Indo-Roman relations

Roman maritime trade inIndiaand Scythia according to thePeriplus Maris Erythraei,1st century CE.

The first documentedrelations betweenAncient IndiaandAncient Romeoccurred during the reign ofAugustus(27 BCE – 14 CE), the firstRoman Emperor.

The presence of Europeans, includingRomans,in the region known at the time as "India" (modernSouth Asia,includingIndia,Bangladesh,Pakistanand eastern-Afghanistan), during the period of theRoman Empire,is poorly documented. Before theconquestsofAlexander,there are no surviving accounts by contemporaries or near-contemporaries of contact between Europe and the South Asia, so modern understanding depends on more abundant literary, numismatic, and archaeological evidence, mainly relating to the trade between them. The Romans were referred asRomakasin India while the Romans referred Indians asIndos.

Early contacts

Kushanring with portraits ofSeptimius SeverusandJulia Domna,a testimony to Indo-Roman relations.

Further information:Sino-Roman relationsandIndo-Roman trade relations

Indo-Roman relations were built on trade.Roman trade in Indiabegan with overland caravans and later by direct maritime trade following theconquest of EgyptbyAugustusin 30 BCE.

According toStrabo(II.5.12), not long after Augustus took control of Egypt, while Gallus was Prefect of Egypt (26–24 BCE), up to 120 ships were setting sail every year fromMyos Hormosto modern-day India:

"At any rate, whenGalluswas prefect of Egypt, I accompanied him and ascended theNileas far asSyeneand the frontiers ofEthiopia,and I learned that as many as one hundred and twenty vessels were sailing from Myos Hormos to India, whereas formerly, under thePtolemies,only a very few ventured to undertake the voyage and to carry on traffic in Indian merchandise. "

— Strabo II.5.12.[2]

Augustus maintained thePtolemaicRed Sea ports and the picket service from the Red Sea to the Nile, whence goods could be carried downstream to the ports ofPelusiumandAlexandria.He also replaced the Ptolemaic patrol fleet on the Red Sea to keep piracy in check. He received embassies from Indian kings in 26 and 20 BCE and, although little specific is known about them, as Carey puts it: "These missions were certainly intended for something more than an exchange of empty compliments."

By the time of Augustus, if not before, a sea-captain namedHippalushad "discovered" (or, rather, brought news to the West of) the relatively safe and punctual contact over the open sea to India by leaving fromAdenon the summer monsoon and returning on the anti-trade winds of winter. This would be made safer and more convenient by the Roman sack of Aden in a naval raid c. 1 BCE.

Cassius Dio(d. sometime after 229 CE) in hisHist. Rom.54.9 wrote:

Many embassies came to him (Augustus), and the Indians having previously proclaimed a treaty of alliance, concluded it now with the presentation, among other gifts, of tigers, animals which the Romans, and, if I mistake not, the Greeks as well, saw for the first time....

The overland caravans would gain more convenient access into India after the expansion of theKushansinto northern India during the 1st century CE, and then down theGangesValley in the early 2nd century.

"From those land routes at least in the time of Augustus several embassies reached Rome. At least four such embassies are mentioned in the Latin literature, namely 1) the embassy fromPurucountry (the territory between theJhelumandBeas) took with it to Rome serpents,monals,tigers and a letter written in Greek language, 2) the embassy fromBroachwas accompanied by a Buddhist monk named Germanos, 3) an embassy from theCheracountry. It was reported in Rome that atMuziris(nearCranganore) was built a temple in honour of Augustus and 4) an embassy from the Paṇḍya country (Pandya Kingdom) brought with it precious stones, pearls and an elephant. We know that in the time of Augustus commercial relations between India and Rome grew but in this the balance of trade was in favour of India from the very beginning and as a result of this Roman gold poured into the country. "

The Periplus

ThePeriplus of the Erythraean Sea,written by an anonymous sea-captain in Greek, can now be confidently dated to between 40 and 70and, probably, between 40 and 50 CE.

The author of the Periplus lists ports fromBarbarikonat the mouth of the Indus in the west near modernKarachi,right around the southern tip of the Indian peninsula and north as far as the mouth of theGangesnear modernKolkata(Calcutta). In contrast to the wealth of information on some of the west coast ports, the author gives no political information on the ports up the east coast of India,perhaps indicating that he had not personally visited them. In fact the text seems to imply that western vessels normally did not travel beyond the tip of the Indian peninsula, probably leaving onward trade to local boats as the passage between India and the northern tip of Palaisimundu orTaprobanê(Sri Lanka) was very shallow for trans-oceanic vessels, while the route around the island was longand may have forced skippers to pass another season in the region before the winds were right for the return to Egypt.

Pliny's accounts

Indian art also found its way into Italy: in 1938 thePompeii Lakshmiwas found in the ruins ofPompeii(destroyed in an eruption ofMount Vesuviusin 79 CE).

Gaius Plinius Secundus (23–79 CE), generally known asPliny the Elder,writing c. 77 CE, left probably the most important account of India and its trade with Rome that has survived in Classical literature. He gives quite a lot of detail about India, albeit not all accurate, but his observations do more than just outline the bare bones of history, and help give us some picture of how intimately Indian culture and trade was becoming known:

"Coral is as highly valued among the Indians as Indian pearls. It is also found in the Red Sea, but there it is darker in colour. The most prized is found in the Gallic Gulf around the Stoechades Islands, in the Sicilian Gulf around theAeolian Islands,and aroundDrepanum....Coral-berries are no less valued by Indian men than specimen Indian pearls by Roman ladies. Indian soothsayers and seers believe that coral is potent as a charm for warding off dangers. Accordingly they delight in its beauty and religious power. Before this became known, theGaulsused to decorate their swords, shields and helmets with coral. Now it is very scarce because of the price it commands, and is rarely seen in its natural habitat. "Pliny.Natural History(77 CE) (XXXII, chaps. 21, 23).

Although his estimate of the value of Rome's trade to the East at some 100 millionsestercesannually (Pliny, NH, VI, 26, 6 & NH, XII, 41, 2) has often been thought to be an exaggeration but, if it is interpreted as referring to the total value of the trade rather than as coinage, it becomes quite believable:

"For example, just one documented consignment fromMuziris(Chera kingdom,modern-daySouth India) toAlexandriaconsisted of 700-1,700 pounds of nard (an aromatic balsam), over 4,700 pounds of ivory and almost 790 pounds of textiles. This has been calculated as worth a total value of 131talents,enough to purchase 2,400 acres of the best farmland in Egypt. When it is borne in mind that an average Roman cargo ship would have held about 150 such consignments, Pliny's figure becomes entirely plausible. With such staggering profits it is little wonder that the Roman government in Egypt encouraged – and profited by! – the trade: a 25 per cent tax on all goods from India was levied by the Romans at the Red Sea port ofLeuce Come."

Trajan

After the Roman EmperorTrajandefeatedtheDaciansand annexed theNabataeanArabs centered inPetrac. 105 CE, he returned to Rome where:

"...ever so many embassies came to him from various barbarians, including the Sindi [people of theIndus Valley]. And he gave spectacles on one hundred and twenty-three days, in the course of which some eleven thousand animals, both wild and tame, were slain, and ten thousand gladiators fought. "

Trajan later defeatedParthiaand, sailing down theTigris River(115–16), reached the northern shores of thePersian Gulf."Roman troops had beaten the might of Parthia from the field and had reached the Persian Gulf; and their victoriousImperator,Trajan, had dreamed of repeating Alexander's march to the northwestern subcontinent, only to acquiesce in giving up the project on account of his age. "

Later references

Muziris, near the southern tip of India, in thePeutinger Table.

ThePeutinger Table,a medieval copy of a 4th or early 5th century map of the world, shows a "Temple toAugustus"atMuziris,one of the main ports for trade to the Roman Empire on the southwest coast of India.This and evidence of agreements for loans between agents, one of whom most likely lived in Muziris, and a rather oblique reference in the Periplus, all seem to point to a settlement of Roman subjects living in the region.

Embassies are recorded as arriving from the "Indians of the East" at the court ofConstantine the Great(r. 306–337):

"Ambassadors from the Indians of the East brought presents.... which they presented to the king (Constantine the Great) as an acknowledgment that his sovereignty extended to their ocean. They told him, too, how Princes of India had dedicated pictures and statues in his honour in token that they had recognised him as their autocrat and king."Eusebius of Caesarea(fl. early 4th century)Vita ConstantiniIV. 50.

More embassies are mentioned from "the Indian nations" in 361 CE:

"Embassies from all quarters flocked to him (theEmperor Julianin 361 A.D.), the Indian nations vying with emulous zeal in sending their foremost men with presents, as far as from the Divi (Maldives) and the Serendivi (Ceylonese) [sic]. "Ammianus Marcellinus.HistoryXXII.vii.10.

Finally, Johannes Malala orJohn Malalas(fl. mid-6th century), p. 477, records that, in 530 CE, "an ambassador of the Indians was sent toConstantinople."

Archaeological record

Roman piece of pottery fromArezzoin Italy, found at Virampatnam,Arikamedu(1st century CE).

TheBerenike Buddha,discovered inBerenice,Egypt.

The best archeological record of Roman presence can be found in southern India, specifically atArikamedu.

Arikamedu was aTamilfishing village which was formerly a majorCholaport dedicated to bead making and trading withRomantraders. It flourished for centuries until the Romans left in the 5th century CE.

Various Roman artifacts, such as a large number ofamphoraebearing the mark of Romanpotterschools VIBII, CAMURI and ITTA, have been found at the site, supporting the view on a huge ancient trade betweenRomeand theancient Tamil country,which today include Tamil Nadu, Kerala and regions of Sri Lanka.

Another place full of archeological records isMuziris,in theKeralaregion. Muziris was a major centre of trade in Tamilakkam between theChera Empireand the Roman Empire. Large hoards of coins and innumerable shards of amphorae found in the town ofPattanamhave elicited recent archeological interest in finding a probable location of this port city.

A statue of the Buddha, theBerenike Buddha,made locally and dated to the 2nd century CE, was discovered in the Egyptian harbour ofBerenike.

Numismatic record

Numerous hoards of Roman gold coins from the time of Augustus and emperors of the 1st and 2nd centuries CE have been from southern India. Attention may be drawn to the large number of Romanaureianddenariiof Augustus toNerospanning approximately 120 years, found all along the route from aboutMangalorethrough theMuzirisarea and around the southern tip of India to the south eastern Indian ports.

Under the rule of Augustus, (63 BCE–CE 14) the silver content of the denarius fell to 3.9 grams. It remained at nearly this weight until the time of Nero (CE 37–68).This would also indicate that the land route from theWest coastto theEast coastvia the Palghat pass in theWestern Ghatswas much more popular than the risky or circuitous sea route rounding the Cape or Sri Lanka.

See also

• Ancient Greece–Ancient India relations
• Ancient maritime history
• Economic history of India
• Historic GDP of India (1-1947 CE)
• Indian Ocean trade
• Indo-Mediterranean
• Indo-Roman trade relations
• India–Italy relations
• Greece–India relations
• Indus–Mesopotamia relations
• Indian maritime history
• Meluhha trade with Sumer
• Periplus of the Erythraean Sea
• Silk Road

References

• Ball, Warwick. (2000).Rome in the East: The transformation of an empire.Routledge. London and New York.ISBN0-415-11376-8.
• Begley, Vimala and de Puma, Richard Daniel (eds). (1991).Rome and India: The Ancient Sea Trade.University of Wisconsin Press.ISBN0-299-12640-4.
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• Casson, Lionel.The Periplus Maris Erythraei: Text With Introduction, Translation, and Commentary.Princeton University Press,1989.ISBN0-691-04060-5.
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• Hill, John. (2004). A draft annotated translation of "The Peoples of the West" from theWeilüe:A Chinese description of the West, including the Roman Empire (Da Qin), especially Sections 11–21 and notes at:[3].
• Hill, John E. (2009).Through the Jade Gate to Rome: A Study of the Silk Routes during the Later Han Dynasty, First to Second Centuries CE.BookSurge.ISBN978-1-4392-2134-1.,See especially Sections 11–16 and notes.
• Huntingford, G. W. B. (1980).The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea,transl. (Hakluyt Society).ISBN0-904180-05-0(also includes translation of Red Sea material fromAgatharchides)
• Majumdar, R. C. (1960).The Classical Accounts of India.Firma KLM Private Ltd., Calcutta. Reprint 1981.
• Menachery, George, "Kodungallur the Cradle of Christianity in India", Azhikode, 1987, repr.2000.
• Menachery, George, "The St. Thomas Christian Encyclopaedia of India", Ed. George Menachery, Vol.I 1982, II 1973, III 2009.
• Menachery, George, The Indian Church History Classics, Vol.I, "The Nazranies", SARAS, Ollur, 1998.
• Miller, J. Innes. 1969.The Spice Trade of The Roman Empire: 29 B.C. to A.D. 641.Oxford University Press. Special edition for Sandpiper Books. 1998.ISBN0-19-814264-1.
• Nagaswamy, R. 1995Roman Karur: A peep into Tamil's past.Brahad Prakashan, Madras.
• Narain, A. K. (1968). "The Date of Kaniṣka." In:Papers on the Date of Kaniṣka.Edited by A. L. Basham. Leiden. E. J. Brill.
• Robin, C. 1991. "L'Arabie du sud et la date du Périple de la mer érythrée".Journal Asiatique279:1–30.
• Schoff, Wilfred Harvey,translator (1912).Periplus of the Erythraean Sea: Travel and Trade in the Indian Ocean by a Merchant of the First Century, Translated from the Greek and Annotated.(First published 1912, New York, New York: Longmans, Green, and Co.) Reprinted 1995, New Delhi: Munshiram Monoharlal Publishers,ISBN81-215-0699-9.
• Smith, Vincent A. (1908).The Early History of India: From 600 B.C. to the Muhammadan Conquest including the invasion of Alexander the Great.2nd edition, revised and enlarged. Oxford at the Clarendon Press.

External links

• [4]"The present text has been digitalized from the translation ofWilliam H. Schoff,The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea: Travel and Trade in the Indian Ocean by a Merchant of the First Century (New York: Longmans, Green, and Co., 1912). Some additional commentary including alternate spellings or translations fromLionel Casson's more recent edition are given in square brackets. "
• Ancient history sourcebook:The basic text from Schoff's 1912 translation.