 2006ISBN978-1-134-52062-6
  10. ^Edmonds, Alexander Johannes, and Petra M. Creamer, "More to Tell About Billa!", Zeitschrift für Assyriologie und vorderasiatische Archäologie, 2022https://doi.org/10.1515/za-2022-0011p.44
  11. ^von Dassow, Eva, (2022)."Mittani and Its Empire",in Karen Radner, Nadine Moeller, D. T. Potts (eds.), The Oxford History of the Ancient Near East, Volume III: From the Hyksos to the Late Second Millennium BC, Oxford University Press, pp. 467, 469.
  12. ^Pruzsinszky, Regine. "Emar and the Transition from Hurrian to Hittite Power". Representations of Political Power: Case Histories from Times of Change and Dissolving Order in the Ancient Near East, edited by Marlies Heinz and Marian H. Feldman, University Park, USA: Penn State University Press, 2021, pp. 21-38
  13. ^Devecchi, Elena. “Details That Make the Difference: The Akkadian Manuscripts of the ‘Šattiwaza Treaties.’” Die Welt Des Orients, vol. 48, no. 1, 2018, pp. 72–95
  14. ^Barjamovic, Gojko, (2012)."Mesopotamian Empires",in: P.F. Bang, and W. Scheidel (eds.),The Oxford Handbook of the Ancient State in the Ancient Near East and the Mediterranean,Oxford University Press,p. 125:"...The Mitanni empire covered northern and western Syria and northern Iraq (ca. 1600-1340 BCE) but succumbed to internal strife and the pressure of an expanding Assyrian empire..."
  15. ^Barjamovic, Gojko, (2020)."The Empires of Western Asia and the Assyrian World Empire",in: The Oxford World History of Empire: Volume Two: The History of Empires, Oxford University Press,p. 76:"After 1600 BCE the area between Iran and Egypt was united into a dynamic regional system of empires, Mitanni covered northern and western Syria and northern Iraq circa 1550-1340 BCE..."
  16. ^Redford, Donald B. “A Gate Inscription from Karnak and Egyptian Involvement in Western Asia during the Early 18th Dynasty.” Journal of the American Oriental Society, vol. 99, no. 2, 1979, pp. 270–87
  17. ^His memoir was published by L. Borchardt, "Altägyptische Zeitmessung" in E. von Basserman-Jordan,Die Geschichte der Zeitmessung und der Ühre,vol. I. (Berlin/Leipzig) 1930, pp 60ff, noted in Astour 1972:104, notes 25,26.
  18. ^Ay, Eyyüp, (2021)."A Hurrian-Mitanni Temple in Müslümantepe in The Upper Tigris and New Findings",inGaziantep University Journal of Social Sciences, April 27, 2021.
  19. ^A. Otto, "The Late Bronze Age Pottery of the Weststadt of Tall Bazi (North Syria)", in: M. Luciani, A. Hausleitner (Eds.), Recent Trends in the Study of Late Bronze Age Ceramics in Syro-Mesopotamia and Neighbouring Regions. Proceedings of the International Workshop in Berlin, 2 – 5 November 2006, OrA 32, Rahden/Westf., pp. 85-117, 2014
  20. ^Grosz, Katarzyna (1988).The Archive of the Wullu Family.University of Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press. p. 11.ISBN978-87-7289-040-1.
  21. ^Speiser, E. A., "Notes to Recently Published Nuzi Texts", Journal of the American Oriental Society, vol. 55, no. 4, pp. 432–43, 1935
  22. ^Benedict, Warren C., "Urartians and Hurrians", Journal of the American Oriental Society, vol. 80, no. 2, pp. 100–04, 1960
  23. ^Baker, H. D. (2009). "Subartu(m)". In Bryce, Trevor (ed.).The Routledge Handbook of the Peoples and Places of Ancient Western Asia: From the Early Bronze Age to the Fall of the Persian Empire.Taylor & Francis. pp. 663–665.ISBN978-0-415-39485-7.
  24. ^Petrosyan, Armen (2002).The Indo-European and Ancient Near Eastern Sources of the Armenian Epic.Washington, D.C: Institute for the Study of Man. p. 21.ISBN9780941694810.
  25. ^Parker, Bradley J. (2001).The Mechanics of Empire: The Northern Frontier of Assyria as a Case Study in Imperial Dynamics.Helsinki: Neo-Assyrian Text Corpus Project. pp. 230–231.ISBN978-951-45-9052-8.
  26. ^Radner, Karen (2012)."Between a Rock and a Hard Place: Musasir, Kumme, Ukku and Šubria – the Buffer States between Assyria and Urartu".Acta Iranica.51:244.
  27. ^[3]Oguchi, Hiromichi, "The Date of The Beginning of Khabur Ware Period 3: Evidence from the Palace of Qarni-Lim at Tell Leilan", Al-Rafidan 27, pp. 45–59, 2006
  28. ^Paul Zimansky, "The Origin of Nuzi Ware: A Contribution From Tell Hamida", In: David I. Owen and Martha A. Morrison (Hrsg.): General Studies and Excavations at Nuzi 9/1, Pennsylvania State University Press, Philadelphia, 1995 ISBN 978-0-931464-37-9
  29. ^Vandiver, Pamela, "GLASS TECHNOLOGY AT THE MID-SECOND-MILLENNIUM B.C. HURRIAN SITE OF NUZI", Journal of Glass Studies, vol. 25, pp. 239–47, 1983
  30. ^Wilhelm, Gernot (1989).The Hurrians(PDF).Warminster: Aris & Phillips.ISBN0-85668-442-2.Pp. 8–9.
  31. ^Kassian, Alexei (2014)."Lexical Matches between Sumerian and Hurro-Urartian: Possible Historical Scenarios".Cuneiform Digital Library Journal(4).
  32. ^Muscarella, Oscar White, "Bronze and Iron: Ancient Near Eastern Artifacts in the Metropolitan Museum of Art", Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1988ISBN9780870995255
  33. ^Güterbock, Hans Gustav, "Musical Notation in Ugarit", Revue d'Assyriologie 64, pp. 45–52, 1970
  34. ^Duchesne-Guillemin, Marcelle, "A Hurrian Musical Score from Ugarit: The Discovery of Mesopotamian Music", Sources from the ancient near east, vol. 2, fasc. 2. Malibu, CA: Undena Publications, 1984.ISBN0-89003-158-4
  35. ^Kilmer, Anne Draffkorn, "The Cult Song with Music from Ancient Ugarit: Another Interpretation", Revue d'Assyriologie, 68, pp. 69–82, 1974
  36. ^West, M[artin] L[itchfield], "The Babylonian Musical Notation and the Hurrian Melodic Texts", Music and Letters 75, no. 2, pp. 161–79, May 1994
  37. ^Görke, Susanne, "Hurrian and Luwian Elements in the Kizzuwatna Religious Texts", Altorientalische Forschungen, vol. 49, no. 1, pp. 148-157, 2022
  38. ^Güterbock, Hans Gustav, "The Song of Ullikummi Revised Text of the Hittite Version of a Hurrian Myth", Journal of Cuneiform Studies, vol. 5, no. 4, pp. 135–61, 1951
  39. ^G. Wilhelm,The Hurrians,1989, p. 41
  40. ^D. Schwemer,The Storm-Gods of the Ancient Near East: Summary, Synthesis, Recent Studies: Part II,Journal of Ancient Near Eastern Religions8(1), 2008, p. 3
  41. ^A. Archi,The West Hurrian Pantheon and Its Background[in:] B. J. Collins, P. Michalowski (eds.),Beyond Hatti. A tribute to Gary Beckman,2013, p. 9
  42. ^P. Taracha,Religions of Second Millennium Anatolia,2009, p. 92
  43. ^P. Taracha,Religions of Second Millennium Anatolia,2009, p. 94
  44. ^D. Schwemer,The Storm-Gods of the Ancient Near East: Summary, Synthesis, Recent Studies: Part II,Journal of Ancient Near Eastern Religions8(1), 2008, p. 5-6
  45. ^F. Simons,A New Join to the Hurro Akkadian Version of the Weidner God List from Emar (Msk 74.108a + Msk 74.158k),Altorientalische Forschungen44, 2017, p. 86
  46. ^P. Taracha,Religions of Second Millennium Anatolia,2009, p. 122-123
  47. ^A. Archi,The West Hurrian Pantheon and Its Background[in:] B. J. Collins, P. Michalowski (eds.),Beyond Hatti. A tribute to Gary Beckman,2013, p. 7-8
  48. ^P. Taracha,Religions of Second Millennium Anatolia,2009, p. 85
  49. ^G. Wilhelm,The Hurrians,1989, p. 11
  50. ^A. Archi,The West Hurrian Pantheon and Its Background[in:] B. J. Collins, P. Michalowski (eds.),Beyond Hatti. A tribute to Gary Beckman,2013, p. 8
  51. ^A. Archi,The West Hurrian Pantheon and Its Background[in:] B. J. Collins, P. Michalowski (eds.),Beyond Hatti. A tribute to Gary Beckman,2013, p. 10
  52. ^A. Archi,The Anatolian Fate-goddesses and their different traditions[in] E. Cancik-Kirschbaum, J. Klinger, G. G. W. Müller (eds.),Diversity and Standardization. Perspectives on ancient Near Eastern cultural history,2013, p. 4
  53. ^A. Archi,The West Hurrian Pantheon and Its Background[in:] B. J. Collins, P. Michalowski, (eds.)Beyond Hatti. A tribute to Gary Beckman,2013, p. 16
  54. ^A. Archi,The West Hurrian Pantheon and Its Background[in:] B. J. Collins, P. Michalowski, (eds.)Beyond Hatti. A tribute to Gary Beckman,2013, p. 15-16
  55. ^G. Wilhelm,The Hurrians,1989, p. 55
  56. ^P. Taracha,Religions of Second Millennium Anatolia,2009, p. 109
  57. ^Güterbock, Hans Gustav: "Hittite Religion"; inForgotten Religions: Including Some Living Primitive Religions(ed. Vergilius Ferm) (NY, Philosophical Library, 1950), pp. 88–89, 103–104
  58. ^Suggested by Jane Lightfoot in theTimes Literary Supplement22 July 2005 p 27, in her account of Philippe Borgeaud,Mother of the Gods: from Cybele to the Virgin Mary,Johns Hopkins 2005ISBN0-8018-7985-X.
  59. ^Grekyan, Yervand, "Two Hurro-Urartian Lexical Parallels", Altorientalische Forschungen 49.1, pp. 48-52, 2022
  60. ^Wilhelm, Gernot (2008). "Hurrian". In Woodard, Roger D. (ed.).The Ancient Languages of Asia Minor.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 81–104.
  61. ^William L. Moran, "The Amarna Letters", Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992ISBN978-0801842511
  62. ^[4]Dennis R. M. Campbell, "Mood and Modality in Hurrian", Disertation, Department of Near Eastern Languages and Civilizations University of Chicago, 2007

Further reading

  • [5]Buccellati, Giorgio, and Marilyn Kelly-Buccellati. “Urkesh: The First Hurrian Capital.” The Biblical Archaeologist, vol. 60, no. 2, 1997, pp. 77–96
  • Campbell, Dennis R. M., and Sebastian Fischer, "A HURRIAN RITUAL AGAINST TOOTHACHE: A REANALYSIS OF MARI 5", Revue d’Assyriologie et d’archéologie Orientale, vol. 112, pp. 31–48, 2018
  • Fournet, Arnaud, "About Eni, the Hurrian Word for ‘God.’", Journal of Near Eastern Studies, vol. 71, no. 1, pp. 91–94, 2012
  • Greene, Joseph A., "‘Nuzi and the Hurrians: Fragments from a Forgotten Past’: A Slice of Mesopotamian Life in the Fourteenth Century BCE", Near Eastern Archaeology, vol. 61, no. 1, pp. 66–66, 1998
  • Güterbock, Hans Gustav, "The Hittite Version of the Hurrian Kumarbi Myths: Oriental Forerunners of Hesiod", American Journal of Archaeology, vol. 52, no. 1, pp. 123–34, 1948
  • Hawkes, Jacquetta,The First Great Civilizations: Life in Mesopotamia, the Indus Valley, and Egypt,Knopf, 1973ISBN978-0394461618
  • Kilmer, Anne Draffkorn. "The Discovery of an Ancient Mesopotamian Theory of Music".Proceedings of the American Philosophical Association115, no. 2 (April 1971): 131–49.
  • Kilmer, Anne Draffkorn, Richard L. Crocker, and Robert R. Brown.Sounds from Silence: Recent Discoveries in Ancient Near Eastern Music.Berkeley: Bit Enki Publications, 1976. (booklet and LP record, Bit Enki Records BTNK 101, reissued [s.d.] with CD).
  • Speiser, E. A.,Introduction to Hurrian,New Haven, ASOR 1941.
  • Vitale, Raoul."La Musique suméro-accadienne: gamme et notation musicale".Ugarit-Forschungen14 (1982): 241–63.
  • Wilhelm, Gernot (ed.).Nuzi at Seventy-five.Studies in the Civilization and Culture of Nuzi and the Hurrians. Bethesda: Capital Decisions, Ltd., 1999
  • Wilhelm, G, "A Hurrian Letter from Tell Brak", Iraq, vol. 53, pp. 159–68, 1991
  • Wegner, Ilse.Einführung in die hurritische Sprache,2. überarbeitete Aufl. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2007.ISBN3-447-05394-1
  • Wulstan, David. "The Tuning of the Babylonian Harp",Iraq30 (1968): 215–28.

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