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Hydrozoa

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Hydrozoa
Temporal range:575–0Ma
Siphonophorae
Scientific classificationEdit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Cnidaria
Subphylum: Medusozoa
Class: Hydrozoa
Owen,1843
Subclasses and orders[1]

Hydrozoa(hydrozoans;fromAncient Greekὕδωρ(húdōr)'water' andζῷον(zôion)'animal') is ataxonomicclassof individually very small,predatoryanimals, some solitary and some colonial, most of which inhabitsaline water.Thecoloniesof the colonial species can be large, and in some cases the specialized individual animals cannot survive outside the colony. A fewgenerawithin this class live infreshwater habitats.Hydrozoans are related tojellyfishandcoralsand belong to thephylumCnidaria.

Some examples of hydrozoans are the freshwater jelly (Craspedacusta sowerbyi), freshwater polyps (Hydra),Obelia,Portuguese man o' war(Physalia physalis),chondrophores(Porpitidae), and pink-hearted hydroids (Tubularia).

Anatomy

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Most hydrozoan species include both apolypoidand amedusoidstage in theirlife cycles,although a number of them have only one or the other. For example,Hydrahas no medusoid stage, whileLiriopelacks thepolypoidstage.[2]

Polyps

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The hydroid form is usually colonial, with multiple polyps connected by tubelike hydrocauli. The hollow cavity in the middle of the polyp extends into the associated hydrocaulus, so that all the individuals of the colony are intimately connected. Where the hydrocaulus runs along the substrate, it forms a horizontal root-likestolonthat anchors the colony to the bottom.

The hydroidTubularia indivisa,fertile

The colonies are generally small, no more than a few centimeters across, but some inSiphonophoraecan reach sizes of several meters. They may have a tree-like or fan-like appearance, depending on species. The polyps themselves are usually tiny, although some noncolonial species are much larger, reaching 6 to 9 cm (2.4 to 3.5 in), or, in the case of the deep-seaBranchiocerianthus,a remarkable 2 m (6.6 ft).[2]

The hydrocaulus is usually surrounded by a sheath ofchitinand proteins called the perisarc. In some species, this extends upwards to also enclose part of the polyps, in some cases including a closeable lid through which the polyp may extend its tentacles.[2]

In any given colony, the majority of polyps are specialized for feeding. These have a more or less cylindrical body with a terminal mouth on a raised protuberance called thehypostome,surrounded by a number of tentacles. The polyp contains a central cavity, in which initial digestion takes place. Partially digested food may then be passed into the hydrocaulus for distribution around the colony and completion of the digestion process. Unlike some other cnidarian groups, the lining of the central cavity lacks stingingnematocysts,which are found only on the tentacles and outer surface.

All colonial hydrozoans also include some polyps specialized for reproduction. These lack tentacles and contain numerous buds from which the medusoid stage of the life cycle is produced. The arrangement and type of these reproductive polyps varies considerably between different groups.

In addition to these two basic types of polyps, a few colonial species have other specialized forms. In some, defensive polyps are found, armed with large numbers of stinging cells. In others, one polyp may develop as a large float, from which the other polyps hang down, allowing the colony to drift in open water instead of being anchored to a solid surface.[2]

Medusae

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The medusae of hydrozoans are smaller than those of typical jellyfish, ranging from 0.5 to 6 cm (0.20 to 2.36 in) in diameter. Although most hydrozoans have a medusoid stage, this is not always free-living and in many species exists solely as a sexually reproducing bud on the surface of the hydroid colony. Sometimes, these medusoid buds may be so degenerated as to entirely lack tentacles or mouths, essentially consisting of an isolatedgonad.[2]

The body consists of a dome-like umbrella ringed by tentacles. A tube-like structure hangs down from the centre of the umbrella and includes the mouth at its tip. Most hydrozoan medusae have just four tentacles, although a number of exceptions exist. Stinging cells are found on the tentacles and around the mouth.

The mouth leads into a central stomach cavity. Four radial canals connect the stomach to an additional, circular canal running around the base of the bell, just above the tentacles. Striated muscle fibres also line the rim of the bell, allowing the animal to move along by alternately contracting and rela xing its body. An additional shelf of tissue lies just inside the rim, narrowing the aperture at the base of the umbrella, and thereby increasing the force of the expelled jet of water.[2]

The nervous system is unusually advanced for cnidarians. Two nerve rings lie close to the margin of the bell, and send fibres into the muscles and tentacles. The genusSarsiahas even been reported to possess organisedganglia.Numerous sense organs are closely associated with the nerve rings. Mostly these are simple sensory nerve endings, but they also includestatocystsand primitive light-sensitiveocelli.[2]

Life cycle

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Hydroidcolonies are usuallydioecious,which means they have separate sexes—all the polyps in each colony are either male or female, but not usually both sexes in the same colony. In some species, the reproductive polyps, known as gonozooids (or "gonotheca" inthecate hydrozoans) bud off asexually produced medusae. These tiny, new medusae (which are either male or female) mature and spawn, releasinggametesfreely into the sea in most cases.Zygotesbecome free-swimmingplanula larvaeor actinula larvae that either settle on a suitablesubstrate(in the case of planulae), or swim and develop into another medusa or polyp directly (actinulae). Colonial hydrozoans includesiphonophorecolonies,Hydractinia,Obelia,and many others.[3]

In hydrozoan species with both polyp and medusa generations, the medusa stage is the sexually reproductive phase. Medusae of these species of Hydrozoa are known as "hydromedusae". Most hydromedusae have shorter lifespans than the largerscyphozoanjellyfish. Some species of hydromedusae release gametes shortly after they are themselves released from the hydroids (as in the case offire corals), living only a few hours, while other species of hydromedusae grow and feed in theplanktonfor months, spawning daily for many days before their supply of food or other water conditions deteriorate and cause their demise.

Additionally, some hydrozoan species (particularly inTurritopsisgenus) share an unusual life cycle among the animals - they can transform themselves from sexually mature medusae stage back to their juvenile hydroid stage.[4]

Systematics and evolution

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The highlyapomorphicSiphonophorae—like thisPortuguese man o' war(Physalia physalis)—have long misled hydrozoan researchers.

The earliest hydrozoans may be from theVendian(late Precambrian), more than 540 million years ago.[5]

Hydrozoansystematicsare highly complex.[6]Several approaches for expressing their interrelationships were proposed and heavily contested since the late 19th century, but in more recent times a consensus seems to be emerging.

Historically, the hydrozoans were divided into a number oforders,according to their mode of growth and reproduction. Most famous among these was probably the assemblage called "Hydroida",but this group is apparentlyparaphyletic,united byplesiomorphic(ancestral) traits. Other such orders were theAnthoathecatae,Actinulidae,Laingiomedusae,Polypodiozoa,SiphonophoraeandTrachylina.

As far as can be told from themolecularandmorphologicaldata at hand, the Siphonophora for example were just highly specialized "hydroids," whereas theLimnomedusae—presumed to be a "hydroid"suborder—were simply very primitive hydrozoans and not closely related to the other "hydroids." So, the hydrozoans now are at least tentatively divided into twosubclasses,theLeptolinae(containing the bulk of the former "Hydroida" and the Siphonophora) and theTrachylinae,containing the others (including the Limnomedusae). Themonophylyof several of the presumed orders in each subclass is still in need of verification.[1]

In any case, according to this classification, the hydrozoans can be subdivided as follows, withtaxonnames emended to end in "-ae":[1]

Class Hydrozoa

ITISuses the same system, but unlike here, does not use the oldest available names for many groups.

In addition, there exists a cnidarianparasite,Polypodium hydriforme,which lives inside its host'scells.It is sometimes placed in the Hydrozoa, though its relationships are currently unresolved—a somewhat controversial18S rRNAsequenceanalysis found it to be closer to the also parasiticMyxozoan.It was traditionally placed in its ownclass,Polypodiozoa, and this view is often seen to reflect the uncertainties surrounding this highly distinct animal.[7]

Other classifications

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Limnomedusaelike theflower hat jelly(Olindias formosa) were long allied withAnthomedusaeandLeptomedusaein the "Hydroida".

Some of the more widespread classification systems for the Hydrozoa are listed below. Though they are often found in seemingly authoritative Internet sources and databases, they do not agree with the available data.[citation needed]Especially the presumedphylogeneticdistinctness of theSiphonophoraeis a major flaw that was corrected only recently.[when?]

The obsolete classification mentioned above was:

Fire coralsused to be considered a separate order. They are actually a family of theAnthomedusae.

A very old classification that is sometimes still seen is:

Catalogue of Lifeuses:

Some place the anthomedusan familyPorpitidaein a separate order "Chondrophora".

Animal Diversity Webuses:

References

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  1. ^abcSchuchert, Peter."World Hydrozoa Database".Retrieved2016-02-05.
  2. ^abcdefgBarnes, Robert D. (1982).Invertebrate Zoology.Philadelphia: Holt-Saunders International. pp. 122–139.ISBN978-0-03-056747-6.
  3. ^Bouillon, J.; Gravili, C.; Pagès, F.; Gili, J.-M.; Boero, F. (2006). An introduction to Hydrozoa. Mémoires du Muséum national d'Histoire naturelle, 194. Muséum national d'Histoire naturelle: Paris, France.ISBN2-85653-580-1.591pp. + 1 cd-rom
  4. ^Rich, Nathaniel (2012-11-28)."Can a Jellyfish Unlock the Secret of Immortality?".The New York Times.ISSN0362-4331.Retrieved2022-08-29.
  5. ^Waggoner, Ben M.; Smith, David."Hydrozoa: Fossil Record".UCMP Berkeley.Retrieved19 January2019.
  6. ^Boero, Ferdinando; Bouillon, Jean (January 2000)."The hydrozoa: A new classification in the light of old knowledge".researchgate.net.doi:10.1285/I15910725V24P3.S2CID82373673.
  7. ^Zrzavý & Hypša 2003
  • Zrzavý, Jan & Hypša, Václav(2003): Myxozoa,Polypodium,and the origin of the Bilateria: The phylogenetic position of "Endocnidozoa" in light of the rediscovery ofBuddenbrockia.Cladistics19(2): 164–169.doi:10.1111/j.1096-0031.2003.tb00305.x(HTML abstract)
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