Imperator

The title ofimperator(/ˌɪmpəˈrɑːtər/im-pə-RAH-tər) originally meant the rough equivalent ofcommanderunder theRoman Republic.Later, it became a part of the titulature of theRoman Emperorsas theirpraenomen.The Roman emperors generally based their authority on multiple titles and positions, rather than preferring any single title. Nevertheless,imperatorwas used relatively consistently as an element of a Roman ruler's title throughout thePrincipateand thelater Roman Empire.It was abbreviated to "IMP" in incriptions. The word derives from the stem of the verbimperare,meaning 'to order, to command'. The English wordemperorderives fromimperatorviaOld French:Empereür.

Imperatoresin the ancient Roman Kingdom

When Rome was ruled bykings,^[1] to be able to rule, the king had to be invested with the full regal authority and power. So, after thecomitia curiatathat was held to elect the king, the king also had to be conferred theimperium.^[2]

Imperatoresin the Roman Republic

InRoman Republicanliterature and epigraphy, an imperator was a magistrate with imperium.^[3]During the later Roman Republic and during the late Republican civil wars,imperatormainly was the honorific title assumed by certain military commanders. After an especially great victory, an army's troops in the field would proclaim their commanderimperator,an acclamation necessary for a general to apply to theSenatefor atriumph.After being acclaimedimperator,the victorious general had a right to use the title after his name until the time of his triumph, where he would relinquish the title as well as hisimperium.^[4]

Since a triumph was the goal of many politically ambitious commanders, republican history is full of cases wherelegionswere bribed to call their commanderimperator.The title ofimperatorwas given firstly to Aemilius Paulus in 189 BC, for his campaigns against the Lusitanians from 191–89 BC.^[5]Next, it was given to Lucius Cornelius Sulla in 95 BC as governor or pro consul of the Cilician province for his returning of Ariobarzanes I to the Cappadocia throne.^[6]Then in 90 BC toLucius Julius Caesar,in 84 BC toGnaeus Pompeius Magnus,in 60 BC toGaius Julius Caesar,relative of the previously mentioned Lucius Julius Caesar, during the 50s BC to Gaius Julius Caesar (in Gaul), in 45 BC again to Gaius Julius Caesar, in 43 BC toDecimus Junius Brutus,and in 41 BC toLucius Antonius(younger brother and ally of the more famousMarcus Antonius). In AD 15Germanicuswas alsoimperatorduring the empire (see below) of his adoptive fatherTiberius.^[7]

Imperatoras an imperial title

AfterAugustusestablished theRoman Empire,the titleimperatorwas generally restricted to the emperor, although in the early years of the empire it would occasionally be granted to a member of his family. As a permanent title,imperatorwas used as apraenomenby the Roman emperors and was taken on accession. After the reign ofTiberius,the act of being proclaimed imperator was transformed into the act of imperial accession. In fact, if a general was acclaimed by his troops asimperator,it would be tantamount to a declaration of rebellion against the ruling emperor. At first the term continued to be used in the Republican sense as avictory title,but attached to thede factomonarchandhead of state,rather than the commander of the military. The title then followed the emperor's name along with the number of times he was acclaimed as such, for exampleIMP V( "imperator five times" ). In time it became the title of thede factomonarch, pronounced upon (and synonymous with) their assumption.

As a titleimperatorwas generally translated into Greek asautokrator( "one who rules oneself," also sometimes used as a translation forRoman dictators). This was necessarily imprecise as it lost the nuances of Latin political thought contrastingimperiumwith other forms of public authority. Nevertheless, this title (along withsebastosforaugustus) was used in Greek-language texts for Roman emperors from the establishment of the empire.

In the east, the title continued to be used into the Byzantine period, although to a lesser, and much more ceremonial extent. In most Byzantine writings, the Greek translation "Autokrator" is preferred, but "Imperator" makes an appearance inConstantine IV's mid seventh century mosaic in theBasilica of Sant'Apollinare in Classe,and on various ninth century lead seals.

Use in eastern Rome and other post-Roman states

After the Roman empire collapsed in the West in the fifth century, Latin continued to be used as the official language of theEastern Roman Empire.The Roman emperors of this period (historiographically referred to asByzantine emperors) were referred to asimperatoresin Latin texts, while the wordbasileus(king) andautokrator(emperor) were used in Greek.

After 800, theimperatorwas used (in conjunction withaugustus) as a formal Latin title in succession by theCarolingianand GermanHoly RomanEmperors until 1806 and by theAustrianEmperors until 1918.

In medieval Spain, the titleimperatorwas used under a variety of circumstances from the ninth century onward, but its use peaked, as a formal and practical title, between 1086 and 1157. It primarily was used by theKings of LeónandCastile,but it also found currency in theKingdom of Navarreand was employed by theCounts of Castileand at least oneDuke of Galicia.It signalled at various points the king's equality with theByzantine EmperorandHoly Roman Emperor,his rule by conquest or military superiority, his rule over several people groups ethnic or religious, and his claim tosuzeraintyover the other kings of the peninsula, both Christian and Muslim.

Beginning in 1077, Alfonso instituted the use of the styleego Adefonsusimperator totius Hispaniae( "I, Alfonso, emperor of all Spain" ) and its use soon became regular.^[8]This title was used throughout the period 1079–81, which represents the peak of his imperial pretensions before his capture of thecity of Toledo,ancient capital of the Visigoths. In 1080, he introduced the formego Adefonsus Hispaniarum imperator( "I, Alfonso, emperor of the Spains" ), which he used again in 1090. His most elaborate imperial title wasego Adefonsus imperator totius Castelle et Toleto necnon et Nazare seu Alave( "I, Alfonso, emperor of all Castile and of Toledo also and of Nájera, or Álava" ).^[9]

After theOttoman Empireconquered both the Balkan peninsula (Rumeliin Turkish meaning "lands of Rome" ) andConstantinople,the Turkish ruler acclaimed to be the Caesar of Rome (sultan-ı iklim-i Rûm). In the fifteenth centuryBayezid IIestablished diplomatic relations with some Christian European states, and sent a document to the King of Poland in which he used the titlesSultan Dei gratia Asie, Grecie etc. İmperator Maximus( "with help of God, emperor of Asia and Greece" ). Like his predecessor,Selim Ititled himself imperator in diplomatic correspondence (per la Divina favente clementia Grande Imperator di Constantinopoli, di Asia, Europa, Persia, Syria et Egypto et Arabia et de li mari etc.) due to his military successes.^[10]

Imperatrix

The termimperatrixseems not to have been used in Ancient Rome to indicate the wife of an imperator or later, of anemperor.In the early years of theRoman Empirethere was no standard title or honorific for the emperor's wife, even the"Augusta" honorificwas rather exceptionally granted, and not exclusively to wives of living emperors.

It is not clear when the feminine form of the Latin termimperatororiginated or was used for the first time. It usually indicates areigningmonarch, and is thus used in the Latin version of titles of modern reigning empresses.

WhenFortunais identified "imperatrix mundi" in theCarmina Burana,the term describes the Goddess Fortune, or a personification of her, it is as the "ruler of the world".

The wordimperatrix,which did not exist in Latin, is deployed byCiceroforClodiain 56 BC; only in the mid-fifth century AD isPulcheriaAugusta also imperatrix.^[11]

In Christian context,Imperatrixbecame a laudatory address to theVirgin Mary,in diverse forms at least since the Middle Ages — for example, she is sometimes called "Imperatrix angelorum" ( "ruler of the angels" ).

Derivatives

Imperatoris the root for the word for emperor of most Romance languages. It is the root of the English word "emperor", which entered the language via the Frenchempereur,while related adjectives such as "imperial" were imported into English directly from Latin.

References

^Rex.A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, John Murray, London, 1875.
^LacusCurtius • Roman Law — Auctor (Smith's Dictionary, 1875)
^Rivero (2006).
^Momigliano, Arnaldo; Cornell, Tim (2012). "imperator".Oxford Classical Dictionary(4th ed.).doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.001.0001/acrefore-9780199381135-e-3268.ISBN 978-0-19-938113-5.
^The Oxford Classical Dictionary, entry 'Imperator', Third Edition, Oxford University Press, 1996.
^Ampelius 31 with Mackay (2000), pp. 178–93.
^Tacitus,The Annals1.58
^Reilly 1988, 137.
^García Gallo 1945, 214.
^Kołodziejczyk, Dariusz (2012)."Khan, caliph, tsar and imperator: the multiple identities of the Ottoman sultan".In Bang, Peter Fibiger; Kolodziejczyk, Dariusz (eds.).Universal Empire.Cambridge University Press. pp. 175–193.doi:10.1017/CBO9781139136952.009.ISBN 9781139136952.Retrieved12 September2020.
^Levick, Barbara(2014).Faustina I and II: Imperial Women of the Golden Age.Oxford University Press, Incorporated. p. 31.ISBN 978-0-19-537941-9.

Bibliography

Combès, Robert (1966).Imperator: Recherches sur l'emploi et la signification du titre d'Imperator dans la Rome républicaine.Paris: Presses universitaires de France; Publications de la Faculté des Lettres et Sciences humaines de l’Université de Montpellier. Archived fromthe originalon 2010-12-30.489 p.
Rivero, Pilar (2006).Imperator Populi Romani: una aproximación al poder republicano.Zaragoza: Institución Fernando el Católico.514 p. (Biblioteca virtual athttp://ifc.dpz.es).

[1] Rex.A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, John Murray, London, 1875.

[2] LacusCurtius • Roman Law — Auctor (Smith's Dictionary, 1875)

[FOOTNOTERivero2006-3] Rivero (2006).

[4] Momigliano, Arnaldo; Cornell, Tim (2012). "imperator".Oxford Classical Dictionary(4th ed.).doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.001.0001/acrefore-9780199381135-e-3268.ISBN 978-0-19-938113-5.

[5] The Oxford Classical Dictionary, entry 'Imperator', Third Edition, Oxford University Press, 1996.

[6] Ampelius 31 with Mackay (2000), pp. 178–93.

[7] Tacitus,The Annals1.58

[8] Reilly 1988, 137.

[García_Gallo_1945,_214-9] García Gallo 1945, 214.

[İ-10] Kołodziejczyk, Dariusz (2012)."Khan, caliph, tsar and imperator: the multiple identities of the Ottoman sultan".In Bang, Peter Fibiger; Kolodziejczyk, Dariusz (eds.).Universal Empire.Cambridge University Press. pp. 175–193.doi:10.1017/CBO9781139136952.009.ISBN 9781139136952.Retrieved12 September2020.

[11] Levick, Barbara(2014).Faustina I and II: Imperial Women of the Golden Age.Oxford University Press, Incorporated. p. 31.ISBN 978-0-19-537941-9.

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