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Internet Assigned Numbers Authority

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"IANA" redirects here. For other uses, seeIANA (disambiguation).

Internet Assigned Numbers Authority
AbbreviationIANA
FoundedDecember 1988;35 years ago(1988-12)
FounderU.S. Federal Government
FocusManageDNS zones
Headquarters12025 Waterfront Drive, Suite 300, Los Angeles, CA 90094-2536, USA
Location
OwnerICANN
Key people
Kim Davies
Websitewww.iana.orgEdit this at Wikidata
Internet
Visualization of Internet routing paths
AnOpte Projectvisualization ofrouting pathsthrough a portion of the Internet
General
Governance
Information infrastructure
Services
History
Guides
iconInternet portal

TheInternet Assigned Numbers Authority(IANA) is a standards organization that oversees globalIP addressallocation,autonomous systemnumber allocation,root zonemanagement in theDomain Name System(DNS),media types,and otherInternet Protocol–related symbols andInternet numbers.[1][2]

Currently it is a function ofICANN,a nonprofit private American corporation established in 1998 primarily for this purpose under aUnited States Department of Commercecontract.[3]ICANN managed IANA directly from 1998 through 2016, when it was transferred to Public Technical Identifiers (PTI), an affiliate of ICANN that operates IANA today. Before it, IANA was administered principally byJon Postelat theInformation Sciences Institute(ISI) of theUniversity of Southern California(USC) situated at Marina Del Rey (Los Angeles), under a contract USC/ISI had with theUnited States Department of Defense.

In addition, fiveregional Internet registriesdelegate number resources to their customers,local Internet registries,Internet service providers,and end-user organizations. A local Internet registry is an organization that assigns parts of its allocation from a regional Internet registry to other customers. Most local Internet registries are also Internet service providers.

Responsibilities

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IANA is broadly responsible for the allocation of globally unique names and numbers that are used in Internet protocols that are published asRequest for Comments(RFC) documents. These documents describe methods, behaviors, research, or innovations applicable to the working of the Internet and Internet-connected systems.[4]IANA maintains a close liaison with theInternet Engineering Task Force(IETF) and RFC Editorial team in fulfilling this function.[2]

In the case of the two major Internetnamespaces,namelyIP addressesanddomain names,extra administrative policy and delegation to subordinate administrations is required because of the multi-layered distributed use of these resources.

IANA is responsible for assignment of Internet numbers,[5][6]which are numerical identifiers assigned to anInternetresource or used in the networking protocols of theInternet Protocol Suite.Examples include IP addresses andautonomous system (AS) numbers.

IP addresses

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IPv6 Prefix Assignment mechanism with IANA, RIRs, and ISPs

IANA delegates allocations of IP address blocks toregional Internet registries(RIRs). Each RIR allocates addresses for a different area of the world.[7]Collectively the RIRs have created theNumber Resource Organizationformed as a body to represent their collective interests and ensure that policy statements are coordinated globally.[8]

The RIRs divide their allocatedaddress poolsinto smaller blocks and delegate them to Internet service providers and other organizations in their operating regions.[9]Since the introduction of theCIDRsystem, IANA has typically allocated address space in the size of /8 prefix blocks forIPv4and/23 to/12 prefix blocks from the 2000::/3IPv6block to requesting regional registries as needed. Since the exhaustion of the Internet Protocol Version 4 address space, no further IPv4 address space is allocated by IANA.[10]

Domain names

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IANA administers the data in theroot nameservers,which form the top of the hierarchicalDomain Name System(DNS) tree.[11]This task involves liaising withtop-level domain"Registrar-of-Record" s, the root nameserver operators, andICANN's policy making apparatus.[12]

Since the root zone was cryptographically signed in 2010, IANA is also responsible for vital parts of the key management for theDNSSECoperations (specifically, it is the "Root ZoneKSKOperator "). Among other things, this involves regularly holdingsigning ceremonieswhere members of a group of Trusted Community Representatives (TCR) physically meet at a predefined location and go through scripted procedures to generate key material and signing keys.[13]The TCRs cannot be affiliated with ICANN,PTI(an ICANN affiliate) orVerisignbecause of these organizations' operational roles in the key management, but are chosen from the broader DNS community.[14]Past and present TCRs includeVinton Cerf,Dan Kaminsky,Dmitry Burkov,Anne-Marie Eklund LöwinderandJohn Curran.[15]

IANA operates theintregistry for international treaty organizations, thearpazone for Internet infrastructure purposes, includingreverse DNSservice, and other critical zones such as root-servers.[4]

Protocol assignments

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IANA maintains protocol registries in tables of protocols and their parameters and coordinates registration of protocols.[16]As of 2015 there were over 2,800 registries and subregistries.[4]

Time zone database

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TheIANA time zone databaseholds thetime zonedifferences and rules for the various regions of the world and allows this information to be mirrored and used by computers and other electronic devices to maintain proper configuration for timekeeping.

IANA assumed responsibility for the database on October 16, 2011, after theAstrolabe, Inc. v. Olson et al.[17]decision caused the shutdown of the FTP server which had previously been the primary source of the database.[18][19]

Language subtag registry

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Further information:IETF language tagandISO 15924

TheIANA Language Subtag Registrywas defined byIETFRFC5646 and maintained by IANA.[20][21]

History

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IANA was established informally as a reference to various technical functions for theARPANET,thatJon PostelandJoyce K. Reynoldsperformed at theUniversity of California at Los Angeles(UCLA) and at theUniversity of Southern California'sInformation Sciences Institute. On March 26, 1972,Vint Cerfand Jon Postel at UCLA called for establishing a socket number catalog in RFC 322. Network administrators were asked to submit a note or place a phone call, "describing the function and socket numbers of network service programs at each HOST".[22]This catalog was subsequently published as RFC 433 in December 1972.[23]In it Postel first proposed a registry of assignments of port numbers to network services, calling himself theczar of socket numbers.[24]

The first reference to the name "IANA" in the RFC series is in RFC 1083, published in December 1988 by Postel at USC-ISI, referring to Joyce K. Reynolds as the IANA contact. However, the function, and the term, was well established long before that; RFC 1174 says that "Throughout its entire history, the Internet system has employed a central Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA)..."[25][26]

In 1995, theNational Science FoundationauthorizedNetwork Solutionsto assess domain name registrants a $50 fee per year for the first two years, 30 percent of which was to be deposited in the Intellectual Infrastructure Fund (IIF), a fund to be used for the preservation and enhancement of the intellectual infrastructure of the Internet.[27]There was widespread dissatisfaction with this concentration of power (and money) in one company, and people looked to IANA for a solution. Postel wrote up a draft[28]on IANA and the creation of new top-level domains. He was trying to institutionalize IANA. In retrospect, this would have been valuable, since he unexpectedly died about two years later.

In January 1998, Postel was threatened by US Presidential science advisorIra Magazinerwith the statement "You'll never work on the Internet again" after Postel collaborated with root server operators to test using a root server other than Network Solutions' "A" root to act as the authority over the root zone. Demonstrating that control of the root was from the IANA rather than from Network Solutions would have clarified IANA's authority to create new top-level domains as a step to resolving the DNS Wars, but he ended his effort after Magaziner's threat, and died not long after.[29][30]

Jon Postel managed the IANA function from its inception on the ARPANET until his death in October 1998. By his almost 30 years of "selfless service",[31]Postel created his de facto authority to manage key parts of the Internet infrastructure. After his death, Joyce K. Reynolds, who had worked with him for many years, managed the transition of the IANA function to ICANN.

Starting in 1988, IANA was funded by the U.S. government under a contract between theDefense Advanced Research Projects Agencyand the Information Sciences Institute. This contract expired in April 1997, but was extended to preserve IANA.[32]

On December 24, 1998, USC entered into a transition agreement with the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers ICANN, transferring the IANA project to ICANN, effective January 1, 1999, thus making IANA an operating unit of ICANN.[33]

In June 1999, at its Oslo meeting,IETFsigned an agreement with ICANN concerning the tasks that IANA would perform for the IETF; this is published as RFC 2860.[2]

On February 8, 2000, the Department of Commerce entered into an agreement with ICANN for ICANN to perform the IANA functions.[34]

On October 7, 2013 theMontevideo Statement on the Future of Internet Cooperationwas released by the leaders of a number of organizations involved in coordinating the Internet's global technical infrastructure, loosely known as the "I*" (or "I-star" ) group. Among other things, the statement "expressed strong concern over the undermining of the trust and confidence of Internet users globally due to recent revelations of pervasive monitoring and surveillance" and "called for accelerating the globalization of ICANN and IANA functions, towards an environment in which all stakeholders, including all governments, participate on an equal footing". This desire to move away from a United States centric approach is seen as a reaction to the ongoingNSA surveillance scandal.The statement was signed by the heads of the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN), the Internet Engineering Task Force, theInternet Architecture Board,theWorld Wide Web Consortium,theInternet Society,and the fiveregional Internet address registries(African Network Information Center,American Registry for Internet Numbers,Asia-Pacific Network Information Centre,Latin America and Caribbean Internet Addresses Registry,andRéseaux IP Européens Network Coordination Centre).[35][36][37]

In October 2013, Fadi Chehadé, current President and CEO of ICANN, met with Brazilian President Dilma Rousseff in Brasilia. Upon Chehadé's invitation, the two announced that Brazil would host an international summit on Internet governance in April 2014.[38]The announcement came after the2013 disclosures of mass surveillanceby the U.S. government, and President Rousseff's speech at the opening session of the 2013 United Nations General Assembly, where she strongly criticized the American surveillance program as a "breach of international law". The "Global Multistakeholder Meeting on the Future of Internet Governance(NET mundial) "will include representatives of government, industry, civil society, and academia.[citation needed]At theIGF VIII meeting in Bali in October 2013a commenter noted that Brazil intends the meeting to be a "summit"in the sense that it will be high level with decision-making authority.[39]The organizers of the "NET mundial" meeting have decided that an online forum called "/1net", set up by the I* group, will be a major conduit of non-governmental input into the three committees preparing for the meeting in April.[37][40][41]

In April 2014 theNetMundial Initiative,a plan for international governance of the Internet, was proposed at the Global Multistakeholder Meeting on the Future of Internet Governance (GMMFIG) conference (23–24 April 2014)[42][43][44] and later developed into the NetMundial Initiative byICANNCEOFadi Chehadealong with representatives of theWorld Economic Forum(WEF)[45] and the Brazilian Internet Steering Committee (Comitê Gestor da Internet no Brasil), commonly referred to as "CGI.br".[46]

The meeting produced a nonbinding statement in favor of consensus-based decision-making. It reflected a compromise and did not harshly condemnmass surveillanceor include the words "net neutrality", despite initial support for that from Brazil. The final resolution saysICANNshould be under international control by September 2015.[47] A minority of governments, including Russia, China, Iran and India, were unhappy with the final resolution and wantedmulti-lateralmanagement for the Internet, rather than broader multi-stakeholder management.[48]

A month later, the Panel On Global Internet Cooperation and Governance Mechanisms (convened by the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN) and the World Economic Forum (WEF) with assistance fromThe Annenberg Foundation), supported and included the NetMundial statement in its own report.[49]

Oversight

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IANA was managed by the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN) under contract with theUnited States Department of Commerce(DOC) and pursuant to an agreement with the IETF from 1998 to 2016.[2][50]The Department of Commerce also provided an ongoing oversight function, whereby it verified additions and changes made in the DNS root zone to ensure IANA complied with its policies. TheInternet Architecture Board(IAB), on behalf of the IETF, could terminate the agreement under which ICANN performs IANA functions with six months' notice.[51]

ICANN and the Department of Commerce made an agreement for the "joint development of the" mechanisms methods, and procedures necessary to effect the transition of Internet domain name and addressing system (DNS) to the private sector "via a" Joint Project Agreement "in 1998.

On January 28, 2003, the Department of Commerce, via the Acquisition and Grants Office of theNational Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration,issued a notice of intent to extend the IANA contract for three years. In August 2006, the U.S. Department of Commerce extended the IANA contract with ICANN by an additional five years, subject to annual renewals.[52]

Since ICANN is managing a worldwide resource, while the IANA function is contracted to ICANN by the US Department of Commerce, various proposals have been brought forward to decouple the IANA function from ICANN.[53]

On October 1, 2009 the "Joint Project Agreement" between ICANN and U.S. Department of Commerce expired, replaced by an "Affirmation of Commitments".[54][55]On March 14, 2014, the U.S. Department of Commerce announced its intent to transition key Internet domain name functions to a global multi-stakeholder community.[56][57]

In August 2016 ICANN incorporated Public Technical Identifiers, a non-profit affiliate corporation in California, to take over the IANA functions once the current contract expired at the end of September.[58][59]The Department of Commerce confirmed that its criteria for transitioning IANA Stewardship to the Internet multistakeholder community had been met, and that it intended to allow its contract with ICANN to expire on September 30, 2016, allowing the transition to take effect.[60][61][62]On October the contract between the United States Department of Commerce and ICANN to perform the IANA functions was allowed to expire and the stewardship of IANA functions was officially transitioned to the private-sector.[63][64]

Managers

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See also

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References

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  1. ^"Internet Assigned Numbers Authority".Public Technical Identifiers.Archivedfrom the original on 24 February 2011.Retrieved17 December2011.
  2. ^abcdB. Carpenter;F. Baker;M. Roberts (June 2000).Memorandum of Understanding Concerning the Technical Work of the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority.Network Working Group.doi:10.17487/RFC2860.RFC2860.Informational.
  3. ^Elise Gerich (2016-10-25)."IANA Services Update".RIPE 73 Archives.Madrid, Spain:RIPE.Archivedfrom the original on 2016-11-03.Retrieved2016-11-02.
  4. ^abc"The IANA Functions: An Introduction to the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) Functions"(PDF).ICANN. December 2015.Archived(PDF)from the original on 7 November 2019.Retrieved12 June2018.
  5. ^J. Postel(September 1981).ASSIGNED NUMBERS.Network Working Group.doi:10.17487/RFC0790.RFC790.Obsolete.Obsoleted byRFC820.ObsoletesRFC776,770,762,758,755,750,739,604,503,433and349.Obsoletes IENs: 127, 117, 93.
  6. ^S. Kirkpatrick; M. Stahl; M. Recker (July 1990).INTERNET NUMBERS.Network Working Group.doi:10.17487/RFC1166.RFC1166.Informational.Updated byRFC5737.ObsoletesRFC1020,1062and1117.
  7. ^R. Housley; J. Curran; G. Huston; D. Conrad (August 2013).The Internet Numbers Registry System.doi:10.17487/RFC7020.RFC7020.Informational.ObsoletesRFC2050.
  8. ^"About the NRO".Number Resource Organization. Archived fromthe originalon 12 June 2018.Retrieved12 June2018.
  9. ^"Getting Internet Number Resources".Number Resource Organization. Archived fromthe originalon 12 June 2018.Retrieved12 June2018.
  10. ^Wu, Peng; Cui, Yong; Wu, Jianping; Liu, Jiangchuan; Metz, Chris (2012-12-12)."Transition from IPv4 to IPv6: A State-of-the-Art Survey".IEEE Communications Surveys & Tutorials.15(3): 1407–1424.doi:10.1109/SURV.2012.110112.00200.ISSN1553-877X.S2CID206583943.Archivedfrom the original on 2022-10-06.Retrieved2022-09-28.
  11. ^DeNardis, Laura (2014).The Global War for Internet Governance.Yale University Press. p. 49.ISBN978-0-300-18135-7.
  12. ^Mueller, Milton (2002).Ruling the Root: Internet Governance and the Taming of Cyberspace.MIT Press.ISBN978-0-262-26379-5.
  13. ^"DNSSEC Practice Statement for the Root Zone KSK Operator".IANA. 7 April 2020.Archivedfrom the original on 17 July 2020.Retrieved17 July2020.
  14. ^"Criteria for Trusted Community Representatives".IANA. 12 May 2017.Archivedfrom the original on 20 July 2020.Retrieved17 July2020.
  15. ^"Trusted Community Representatives".Archivedfrom the original on 5 July 2020.Retrieved17 July2020.
  16. ^"IANA - Protocol Registries".Public Technical Identifiers.Retrieved12 June2018.
  17. ^"Astrolabe, Inc. v. Olson et al".2011-10-06.Archivedfrom the original on 2011-10-08.Retrieved2011-10-16.
  18. ^"ICANN rescues time zone database".The Register.2011-10-16.Archivedfrom the original on 2011-10-18.Retrieved2011-10-16.
  19. ^"IANA - Time Zone Database".2018-05-01.Archivedfrom the original on 2021-03-08.Retrieved2018-06-12.
  20. ^"Registration Templates".Language Subtag Registry(in Kinyarwanda). 2021-12-29.Archivedfrom the original on 2022-01-08.Retrieved2022-01-08.
  21. ^Phillips, A.; Davis, M., eds. (September 2009).Tags for Identifying Languages.Network Working Group.doi:10.17487/RFC5646.BCP 47.RFC5646.Best Current Practice.ObsoletesRFC4646.
  22. ^V. Cerf, J. Postel (26 March 1972).Well Known Socket Numbers.Network Working Group.doi:10.17487/RFC0322.RFC322.Unknown.NIC 9609.
  23. ^Jon Postel, Nancy Neigus (22 December 1972).Socket Number List.Network Working Group.doi:10.17487/RFC0433.RFC433.Unknown.NIC 13491. Obsoleted byRFC503.ObsoletesRFC349.
  24. ^J. Postel (30 May 1972).Proposed Standard Socket Numbers.Network Working Group.doi:10.17487/RFC0349.RFC349.Unknown.NIC 10428. Obsoleted byRFC433.
  25. ^V. Cerf (August 1990).IAB Recommended Policy on Distributing Internet Identifier Assignment and IAB Recommended Policy Change to Internet "Connected" Status.Network Working Group.doi:10.17487/RFC1174.RFC1174.Informational.
  26. ^"About IANA | Established in 1988".routeripnet.Archivedfrom the original on 2022-12-28.Retrieved2022-12-28.
  27. ^"NTIA DNS Statement of Policy".June 1998.Archivedfrom the original on 2011-04-25.Retrieved2011-05-24.
  28. ^J. Postel (June 1996).New Registries and the Delegation of International Top Level Domains.IETF.I-D draft-postel-iana-itld-admin-01.
  29. ^Damien Cave (July 2, 2002)."It's time for ICANN to go".Salon.Archived fromthe originalon July 22, 2011.
  30. ^Dave Farber (July 2, 2002)."a comment on Gilmore: ICANN Must Go (good insights)".Interesting-people mailing list. Archived fromthe originalon May 25, 2010.
  31. ^V. Cerf (October 17, 1998).I Remember IANA.Network Working Group.doi:10.17487/RFC2468.RFC2468.Informational.
  32. ^Snyder, Joel; Konstantinos, Komaitis; Robachevsky, Andrei (9 May 2016)."The History of IANA - An Extended Timeline with Citations and Commentary".Internet Society.Archivedfrom the original on 8 March 2018.Retrieved7 March2018.
  33. ^"USC ICANN Transition Agreement".ICANN.Archivedfrom the original on 2016-09-30.Retrieved22 October2016.
  34. ^"IANA Functions Contract"(PDF).Dept of Commerce/NTIA.Archived(PDF)from the original on 27 June 2013.Retrieved15 March2013.
  35. ^Montevideo Statement on the Future of Internet CooperationArchived2016-10-23 at theWayback Machine,ICANN, 7 October 2013. Retrieved 22 October 2016.
  36. ^"Brazil's anti-NSA prez urged to SNATCH keys to the internet from America"Archived2017-07-07 at theWayback Machine,Rik Myslewski,The Register,11 October 2013. Retrieved 11 October 2013.
  37. ^abMilton Mueller (2013-11-19)."Booting up Brazil".IGP Blog.Archivedfrom the original on 2014-02-11.Retrieved2014-02-11.
  38. ^"Entrevista com Fadi Chehadé: Brasil sediará encontro mundial de governança da internet em 2014"Archived2015-04-05 at theWayback Machine,Palácio do Planalto, 9 October 2013. Retrieved 4 March 2014.
  39. ^"Chair's Summary"Archived2022-04-23 at theWayback Machine,Eighth Meeting of the Internet Governance Forum (IGF), Bali, Indonesia, 22–25 October 2013. Retrieved 5 November 2013.
  40. ^"CENTR: Internet Governance in 2013 and What's Coming Up in 2014".CircleID.2014-01-27.Archivedfrom the original on 2014-02-10.Retrieved2014-02-11.
  41. ^Paul Wilson (2013-11-29)."What Is" 1net "to Me".CircleID blog.Archivedfrom the original on 2014-03-04.Retrieved2014-02-11.
  42. ^"NETmundial Multistakeholder Statement Concludes Act One of 2014 Internet Governance Trifecta".CircleID.2014-05-03.Archivedfrom the original on 2014-05-09.Retrieved2014-06-02.
  43. ^"ICANN Releases Roadmap, Timeline for Future Management of Internet".PC Tech Magazine.2014-05-21.Archivedfrom the original on 2014-06-02.Retrieved2014-06-02.
  44. ^"Future of the internet debated at NetMundial in Brazil".BBC News.2014-04-23.Archivedfrom the original on 2014-04-29.Retrieved2014-06-02.
  45. ^ "NETmundial Initiative - Debrief with Founding Partners".Archived fromthe originalon 2015-02-09.Retrieved2014-09-02.
  46. ^"Public Declaration on the NETmundial Initiative issued by members of the board of CGI.br".Archivedfrom the original on 2015-04-06.Retrieved2014-09-02.
  47. ^"At NETmundial, the U.S. Kept Its Companies on the Global Stage".Businessweek.2014-04-30. Archived fromthe originalon 2014-05-03.Retrieved2014-06-02.
  48. ^"The future of the internet".Business Standard.2014-05-03.Archivedfrom the original on 2014-06-02.Retrieved2014-06-02.
  49. ^"Towards a Collaborative, Decentralized Internet Governance Ecosystem - report by the Panel On Global Internet Cooperation and Governance Mechanisms".2014-05-20. Archived fromthe originalon 2014-06-06.Retrieved2014-06-02.
  50. ^"The IANA stewardship transition: what is happening? (Part I) | DiploFoundation".diplomacy.edu.2016-09-16.Archivedfrom the original on 2016-09-22.Retrieved2016-09-20.
  51. ^"2020 ICANN-IETF MoU Supplemental Agreement"(PDF).Archived(PDF)from the original on September 19, 2020.RetrievedJanuary 12,2021.
  52. ^ICANN awarded net administration until 2011Archived2017-08-10 at theWayback MachinebyThe Register
  53. ^"IANA FUNCTIONS: THE BASICS"(PDF).Archived(PDF)from the original on 2020-11-15.Retrieved2020-11-18.
  54. ^"Affirmation of Commitments by the United States Department of Commerce and the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers"(PDF).US Department of Commerce. September 30, 2009.Archived(PDF)from the original on 2016-06-12.Retrieved2016-09-14.
  55. ^US Government finally lets ICANN gobyZDNet
  56. ^"NTIA Announces Intent to Transition Key Internet Domain Name Functions".United States Department of Commerce.Archivedfrom the original on 23 March 2014.Retrieved15 March2014.
  57. ^"U.S. Plans to Give Up Oversight of Web Domain Manager".Wall Street Journal.14 March 2014.Archivedfrom the original on 20 March 2014.Retrieved15 March2014.
  58. ^"ICANN Announces Incorporation of Public Technical Identifiers (PTI)"(Press release). ICANN. 11 August 2016.Archivedfrom the original on 17 April 2018.Retrieved12 June2018.
  59. ^Ribeiro, John (12 August 2016)."IANA successor organization set up amid internet handover controversy".Computerworld.Archivedfrom the original on 13 June 2018.Retrieved12 June2018.
  60. ^"The IANA stewardship transition: what is happening? (Part II) | DiploFoundation".diplomacy.edu.2016-09-17.Archivedfrom the original on 2016-09-24.Retrieved2016-09-20.
  61. ^"US Government Announces Go-Ahead For IANA Transition By October".Intellectual Property Watch.2016-08-17.Archivedfrom the original on 2016-09-23.Retrieved2016-09-14.
  62. ^"Update on the IANA Transition".US Department of Commerce. August 16, 2016.Archivedfrom the original on 2016-09-20.Retrieved2016-09-14.
  63. ^"Stewardship of IANA Functions Transitions to Global Internet Community as Contract with U.S. Government Ends".2016-10-01.Archivedfrom the original on 2019-05-16.Retrieved2016-10-03.
  64. ^"Statement of Assistant Secretary Strickling on IANA functions contract".2016-10-01.Archivedfrom the original on 2017-03-23.Retrieved2016-10-03.
  65. ^"Kim Davies Appointed VP, IANA Functions and President, PTI".2017-12-15.Archivedfrom the original on 2018-04-17.Retrieved2018-01-26.
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