Iberian language

Not to be confused withIberian languagesorIberian Romance languages.

Iberian
Native to	ModernSpainandFrance
Region	Mediterranean coast of theIberian Peninsula
Extinct	1st century AD
Language family	unclassified
Writing system	Iberian scripts
Language codes
ISO 639-3	xib
Linguist List	xib
Glottolog	iber1250

TheIberian languagewas the language of an indigenous western European people identified byGreekandRomansources who lived in the eastern and southeastern regions of theIberian Peninsulain the pre-Migration Era(before about AD 375). An ancientIberian culturecan be identified as existing between the 7th and 1st centuries BC, at least.

Iberian, like all the otherPaleohispanic languagesexceptBasque,wasextinctby the 1st to 2nd centuries AD. It had been replaced gradually byLatin,following theRoman conquest of the Iberian Peninsula.

The Iberian language isunclassified:while the scripts used to write it have been deciphered to various extents, the language itself remains largely unknown. Links with other languages have been suggested, especially theBasque language,based largely on the observed similarities between thenumerical systemsof the two. In contrast, thePunic languageofCarthaginiansettlers wasSemitic,whileIndo-European languagesof the peninsula during theIron Ageinclude the now extinctCeltiberian language,Ionic Greek,andLatin,which formed the basis for modernIberian Romance languages,but none of these were related to the Iberian language.

Geographic distribution

Iberian language in the context ofpaleohispanic languages

Iberian inscriptions are found along theMediterranean coastof the Iberian Peninsula, reaching up to the riverHéraultin the south of France. Important written remains have been found inEnsérune,betweenNarbonneandBéziersin France, in anoppidumwith mixed Iberian andCelticelements. The southern limit would bePorcuna,inJaén(Spain), where splendid sculptures of Iberian riders have been found. Further inland, the exact distribution of the Iberian language inscriptions is uncertain. It seems that the culture reached the interior through theEbroriver (Iberusin Latin) as far asSalduie,but no further.

Among the pre-Roman peoples of the Iberian Peninsula, the following might have spoken the Iberian language:Ausetani(northeasternCatalonia),Ilergetes(LleidaandHuescaup to the Pyrenees),Indigetes(coast ofGirona),Laietani(Barcelona),Cassetani(Tarragona),Ilercavones(MurciaandLevanteup to Tarragona),Edetani(Valencia,CastellónandTeruel),Contestani(Valencia,Alicante,CartagenaandAlbacete),Bastetani(Granada,Almeríaand Murcia) andOretani(Jaén,Ciudad Real,AlbaceteandCuenca).TurduliandTurdetaniare believed to be of theTartessian languagegroup.

For some scholars, such asVelaza(2006), Iberian could have been the language spoken by the autochthonous population of these territories, while for others, such asDe Hoz(1993), Iberian could have been more of alingua franca.

History

Lead plaque fromUllastretusing the dual variant of thenortheastern Iberian script.

The origin of the language is unknown. Although Iberian ceased to be written in the 1st century AD, it may have survived in some areas until theVisigothicperiod (ca. 500s to 700s), according to Menéndez Pidal.

There are several theories about the geographical origin of Iberian. According to theCatalan theory,the Iberian language originated in northern Catalonia, where the earliest Iberian inscriptions are documented (600 BC inUllastret). Its expansion towards the north and south would have been due to broad population movements in times shortly before the first written documents, from the 11th to the 10th century BC, given that the Iberian language appears homogeneous in Iberian texts and, if it were of greater antiquity, the development ofdialectsshould be evident. The presence of non-interpretable elements, such as Iberiananthroponymsamongst inscriptions in this area has not been considered statistically significant.

Writing

Main article:Iberian scripts

Iberian scripts in the context ofpaleohispanic scripts

The oldest Iberian inscriptions date to the 6th century BC or maybe the 5th century BC and the latest ones date from the end of the 1st century BC or maybe the beginning of the 1st century AD. More than two thousand Iberian inscriptions are currently known. Most are short texts onceramicwith personal names, which are usually interpreted as ownership marks. Manycoinsminted by Iberian communities during the Roman Republic have legends in Iberian. The longest Iberian texts were made onleadplaques; the most extensive is fromYátova(Valencia) with more than six hundred signs.

Three different scripts have remained for the Iberian language:

• Northeastern Iberian script
  • Dual variant (4th century BC and 3rd century BC)
  • Non-dual variant (2nd century BC and 1st century BC)
• Southeastern Iberian script
• Greco-Iberian Alpha bet(most of the aforementionedLeads of La Serretaare written in this version).

Northeastern (or Levantine) Iberian script

Lead plaque from La Bastida de les Alcuses (Mogente) using thesoutheastern Iberian script.

Lead plaque from Castellet de Bernabè, Valencia

Thenortheastern Iberian scriptis also known as the Iberian script, because it is theIberian scriptmost frequently used (95% of the extant texts (Untermann 1990)). The northeastern Iberian inscriptions have been found mainly in the northeastern quadrant of theIberian Peninsula:chiefly on the coast fromLanguedoc-RoussillontoAlicante,but with a deep penetration into theEbro valley.This script is almost completely deciphered.

All thepaleohispanic scripts,with the exception of theGreco-Iberian Alpha bet,share a common distinctive typological characteristic: they use signs with syllabic value for theocclusivesand signs with monophonematic value for the remainingconsonantsand forvowels.From awriting systemspoint of view, they are neitherAlpha betsnorsyllabaries;rather, they are "mixed" scripts that are normally identified assemi-syllabaries.Regarding their origin, there is no agreement among researchers; for some linguists, they are linked only to thePhoenician Alpha bet,while others see theGreek Alpha betas playing a part.

Southeastern (or Meridional) Iberian script

Thesoutheastern Iberian scriptis asemi-syllabarytoo, but it is more similar to theTartessianscript than to thenortheastern Iberian script.The southeastern Iberian inscriptions have been found mainly in the southeastern quadrant of theIberian Peninsula:easternAndalusia,Murcia,Albacete,AlicanteandValencia.This script is not completely deciphered.

Lead plaque from la Serreta (Alcoy) using theGreco-Iberian Alpha bet.

Greco-Iberian Alpha bet

The Greco-IberianAlpha betis a direct adaptation of anIonicvariant of aGreek Alpha betto the specificities of the Iberian language. The inscriptions that use the Greco-Iberian Alpha bet have been found mainly inAlicanteandMurcia.

Phonology

Current extent of linguistic knowledge

Very little is known for certain about Iberian. The investigation of the language is past its initial phase of transcription and compiling of material, and is currently in the phase of identifying grammatical elements in the texts.

The hypotheses currently proposed are unconfirmed, and are likely to remain so unless the discovery of abilingualtext allows linguists to confirm their deductions.

Vowels

Iberian appears to have five vowels commonly transcribed asa e i o u.Some other languages on the peninsula such asBasqueand modernSpanishalso have such systems. Although five-vowel systems are extremely common all over the world, it has been suggested that this may point to aSprachbundamongst the ancient languages of the Iberian peninsula.

The unrounded vowels (in frequency order:a, i, e) appear more frequently than the rounded vowels (u, o). Although there are indications of a nasal vowel (ḿ), this is thought to be anallophone.Judging by Greek transcriptions, it seems that there were no vowel length distinctions; if this is correct then Iberian uses the longē(Greek:ἦτα,romanized:êta) as opposed to the short epsilon (Greek:ἒ ψιλόν,romanized:ѐ psilón).

Vowels

	Front	Central	Back
	unrounded		rounded
Close	[i] i		[u] u
Mid	[e] e		[o] o
Open		[a] a

Diphthongs

It seems that the second element ofdiphthongswas always a closed vowel, as inai(śaitabi),ei(neitin), andau(lauŕ). Untermann observed that the diphthonguicould only be found in the first cluster.

Semivowels

It is possible that Iberian had thesemivowels/j/(in words such asaiunoriunstir) and/w/(only in loanwords such asdiuiśfromGaulish). The fact that/w/is lacking in native words casts doubt on whether semivowels really existed in Iberian outside of foreign borrowings and diphthongs.

Consonants

Consonants

		Labial	Dental	Alveolar	Velar
Nasal		[m] m		[n] n
Plosive		[b]	[d]~[t]		[g]~[k]
Affricate				[t͡s] s
Fricative				[s] ś
Lateral				[l] l
Rhotic	Flap			[ɾ] r
	Trill			[r] ŕ

• Vibrants:There are two vibrantsrandŕ.Iberian specialists do not agree about the phonetic values assigned to either vibrant. Correa (1994) hypothesized thatŕwas analveolar flap[ɾ]andrwas a "compound vibrant", that is, atrill[r].Later, Rodríguez Ramos (2004) suggested thatŕwas an alveolar flap[ɾ]andris aretroflexflap[ɽ]in line with Ballester (2001) who thought thatrrepresents auvularfricative[ʁ].However, Ballester (2005) later changed his hypothesis and tookrfor an alveolar flap[ɾ]andŕfor the alveolar trill[r].Neitherrnorŕoccurs word-initially, which is also the case inBasque.
• Sibilants:There are two sibilantssandś.The distinction is unclear, and there are multiple proposals. Ballester (2001) theorizes thatswas an alveolar[s]andśwas analveolo-palatal[ɕ].Rodríguez Ramos (2004) proposes thatśwas alveolar[s]andswas an affricate, either dental[ts]or palatal[tʃ](like English "ch" ). This proposal coincides with the observation by Correa on adaptations of Gallic names in Iberian texts.
• Laterals:The laterallis normally interpreted as[l].It is extremely rare in final position and it could be that the distribution is on occasion complementary withŕ:aŕikal-er~aŕikaŕ-bi.
• Nasals:
  • Thenwas probably alveolar[n].
  • m:Researchers studying Iberian do not agree on the kind of nasal represented by this letter. The lettermrarely occurs word-initially. Velaza (1996) hypothesizes it could be an allophone of medialn,as shown in the example ofiumstir/iunstir.José A. Correa (1999) suggests it may be ageminateor strong nasal. Ballester (2001) considers it to be alabializednasal in Iberian and in Celtiberian. Rodríguez Ramos (2004) mentions that it could be an allophone ofnwhere it nasalizes the preceding vowel.
  • There is some controversy over the sign transcribed asḿ.While it is thought to be some type of nasal, there is no certainty as to its phonetic value. Several linguists agree on the value[na],based on similarities with texts written in the Greek Alpha bet, as there are similarities between the suffixes-ḿi/-nai,and in theonomasticelements-ḿbar-/-nabar-.Another part of this theory seems to contradict itself with the transcription ofḿbar-beleśinto Latin asVMARBELES.Correa (1999) proposes that it was alabializednasal. It is not even clear that the sign is always pronounced in the same form. Rodríguez Ramos (2004) considers it a nasalized vowel, produced by progressive nasalization.
• Plosives:There are five plosives.

	unvoiced	voiced
velar	/k/	/ɡ/
dental	/t/	/d/
labial		/b/

The evidence indicates the non-existence of a phonemepas it is not documented either in the Greek Alpha bet or in the dual Iberian systems. It is only found in Latin inscriptions naming native Iberians and is thought to be an allophone ofb.

It has been suggested that the phonemebwould on occasions have been pronounced similar tow(this would be explained by the frequency of the signbu), and as such it could have had a nasalized pronunciation.

Morphology

There are a number of knownaffixes,especially applied to last names. For the Iberian language these seem to bepostpositional,and apparently moreagglutinativethanfusional.

The best-known are the following:

-ar:applied to proper names to mark possession.

-en:of a similar or identical use to-ar.

-ka:seems to indicate the person who receives something.

-te:seems to indicate the ergative.

-ku:seems to indicate the ablative.Possibly related to the Basque local genitive-ko.

-ken/-sken:usually understood as genitive plural because of its use on coins in ethnical names (with parallels on Latin and Greek coins).

-k:has been proposed on occasions to mark the plural.-kis a plural marker in Basque.

Lexicon

There are some words for which there has been surmised a more or less probable meaning:

• aŕe takeas akin to the Latin formulahic est situs( "here he is" ) (Untermann 1990, 194) because of a bilingual inscription fromTarragonaC.18.6
• ebanandebanenas equivalent to the Latincoeravit( "he cared [to be done]" ) in tombstones (Untermann 1990, 194), because of a bilingual inscription fromSaguntoF.11.8
• iltiŕandiltunas typical Iberian toponyms for city names, meaning something like "city" / "town"
• ekiar:verb or verbal noun with a meaning like "to do" / "to make" compared with the Basque verbegin(Beltrán 1942;Correa 1994, 284).likine-te ekiar usekerte-kuwith a meaning akin to "made by Likinos of Osicerda" (Correa 1994, 282)
• seltarandsiltaras meaning something like "tomb" on tombstones (Untermann 1990, 194).
• śaliras meaning something like "money" / "coin", because of its use in coins (asiltiŕta-śalir-ban) and its use in lead plaque inscriptions adjacent to numbers and quantities (Untermann 1990, 191).

Personal names

Thanks to the Latin Inscription of the plaque of Ascoli, which includes a list of Iberian cavalry soldiers in the Roman army (theTurmaSalluitana attested in theBronze of Ascoli), the forms of Iberian proper names have been unraveled. Iberian names are formed mainly by two interchangeable elements, each usually formed of two syllables, which are written together (Untermann 1998). For example, the element "iltiŕ" can be found in the following names:iltiŕaŕker,iltiŕbaś,iltiŕtikeŕ,tursiltiŕ,baiseiltiŕorbekoniltiŕ.This discovery was a giant step: from this moment it was possible to identify with some kind of confidence the names of persons in the texts. Nevertheless, the list of components of Iberian names varies between researchers. The basic list comes from Untermann (1990) and was recently updated by Rodríguez Ramos (2002b); complementary data and criteria can be found in the Faria papers (the last two: 2007a and 2007b).

The following list includes some of the elements proposed as components of Iberian names:abaŕ,aibe,aile,ain,aitu,aiun,aker,albe,aloŕ,an,anaŕ,aŕbi,aŕki,aŕs,asai,aster,ata,atin,atun,aunin,auŕ,austin,baiser,balaŕ,balke,bartaś,baś,bastok,bekon,belauŕ,beleś,bels,bene,beŕ,beri,beŕon,betan,betin,bikir,bilos,bin,bir,bitu,biuŕ,bolai,boŕ,boś,boton,ekes,ekaŕ,eler,ena,esto,eten,eter,iar,iaun,ibeś,ibeis,ike,ikoŕ,iltiŕ,iltur,inte,iskeŕ,istan,iunstir,iur,kaisur,kakeŕ,kaltuŕ,kani,kaŕes,kaŕko,katu,keŕe,kibaś,kine,kitaŕ,kon,koŕo,koŕś,kuleś,kurtar,lako,lauŕ,leis,lor,lusban,nalbe,neitin,neŕse,nes,niś,nios,oŕtin,sakaŕ,sakin,saltu,śani,śar,seken,selki,sike,sili,sine,sir,situ,soket,sor,sosin,suise,taker,talsku,tan,tanek,taneś,taŕ,tarban,taŕtin,taś,tautin,teita,tekeŕ,tibaś,tikeŕ,tikirs,tikis,tileis,tolor,tuitui,tumar,tuŕś,turkir,tortin,ulti,unin,uŕke,ustain,ḿbaŕ,nḿkei.

In some cases, linguists have encountered simple names, with only one element for a suffix:BELES,AGER-DOandBIVR-NOare in the plaque of Ascoli,neitininUllastretandlauŕ-to,bartas-koorśani-koin other Iberian texts. More rarely there have been indications of a linking element, which can be-i-,-ke-or-ta-(Untermann usedoto-iltiŕin front ofoto-ke-iltiŕor withAEN-I-BELES). In rare cases Untermann also encountered an elementis-oro-prefacing a proper name (is-betartiker;o-tikiŕtekeŕ;O-ASAI).

In the elements that formed Iberian names it is common to encounter patterns of variation, as ineter/eten/etewith the same variations as iniltur/iltun/iltu;kere/keresaslako/lakos;oralos/alor/aloandbikis/bikir/biki).

Some Iberianonomasticelements have look-alikes inAquitanianorBasque.This has been explained by Vascologists like Mitxelenaas an "onomastic pool". However, since the meaning of most Iberian words remains opaque to date, the connection remains speculative except in a very small number of cases.An ancientsprachbundinvolving these two languages is deemed likely by some linguists.But as Trask notes,Basque has been of no help in translating Iberian inscriptions.

Influences on other languages

Main article:List of Spanish words of Iberian origin

External relations

Iberian and Basque

Whether Iberian and Basque are two languages of the same language family is still a much-debated question. Many experts on Iberian suspect that there is a relationship of some sort between Iberian andAquitanian,a precursor of theBasque language.But there is not enough evidence to date to ascertain whether the two languages belong to the same language family or whether the relationship is due tolinguistic borrowing.Lexical and onomastic coincidences could be due to borrowing, while the similarities in the phonological structures of the two languages could be due to linguistic areal phenomena (cf. the similarities between Basque andOld Spanishin spite of being languages of two different families). More scientific studies on the Iberian language are needed to shed light on this question.

From a historical perspective, the first features where a relationship between Basque and Iberian was claimed were:

• the suffixes-sken/-kenon Iberian coins (which were compared to the genitive plural on similar ancient coins) with the Basque plural (-k) and genitive (-en) endings
• Iberian town names containingili(particularlyiliberri), where parallels were drawn with Basquehiri( "town" ) andberri( "new" ).

Although other pairs have been proposed (such aseban,ars,-ka,-te), the meanings of these Iberian morphs are still controversial. The main arguments today which relate to coinciding surface forms between Basque and Iberian are:

• Phonetics:Proto-Basquephonology, first proposed byMichelena,appears to be very similar to what is known about the Iberian phonological system. It has been claimed that the lack of /m/, common to both Proto-Basque and Iberian, is especially significant).
• Onomastics: Aquitanian-Latin inscriptions contain personal and deity names which can clearly be related to modern Basque words, but also show structural and lexical resemblances with Iberian personal names.But Iberian influence on the Aquitanian name system, rather than a genetic link, cannot be dismissed either.
• In Iberianiltiŕandiltur,iliis read "city".Modern Basquehiri,"city", is derived from the very similar Proto-Basque root *ili
• The Iberian genitive ending-enand maybe the genitive plural-(s)ken,compared to the Basque genitive-enand the Basque genitive plural *ag-enas reconstructed by Michelena.But Michelena himself was sceptical about this comparison.
• An Iberian formula which frequently appears on tombstones,aŕe take,with variants such asaŕe teike,which on a bilingual inscription from Tarragona may be equivalent to the Latinhic situs est( "here is" ), as proposed byHübner.This was compared bySchuchardt(1907)with Basque(h)ara dago"there is/stays".
• The Iberian wordekiar,explained as something akin to "he made",proposed to be linked with the Basque verbegin"make"
• The Iberian wordśalirexplained as "money", "coin" or "value", proposed to be linked to Basque wordsari(probably Proto-Basque *sali) meaning "value", "payment", "reward".

Numerals

Iberian numerals

In 2005 Eduardo Orduña published a study showing some Iberian compounds that according to contextual data would appear to be Iberian numerals and show striking similarities with Basque numerals. The study was expanded upon by Joan Ferrer (2007 and 2009) based on terms found on coins, stating their value, and with new combinatorial and contextual data. The comparison proposes the following:

Iberian	Iberian meaning	Proto-Basque	Modern Basque and meaning
erder / erdi-	"half"		erdi"half"
ban	"one"	*badV/ *bade?	bat"one" (but cf-nfinal compound forms such asbana"one each" )
bi / bin	"two"	biga	bi(olderbiga) "two" (also cf-nfinal compound forms such asbina"two each" )
irur	"three"	hirur	hiru(r)"three"
laur	"four"	laur	lau(r)"four"
borste / bors	"five"	bortz / *bortzV?	bost(olderbortz) "five"
śei	"six"		sei"six"
sisbi	"seven"		zazpi"seven"
sorse	"eight"		zortzi"eight"
abaŕ / baŕ	"ten"	*[h]anbar?	hamar"ten"
oŕkei	"twenty"		hogei"twenty"

The basis of this theory is better understood if we compare some of the attested Iberian compounds with Basque complex numbers (the dots denote morpheme boundaries and are not normally written in Basque; also note that the final-rin numbers 3 and 4 also occurs in bound forms in Basque i.e.hirur-andlaur-):

Iberian word	Basque comparison	Basque Meaning	Basque analysis
abaŕ-ke-bi	hama.bi	"twelve"	"10-2"
abaŕ-ke-borste	hama.bost	"fifteen"	"10-5"
abaŕ-śei	hama.sei	"sixteen"	"10-6"
oŕkei-irur	hogei.ta.hiru	"twenty three"	"20 and 3"
oŕkei-ke-laur	hogei.ta.lau	"twenty four"	"20 and 4"
oŕkei-abaŕ	hogei.ta.(ha)mar	"thirty"	"20 and 10"
oŕkei-(a)baŕ-ban	hogei.ta.(ha)maika	"thirty one"	"20 and 11"

Even so, Orduña does not claim this comparison to be a proof of a family relation between Iberian and Basque, but rather owing to Iberian loanwords in the Basque language. In contrast, Ferrer believes that the similarities could be caused due to both the genetic relationship or the loan, but indicates that the loan of the entire system of numerals is rare (but has known to occur such as the case ofMiddle Chinesenumerals being borrowed wholesale intoVietnamese,Japanese,KoreanandThai).

Joseba Lakarra (2010) has rejected both hypotheses: loan and genetic relationship. Lakarra's arguments focus almost exclusively on the field of Basque historical grammar, but also argues, following de Hoz's (1993) hypothesis, that the hypothesis of the borrowing has already turned out implausible due to the limited and remote extension of the territory where Iberian was spoken as first language in South-East Spain.

Javier de Hoz(2011, pp. 196–198) considers plausible the internal contextual and combinatorial arguments that would support the hypothesis that these Iberian elements could be interpreted as numerals. In fact, concerning the specific values, he considers valid the proposed equivalences between Iberianbanwith 'one' and between Iberianerderwith 'half', according to the marks of value found in coins, while he considers that the rest of the proposed equivalences are a working hypothesis. Regarding the equivalence between the possible Iberian numerals and the Basque numerals, he agrees with Lakarra (2010) that the shape of the documented Iberian forms does not fit the expected Proto-Basque forms. Finally, he considers that the greatest difficulty in accepting this hypothesis is, paradoxically, its extent and systematic nature, because if it was correct, it would result in a close relationship between Iberian and Basque, which should allow the identification of other relationships between Iberian and Basque subsystems, as clearly as this one, relationships that no investigator using reasonable linguistic arguments has been able to identify.

Eduardo Orduña (2011) insists that the Iberian elements proposed as numerals are not only similar to the Basque numerals, but also combine as numerals and appear in contexts where numerals are expected. He observes Lakarra (2010) does not dispute these arguments [neither does de Hoz (2010)]. As regards the de Hoz hypothesis about considering the Iberian language as alingua franca,Orduña notes its hypothetical character, although Lakarra presents that hypothesis as an established fact. The problems with this hypothesis have been collected by Ferrer (2013) in a later work. Regarding the phonetic difficulties indicated by Lakarra, Orduña argues that its proposals are compatible with the Proto-Basque reconstructed by Michelena, which is for chronology and security the reconstruction that an iberist has to consider, while the hypothesis of internal Basque reconstruction of Lakarra has a vague chronology and a much lower degree of security. Finally, contrary to his first opinion in favor of the loan, concludes that the most economical hypothesis to explain the similarities between the Iberian numeral system and the Basque numeral system is the genetic relationship.

Francisco Villar (2014, 259) notes that the similarities between Iberian numerals and Basque numerals are of the same order as those documented among Indo-European languages and consequently argues that the only sustainable hypothesis at this point is the genetic relationship between Iberian and Basque. Villar also believes that if the reconstruction of Proto-Basque proposed by Lakarra (2010) is incompatible with the evidence derived from the numerals, the reconstruction must be corrected as it is, like all reconstructions, hypothetical and perfectible.

See also

• Paleohispanic languages
• Iberians
• Iberian scripts
• Paleohispanic scripts
• Celtiberian language
• Iberian Romance languages

Bibliography

General works

• Anderson, James, M. (1988)Ancient Languages of the Hispanic Peninsula,University Press of America, New York,ISBN0-8191-6732-0
• Ballester, Xaverio(2005)Lengua ibérica: hacia un debate tipológico,Palaeohispanica 5, pp. 361–392.
• Correa Rodríguez, José Antonio (1994)La lengua ibérica,Revista Española de Lingüística 24/2, pp. 263–287.
• de Hoz Bravo, Javier

(1998)La epigrafía ibérica de los noventa,Revista de Estudios Ibéricos 3, pp. 127–151.

(2001)Hacia una tipología del ibérico,Religión, lengua y cultura preromanas de Hispania, pp. 335–362.

(2011)Historia lingüística de la Península Ibérica en la Antigüedad II. El mundo ibérico prerromano y la indoeuropeización,Madrid,ISBN978-84-00-09405-8.

• Panosa Domingo, Mª. Isabel (1999)La escritura ibérica en Cataluña y su contexto socioeconómico (siglos V-I a. C.),Argitalpen Zerbitzua, Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea, Vitoria-Gasteiz,ISBN84-8373-160-6.
• Rodríguez Ramos, Jesús (2004)Análisis de Epigrafía Íbera,Vitoria-Gasteiz,ISBN84-8373-678-0.
• Untermann, Jürgen

(1980)Monumenta Linguarum Hispanicarum II: Die Inschriften in iberischer Schrift in Südfrankreich,Reichert Verlag, Wiesbaden,ISBN978-3-88226-098-4.

(1990)Monumenta Linguarum Hispanicarum. III Die iberischen Inschriften aus Spanien,Reichert Verlag, Wiesbaden,ISBN978-3-88226-491-3.

(1996)Los plomos ibéricos: estado actual de su interpretación,Estudios de lenguas y epigrafía antiguas – ELEA 2, pp. 75–108.

(2001)Die vorrömischen Sprachen der iberischen Halbinsel. Wege und Aporien bei ihrer Entzifferung,Westdeutscher Verlag, Wiesbaden,ISBN3-531-07375-3.

(2005)La lengua ibérica en el sur de Franciain Oriol Mercadal Fernández (coord)Món ibèric: als Països Catalans: XIII Col•loqui Internacional d'Arqueologia de Puigcerdà: homenatge a Josep Barberà i Farràs: Puigcerdà, 14 i 15 de novembre de 2003Vol. 2,ISBN84-933111-2-X,pp. 1083–1100.

• Valladolid Moya, Juana (1997)La epigrafía ibérica: estado actual de los estudios,Tempus. Revista de Actualización Científica, 17, pp. 5–53.
• Velaza, Javier (1996)Epigrafía y lengua ibéricas,Barcelona.

Iberian writing

• Correa Rodríguez, José Antonio (2004)Los semisilabarios ibéricos: algunas cuestiones,Estudios de lenguas y epigrafía Antiguas – ELEA 5, 75-98.
• de Hoz Bravo, Javier

(1985–86)La escritura greco-ibérica,Veleia 2-3, pp. 285–298

(1989)El desarrollo de la escritura y las lenguas de la zona meridional,Tartessos: Arqueología protohistórica del bajo Guadalquivir, pp. 523–587.

• Ferrer i Jané, Joan (2005)Novetats sobre el sistema dual de diferenciació gràfica de les oclusives sordes i sonores,Palaeohispanica 5, pp. 957–982.
• Rodríguez Ramos, Jesús (2002)La escritura ibérica meridional,Zephyrus: Revista de prehistoria y arqueología 55, pp. 231–245.

Lexicon, phonology and grammar

• Ballester, Xaverio

(2001)Fono(tipo)logía de las (con)sonantes (celt)ibéricas,Religión, lengua y cultura prerromanas de Hispania, 287-303, Salamanca.

(2003)El acento en la reconstrucción lingüística: el caso ibérico,Palaeohispánica 3, pp. 43–57

• Correa Rodríguez, José Antonio

(1994)La transcripción de las vibrantes en la escriptura paleohispanica,Archivo de Prehistoria Levantina 21, pp. 337–341.

(1999)Las nasales en ibérico,Pueblos, lenguas y escrituras en la Hispania preromana, pp. 375–396, Salamanca.

(2001)Las silbantes en ibérico,in Francisco Villar, María Pilar Fernández Alvárez (coords)Religión, lengua y cultura prerromanas de HispaniaISBN84-7800-893-4,pp. 305–318.

• de Hoz Bravo, Javier

(1981)Algunas precisiones sobre textos metrológicos ibéricos,Archivo de Prehitoria Levantina 40, pp. 475–486.

(2002)El complejo sufijal -(e)sken de la lengua ibérica,Palaeohispánica 2, pp. 159–168

(2003)Las sibilantes ibéricas,in S. Marchesini & P. Poccetti (eds)Linguistica è storia. Sprachwissenschaft ist Geschichte. Scritti in onore di Carlo de Simone,Pisa, 85-97.

• Faria António M. de

(2007)Crónica de onomástica paleo-hispânica (13),Revista Portuguesa de Arqueologia 10:2, 161-187.

(2016)Crónica de onomástica paleo-hispânica (25),ARSEnº 50, pp 109-140.ISSN 0213-8026.

• Ferrer i Jané, Joan.

(2006)Nova lectura de la inscripció ibèrica de La Joncosa(Jorba, Barcelona),Veleia 23, pp. 129–170.

(2007)Sistemes de marques de valor lèxiques sobre monedes ibèriques,Acta Numismàtica 37, pp. 53–73.

(2009)"El sistema de numerales ibérico: avances en su conocimiento",Palaeohispanica9, pp. 451–479.

• Ferrer i Jané, Joan & Giral Royo, Francesc (2007)A propósito de un semis de Ildiŕda con leyenda erder. Marcas de valor léxicas sobre monedas ibéricas,Palaeohispanica 7, pp. 83–89.
• Fletcher Valls, Domingo (1992)Iunstir, palabra ibérica,ARSEnº 28-29, pp 155–173.ISSN 0213-8026.
• Lakarra Joseba (2010)Haches, diptongos y otros detalles de alguna importancia: notas sobre numerales (proto)vascos y comparación vasco-ibérica (con un apéndice sobre hiri y otro sobre bat-bi),Veleia 27, pp. 191–238.
• Luján Martínez, Eugenio Ramón (2005)Los topónimos en las inscripciones ibéricas,Palaeohispanica 5, pp. 471–490.
• Moncunill Martí, Noemí (2007)Lèxic d'inscripcions ibèriques (1991–2006),doctoral dissertation, UB-Barcelona.
• Orduña Aznar, Eduardo

(2005)Sobre algunos posibles numerales en textos ibéricos,Palaeohispanica 5, pp. 491–506.

(2006)Segmentación de textos ibéricos y distribución de los segmentos,doctoral dissertation, UNED-Madrid (unpublished doctoral dissertation).

(2008)Ergatividad en ibéricoEmerita Vol. 76, Nº 2, pp. 275–302

(2011)Los numerales ibéricos y el protovasco,Veleia 28, pp. 125-139.

• Pérez Orozco, Santiago (2009)Construcciones posesivas en ibérico,Estudios de lenguas y epigrafía antiguas – ELEA 9, pp. 561–578
• Quintanilla Niño, Alberto

(1998)Estudios de Fonología Ibérica,Vitoria-Gasteiz,ISBN84-8373-041-3.

(2005)Palabras de contenido verbal en ibérico,Palaeohispanica 5, pp. 507–520.

• Rodríguez Ramos, Jesús

(2000b)Vocales y consonantes nasales en la lengua íbera,Faventia 22, Fasc. 2, pp. 25–37.

(2002)Índice crítico de formantes de compuesto de tipo onomástico en la lengua íbera,Cypsela 14, pp. 251–275.

(2002b)Problemas y cuestiones metodológicas en la identificación de los compuestos de tipo onomástico de la lengua íbera,ARSE Nº 36, pp. 15–50.ISSN 0213-8026.

(2004)Sobre los fonemas sibilantes de la lengua íbera,Habis 35, pp. 135–150

• Siles Ruiz, Jaime (1985)Léxico de inscripciones ibéricas,Ministerio de Cultura, Dirección General de Bellas Artes y Archivos, Madrid,ISBN978-84-505-1735-4.
• Silgo Gauche, Luis

(1994)Léxico Ibérico,Estudios de Lenguas y Epigrafía Antiguas – ELEA, ISSN 1135-5026, Nº. 1, pages 1–271.

(2007)Las palabras "dinero" y "plata" en Ibérico,Palaeohispanica, nº 7, pp 219-222.

• Tolosa Leal, Antonio (1996):"Sobre el ibérico SELDAR",ARSE.nº 30-31, pp 119–122.ISSN 0213-8026.
• Untermann, Jürgen

(1984)Inscripciones sepulcrales ibéricas,Cuadernos de prehistoria y arqueología Castellonenses 10, pp. 111–120

(1985–1986)Las gramática de los plomos ibéricos,Veleia 2-3, pp. 35–56.

(1998)La onomástica ibérica,Iberia 1, pp. 73–85.

(1999)Über den Umgang mit iberischen Bilinguenin E. Seebold, W. Schindler & J. UntermannGrippe, Kamm und Eulenspiegel: Festschrift fürElmar Seeboldzum 65. GeburtstagISBN978-3-11-015617-1,pp. 349–358.

• Velaza Frías, Javier

(1991)Léxico de inscripciones ibéricas: (1976–1989),Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona,ISBN84-7875-556-X.

(1994)Iberisch EBAN TEBANZeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik 104, 142-150.

(2004)Eban, teban, diez años después,Estudios de lenguas y epigrafía antiguas – ELEA 5, pp. 199–210.

(2002)Ibérico-te,Palaeohispánica 2, pp. 271–275.

(2006)Tras las huellas del femenino en ibérico: una hipótesis de trabajo,Palaeohispánica 6,pp. 247–254

Origins and relationships

• Ballester, Xaverio (2001)Las adfinitas de las lenguas aquitania e ibéricaPalaeohispánica 1, 2001, pp. 21–33.
• Ferrer i Jané, Joan (2013)Los problemas de la hipótesis de la lengua ibérica como lengua vehicular,E.L.E.A.13, 115-157.
• de Hoz Bravo, Javier (1993)La lengua y la escritura ibéricas y las lenguas de los iberos, Lengua y cultura en Hispania prerromana: actas del V Coloquio sobre lenguas y culturas de la Península Ibérica: (Colonia 25-28 de Noviembre de 1989)(Francisco Villar and Jürgen Untermann, eds.),ISBN84-7481-736-6,Salamanca, pp. 635–666.
• Gorrochategui Churruca, Joaquín (1993)La onomástica aquitana y su relación con la ibérica,Lengua y cultura en Hispania prerromana: actas del V Coloquio sobre lenguas y culturas de la Península Ibérica: (Colonia 25-28 de Noviembre de 1989) (Francisco Villar and Jürgen Untermann, eds.),ISBN84-7481-736-6,Salamanca, pp. 609–634.
• Rodríguez Ramos, Jesús

(2001)La cultura ibérica desde la perspectiva de la epigrafía: un ensayo de síntesis,Iberia: Revista de la Antigüedad 4, pp. 17–38.

(2002)La hipótesis del vascoiberismo desde el punto de vista de la epigrafía íbera,Fontes linguae vasconum: Studia et documenta, 90, pp. 197–218, ISSN 0046-435X.

• Velaza Frías, Javier (2006)Lengua vs. cultura material: el (viejo) problema de la lengua indígena de Cataluña,Actes de la III Reunió Internacional d'Arqueologia de Calafell (Calafell, 25 al 27 de novembre de 2004), Arqueo Mediterrània 9, 273-280.
• Villar, Francisco (2014):Indoeuropeos, iberos, vascos y sus parientes, Estratigrafía y cronología de las poblaciones prehistóricas,Universidad de Salamanca, Estudios Filológicos.

External links

• Iberian Epigraphy by Jesús Rodríguez Ramos
• Searcher of regular expressions in Iberian texts by Eduardo Orduña Aznar
• La lengua y las escrituras ibéricas,a self-published book by Francisco Castillo Pina [2009, Valencia,ISBN978-84-931683-4-6].
• Interesting reproductions of many different inscriptions and its transcription. Iberian Alpha bets. In Spanish
• Map of the Pre-Roman Peoples and Languages of Iberia (around 200 BC) by Luis Fraga da Silva