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Induan

Coordinates:31°04′47″N119°42′21″E/ 31.0797°N 119.7058°E/31.0797; 119.7058
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Induan
251.9 ± 0.024 – 251.2Ma
↓
Induan aged rock layers of theMikin Formation(Lahaul and Spiti district,India)
Chronology
Etymology
Name formalityFormal
Usage information
Celestial bodyEarth
Regional usageGlobal (ICS)
Time scale(s) usedICS Time Scale
Definition
Chronological unitAge
Stratigraphic unitStage
Time span formalityFormal
Lower boundary definitionFADof theConodontHindeodus parvus
Lower boundary GSSPMeishan,Zhe gian g,China
31°04′47″N119°42′21″E/ 31.0798°N 119.7058°E/31.0798; 119.7058
Lower GSSP ratified2001[6]
Upper boundary definitionNot formally defined
Upper boundary definition candidatesFAD of the ConodontNeospathodus waageni
Upper boundary GSSP candidate section(s)Mud (Muth) village,Spiti valley,India[7]

TheInduanis the firstageof theEarly Triassicepochin thegeologic timescale,or the loweststageof theLower Triassicseriesinchronostratigraphy.It spans the time between 251.9Maand 251.2 Ma (million years ago).[8]The Induan is sometimes divided into theGriesbachianand theDieneriansubages or substages.[9]The Induan is preceded by theChanghsingian(latestPermian) and is followed by theOlenekian.

The Induan is roughly coeval with the regionalFeixianguanianStage ofChina.

Geology

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Stratigraphy

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TheTriassicis the firstperiodof theMesozoicera.It is subdivided into theLower,Middle,andUpperTriassicseries,which are further subdivided intostages.The Induan is the first stage of the Lower Triassic, from 251.9 million to 251.2 million years ago, spanning the first 700,000 years after thePermian–Triassic extinction event.[10]

Stages can be defined globally or regionally. For global stratigraphic correlation, theInternational Commission on Stratigraphy(ICS) ratifies global stages based on aGlobal Boundary Stratotype Section and Point(GSSP) from a singleformation(astratotype) identifying the lower boundary of the stage. The GSSP for the Induan is defined as the bottom of Bed 27c of theMeishanSection, China,31°4′47.28″N119°42′20.9″E/ 31.0798000°N 119.705806°E/31.0798000; 119.705806,with the appearance of theconodontHindeodus parvusas its primary marker (biostratigraphy), and minimum zones (negative anomalies) of13Cand18O(corresponding to the extinction event) as its secondary marker. Bed 27c comprises a medium-beddedsection oflimestone,overlain byclayand a medium-bedded section ofdolomitic,argillaceouscalcimicrite.[11]Calcimicrite is a type of limestone that contains moremicritethanallochem,and the diameter of any particle measures less than 20microns.[12]

The Induan is succeeded by theOlenekian,whose GSSP is defined at the bottom of Bed A-2 of theMikin FormationnearMud village, Spiti,India, with the appearance of the conodontNeospathodus waageniand a13C peak.[13]

History

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There have been several propositions for the organization of the Triassic timescale. Most of the Triassic stages and sub-stages, which are still used today, were coined in an 1895 publication by Austro-Hungarian geologistJohann August Georg Edmund Mojsisovics von Mojsvar,Austrian geologistCarl Diener,and German geologistWilhelm Heinrich Waagen.They were defined using ammonite research conducted in large part by Mojsisovics and Diener in primarily Austria, Italy, and Bosnia; as well as Waagen's work in the PakistaniSalt Range.They divided the Triassic into four series (from lowest to highest): the Scythian, Dinaric, Tyrolean, and Bavarian. The Scythian was divided (from lowest to highest) into the Brahmanian and Jakutian stages. The Brahmanian's lower boundary was defined by the appearance of theammoniteOtoceras woodwardiin theHimalayas(Austrian paleontologistCarl Ludolf Griesbachhad already proposed this ammonite demarcate the beginning of the Triassic in 1880), and its upper boundary by a section ofsandstonein the Salt Range characterized byceratiteammonites.[14][15]

In 1956, Soviet paleontologists Lubov D. Kiparisova and Yurij N. Popov decided to divide the Lower Triassic series into, what they coined, the Induan and Olenekian stages.[16]The Induan honors theIndus River,as they also bounded it using the same criteria and sites as Mojsisovics' Brahmanian in the Indus region, though they resided inSiberiaat the time. That is, the Induan is synonymous with the Brahmanian.[15]

In the 1960s, English paleontologist Edward T. Tozer (sometimes collaborating with American geologist Norman J. Silberling) crafted Triassic timescales based on North American ammonoid zones (further refining it in the following decades), based on the works ofFrank McLearnin British Columbia andSiemon Mullerin Nevada who pieced together the ammonoid fossil record of theNorth American Cordillera.Tozer's nomenclature was largely derived from Mojsisovics's work, but he redefined them using North American sites. He recommended the Lower Triassic series be divided into the: Griesbachian, Dienerian, Smithian, and Spathian. The former two roughly correspond with the Induan. Tozer's timescale became popular in the Americas.[15]He named the Griesbachian after Griesbach Creek onAxel Heiberg Island,Canada, and further split it into the Gangetian and Ellesmarian substages; the former he defined by the ammonite zones ofO. concavumandO. boreale,and the latter byOphiceras communeandProptychites striatus.He named the Dienerian after Diener Creek onEllesmere Island,Canada, and defined it by the ammonite zonesP. candusandVavilovites sverdrupi.[9]

In the 1970s, the ICS was founded to globally standardize stratigraphy. They erected the Subcommission on Triassic Stratigraphy (STS), which published its first timescale to Triassic stratigraphy in 1985. They divided it into the Lower, Middle, and Upper series; the Lower Triassic divided into the Induan and Olenekian stages; and the Induan further divided into the Griesbachian and Dienerian substages. In a revised 1991timescale,they dropped several more of Tozer's considerations, and likewise did away with Induan substages entirely, though Tozer's original definition of them are still in use in ammonoid research.[15]

In the 1990s, detailed studies ofOtocerassites inTibet,Kashmir,Himalayas, Greenland,Svalbardand the Arctic territories of North America have revealed the problematic interval of existence of this genus.[17]By the same decade, most geologists had moved away from ammonite zones, preferring conodonts. Consequently, in 1996, the STS moved the Induan'sGSSPto Meishan, China, with the appearance ofH. parvus.It was the first GSSP approved by the STS.[15]

Coal gap

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Coalis formed when plant matter decays intopeat,which is then buried and subjected to heat and pressure over a long time. Following the Permian extinction, there is a conspicuous lack ofcoal seamsdating to the Early Triassic, and only a few thin ones have been identified dating to the Middle Triassic. The apparent marginalization of peat-producing plants has variously been explained to be a consequence of: high global elevation, excessaciditydue to volcanicsulfur dioxideemissions ornitrous oxidesfrombolide(meteor) impact, the transition from anicehouse to a greenhouse Earth(the melting of the poles and surging global temperatures), excess plant predation by herbivores (insects ortetrapods) which evolved more efficient eating strategies (though they were quite diverse before even the Permian), or mass die-off of peat-producing plants.[18]

Paleogeography

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Paleoclimatic reconstruction ofPangeaduring the Induan

During the Induan, all major landmasses had already amalgamated into thesupercontinentPangea,the northern portion referred to asLaurentia,and the southern portionGondwana.At this point in time, theSouth Polewas near but not on Antarctica. Eastern Gondwana lay south of the60°S,and the western part north.[19]

A majorriftingzone existed on Madagascar, which was wedged in between theAfricanand theIndian Plate,gradually pushing them apart. This action would eventually expand the newly formingNeo-Tethys Oceanat the expense of thePaleo-Tethys Ocean.Behind the burgeoning Neo-Tethys lay a major rift pushing India away from western Australia, which promulgated volcanoes across the area. During the Permian extinction, this volcanic activity created thePanjal Traps.In eastern Australia, theHunter-Bowen orogenyand related magmatic activity was shutting down. Thefold beltsfrom this event, as well as the first phase of those atCape Fold Beltin what is now the South African coast, were being degraded by theGondwanide orogeny.[19]

Induan life

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Main page:Category:Induan life
Fossils ofClaraiaclarai

The Induan followed themass extinction eventat the end of thePermianperiod,and historically, it was thought recovery was delayed by as much as five million years to the Middle Triassic. The 21st century discoveries of diverse arrays of conodonts, ammonoids,bivalves,benthicforaminifera,and otherichnotaxaserve to suggest that recovery instead took under 1.5 million years. Marineblack shaledeposits are common especially in the Dienerian substage of the Induan. These point tolow oxygenationin the ocean.[20]The discovery of the Induan agedGuiyang biotashows that at least some locations hosted reasonably complex ecosystems.[21]

Much of thesupercontinentPangearemained almost lifeless, deserted, hot, and dry. Both globalbiodiversityandcommunity-level ( Alpha )diversityremained low through much of the Induan.[22]In higherlatitudes,thefloraduring the Griesbachian wasgymnospermdominated but becamelycopoddominated (e.g.Pleuromeia) in the Dienerian.[23]This change reflects a shift in global climate from cool and dry in the Griesbachian to hot and humid in the Dienerian and points to an extinction event during the Induan,c.500,000 years after the end-Permian mass extinction event.[24]It led to theextinctionof the PermianGlossopterisflora.

Thelystrosauridsand theproterosuchidswere the only groups of land animals to dominate during the Induan Stage. Other animals, such as theammonoids,insects, and thetetrapods(cynodonts,amphibians,reptiles,etc.) remained rare and terrestrial ecosystems did not recover for some 30 million years.[22]Both the seas and much of the freshwater during the Induan wereanoxic,predominantly during theDieneriansubage.[20]Microbial reefswere common, possibly due to lack of competition withmetazoanreefbuilders as a result of the extinction.[25]

Regardingbony fish,ray-finned fishesremained largely unaffected by thePermian-Triassic extinction eventandcoelacanthsexhibit their highest post-Devoniandiversity during the Early Triassic.[26][27]Many genera show acosmopolitan distributionduring the Induan andOlenekian(e.g.Australosomus,Birgeria,Bobasatrania,Parasemionotidae,Pteronisculus,Ptycholepidae,Saurichthys,Whiteia). This is well exemplified in theGriesbachianaged fish assemblages of theWordie Creek Formation(EastGreenland),[28][29]theDienerianaged assemblages of theMiddle Sakamena Formation(Madagascar),[30]Candelaria Formation(Nevada,United States),[31]Mikin Formation(Himachal Pradesh,India),[32]andDaye Formation(Guizhou,China),[21]theSmithian(Olenekian) aged assemblages of theVikinghøgda Formation(Spitsbergen,Norway),[33][34][35]andThaynes Group(westernUnited States),[36]theSpathianagedHelongshan Formation(Anhui,China),[37]and several Early Triassic layers of theSulphur Mountain Formation(westernCanada).[38][39]

Induanchondrichthyanfishes includehybodonts,neoselachiansand a few surviving lineages ofeugeneodontidholocephalians,[40]a mainly Palaeozoic group. Cartilaginous fishes were seemingly rare during the Induan.

Crocodile-shaped, marinetemnospondylamphibians(e.g.Aphaneramma,Wantzosaurus) were geographically widespread during the Induan andOlenekianages. Their fossils are found inGreenland,Spitsbergen,PakistanandMadagascar.[41]

ThebivalveClaraiawas widespread and common in thePanthalassaandTethysoceans. The geologically oldestoysters(Liostrea) are known from the Induan. They grew on the shells of livingammonoids.[42]

Notable formations

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* Tentatively assigned to the Induan; age estimated primarily via terrestrial tetrapodbiostratigraphy(seeTriassic land vertebrate faunachrons)

See also

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References

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  1. ^Widmann, Philipp; Bucher, Hugo; Leu, Marc; et al. (2020)."Dynamics of the Largest Carbon Isotope Excursion During the Early Triassic Biotic Recovery".Frontiers in Earth Science.8(196): 196.Bibcode:2020FrEaS...8..196W.doi:10.3389/feart.2020.00196.
  2. ^McElwain, J. C.; Punyasena, S. W. (2007). "Mass extinction events and the plant fossil record".Trends in Ecology & Evolution.22(10): 548–557.doi:10.1016/j.tree.2007.09.003.PMID17919771.
  3. ^ Retallack, G. J.;Veevers, J.;Morante, R. (1996)."Global coal gap between Permian–Triassic extinctions and middle Triassic recovery of peat forming plants".GSA Bulletin.108(2): 195–207.Bibcode:1996GSAB..108..195R.doi:10.1130/0016-7606(1996)108<0195:GCGBPT>2.3.CO;2.Retrieved2007-09-29.
  4. ^Payne, J. L.; Lehrmann, D. J.; Wei, J.; Orchard, M. J.; Schrag, D. P.; Knoll, A. H. (2004)."Large Perturbations of the Carbon Cycle During Recovery from the End-Permian Extinction".Science.305(5683): 506–9.Bibcode:2004Sci...305..506P.doi:10.1126/science.1097023.PMID15273391.S2CID35498132.
  5. ^Ogg, James G.; Ogg, Gabi M.; Gradstein, Felix M. (2016). "Triassic".A Concise Geologic Time Scale: 2016.Elsevier. pp. 133–149.ISBN978-0-444-63771-0.
  6. ^Hongfu, Yin; Kexin, Zhang; Jinnan, Tong; Zunyi, Yang; Shunbao, Wu (June 2001)."The Global Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) of the Permian-Triassic Boundary"(PDF).Episodes.24(2): 102–114.doi:10.18814/epiiugs/2001/v24i2/004.Retrieved8 December2020.
  7. ^"Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point".International Commission of Stratigraphy.Retrieved23 December2020.
  8. ^"ICS - Chart/Time Scale".Archived fromthe originalon 2014-05-30.Retrieved2017-09-28.
  9. ^abTozer, E. T. (1965)."Lower Triassic stages and ammonoid zones of Arctic Canada".Geological Survey of Canada Paper.65–12: 1–14.doi:10.4095/100985.
  10. ^"International Chronostratigraphic Chart"(PDF).stratigraphy.org.International Commission on Stratigraphy.Retrieved25 August2022.
  11. ^"GSSP for Induan Stage".stratigraphy.org.International Commission on Stratigraphy.Retrieved16 June2022.
  12. ^Bates, R. L.; Jackson, J. A. (1984).Dictionary of Geological Terms.Anchor Press / Doubleday. p. 70.ISBN978-0-385-18101-3.
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  14. ^Mojsisovics, E.;Waagen, W. H.;Diener, C."Entwurf einer Gliederung der pelagischen Sediments des Trias-Systems" [Outline of a classification of the pelagic sediments of the Triassic system].Vienna Academy of Sciences, Mathematical and Scientific Class Meeting Reports(in German).104:1279–1302.
  15. ^abcdeLucas, S. G.(2010). "The Triassic chronostratigraphic scale: history and status".Geological Society, London, Special Publications.334(1): 17–39.Bibcode:2010GSLSP.334...17L.doi:10.1144/sp334.2.S2CID129648527.
  16. ^Kiparisova, L. D.; Popov, Y. N. (1956). "Raschlenenie nizhnego otdela triasovoy sistemy na yarusy" [Subdivision of the Lower series of the Triassic System into stages].Proceedings of the USSR Academy of Sciences(in Russian).109:842–845.
  17. ^Kutygin R.V., Budnikov I.V., Biakov A.S., Davydov V.I., Kilyasov A.N., Silantiev V.V. (2019)."First findings ofOtoceras(Ceratitida) in the Kobyuma zone of the Southern Verkhoyansk region, Northeastern Russia "(PDF).Uchenye Zapiski Kazanskogo Universiteta. Seriya Estestvennye Nauki(in Russian).161(4): 552.doi:10.26907/2542-064X.2019.4.550-570.Archived(PDF)from the original on March 31, 2022.{{cite journal}}:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  18. ^Retallack, G. J.; Veevers, J. J.; Morante, R. (1996). "Global coal gap between Permian–Triassic extinction and Middle Triassic recovery of peat-forming plants".Geological Society of America Bulletin.108(2): 195–207.Bibcode:1996GSAB..108..195R.doi:10.1130/0016-7606(1996)108<0195:gcgbpt>2.3.co;2.
  19. ^abVeevers, J. J. (2004). "Gondwanaland from 650–500 Ma assembly through 320 Ma merger in Pangea to 185–100 Ma breakup: supercontinental tectonics via stratigraphy and radiometric dating".Earth-Science Reviews.68(1–2): 85, 99–101.Bibcode:2004ESRv...68....1V.doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2004.05.002.
  20. ^abWare et al. (2015): High-resolution biochronology and diversity dynamics of the Early Triassic ammonoid recovery: the Dienerian faunas of the Northern Indian Margin. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 440:363-373https://doi.org/10.1016/j.palaeo.2015.09.013
  21. ^abDai, Xu; Davies, Joshua H.F.L.; Yuan, Zhiwei; Brayard, Arnaud; Ovtcharova, Maria; Xu, Guanghui; Liu, Xiaokang; Smith, Christopher P.A.; Schweitzer, Carrie E.; Li, Mingtao; Perrot, Morgann G.; Jiang, Shouyi; Miao, Luyi; Cao, Yiran; Yan, Jia; Bai, Ruoyu; Wang, Fengyu; Guo, Wei; Song, Huyue; Tian, Li; Dal Corso, Jacopo; Liu, Yuting; Chu, Daoliang; Song, Haijun (2023). "A Mesozoic fossil lagerstätte from 250.8 million years ago shows a modern-type marine ecosystem".Science.379(6632): 567–572.Bibcode:2023Sci...379..567D.doi:10.1126/science.adf1622.PMID36758082.S2CID256697946.
  22. ^abSahney, S.; Benton, M.J. (2008)."Recovery from the most profound mass extinction of all time".Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences.275(1636): 759–65.doi:10.1098/rspb.2007.1370.PMC2596898.PMID18198148.
  23. ^Schneebeli-Hermann et al. (2015): Vegetation history across the Permian–Triassic boundary in Pakistan (Amb section, Salt Range). Gondwana Research 27:911-924http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gr.2013.11.007
  24. ^Hochuli et al. (2016): Severest crisis overlooked—Worst disruption of terrestrial environments postdates the Permian–Triassic mass extinction. Scientific Reports 6:28372https://doi.org/10.1038/srep28372
  25. ^Foster et al. (2020): Suppressed competitive exclusion enabled the proliferation of Permian/Triassic boundary microbialites. The Depositional record 6. 1–13.https://doi.org/10.1002/dep2.97
  26. ^Romano, Carlo; Koot, Martha B.; Kogan, Ilja; Brayard, Arnaud; Minikh, Alla V.; Brinkmann, Winand; Bucher, Hugo; Kriwet, Jürgen (2016). "Permian-Triassic Osteichthyes (bony fishes): diversity dynamics and body size evolution".Biological Reviews.91(1): 106–147.doi:10.1111/brv.12161.PMID25431138.S2CID5332637.
  27. ^Smithwick F.M., and Stubbs T.L. (2018): Phanerozoic survivors: Actinopterygian evolution through the Permo‐Triassic and Triassic‐Jurassic mass extinction events. Evolution 72:348-362.https://doi.org/10.1111/evo.13421
  28. ^Stensiö, Erik(1932)."Triassic Fishes from East Greenland collected by the Danish expeditions in 1929-1931".Meddelelser om Grønland.83(3): 1–305.OCLC938169014.
  29. ^Nielsen, Eigil(1936). "Some few preliminary remarks on Triassic fishes from East Greenland".Meddelelser om Grønland.112(3): 1–55.
  30. ^Beltan, Laurence (1996). "Overview of systematics, paleobiology, and paleoecology of Triassic fishes of northwestern Madagascar". In G. Arratia; G. Viohl (eds.).Mesozoic Fishes—Systematics and Paleoecology.München: Dr. Friedrich Pfeil. pp. 479–500.
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  33. ^Stensiö, E.(1921).Triassic fishes from Spitzbergen 1.Wien: Adolf Holzhausen. pp. xxviii+307.
  34. ^Stensiö, E.(1925). "Triassic fishes from Spitzbergen 2".Kungliga Svenska Vetenskapsakademiens Handlingar.3:1–261.
  35. ^Kogan, Ilja; Romano, Carlo (2016)."A new postcranium ofSaurichthysfrom the Early Triassic of Spitsbergen "(PDF).Freiberger Forschungshefte C (Paläontologie, Stratigraphie, Fazies 23).550:205–221.ISBN9783860125526.
  36. ^Romano C., Kogan I., Jenks J., Jerjen I., Brinkmann W. (2012)."Saurichthysand other fossil fishes from the late Smithian (Early Triassic) of Bear Lake County (Idaho, USA), with a discussion of saurichthyid palaeogeography and evolution "(PDF).Bulletin of Geosciences.87:543–570.doi:10.3140/bull.geosci.1337.{{cite journal}}:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
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  40. ^Mutter, Raoul J.; Neuman, Andrew G. (2008). "New eugeneodontid sharks from the Lower Triassic Sulphur Mountain Formation of Western Canada". In Cavin, L.; Longbottom, A.; Richter, M. (eds.).Fishes and the Break-up of Pangaea.Geological Society of London, Special Publications. Vol. 295. London: Geological Society of London. pp. 9–41.doi:10.1144/sp295.3.S2CID130268582.
  41. ^Scheyer et al. (2014): Early Triassic Marine Biotic Recovery: The Predators' Perspective. PLoS ONEhttps://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0088987
  42. ^Hautmann et al. (2017): Geologically oldest oysters were epizoans on Early Triassic ammonoids. Journal of Molluscan Studies 83:253-260https://doi.org/10.1093/mollus/eyx018

Sources

[edit]
  • Brack, P.; Rieber, H.; Nicora, A. & Mundil, R.;2005:The Global boundary Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) of the Ladinian Stage (Middle Triassic) at Bagolino (Southern Alps, Northern Italy) and its implications for the Triassic time scale,Episodes28(4),pp. 233–244.
  • Gradstein, F. M.; Ogg, J. G. & Smith, A. G.;2004:A Geologic Time Scale 2004,Cambridge University Press.
  • Kiparisova, Lubov Dmitrievna & Popov, Yurij Nikolaivitch;1956:Расчленение нижнего отдела триасовой системы на ярусы (Subdivision of the lower series of the Triassic System into stages),Doklady Akademii Nauk SSSR109(4), pp 842–845(in Russian).
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31°04′47″N119°42′21″E/ 31.0797°N 119.7058°E/31.0797; 119.7058

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