Nasal administration
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Instilling_nasal_medication.jpg/220px-Instilling_nasal_medication.jpg)
Nasal administration,popularly known assnorting,is aroute of administrationin whichdrugsareinsufflatedthrough thenose.It can be a form of eithertopical administrationorsystemic administration,as the drugs thus locally delivered can go on to have either purely local or systemic effects. Nasal sprays are locally acting drugs such asdecongestantsfor cold and allergy treatment, whose systemic effects are usually minimal. Examples of systemically active drugs available as nasal sprays aremigraine drugs,rescue medications for overdose and seizure emergencies,hormone treatments,nicotine nasal spray,andnasal vaccinessuch aslive attenuated influenza vaccine.
Risks
[edit]Nasal septum perforation
[edit]![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Cocaine_nose.jpg/150px-Cocaine_nose.jpg)
Anasal septum perforationis a medical condition in which thenasal septum,thebony/cartilaginouswall dividing thenasal cavities,develops a hole or fissure.[1]
Sharing snorting equipment (nasal spray bottles, straws, banknotes, bullets, etc) has been linked to the transmission ofhepatitis C.(Bonkovsky and Mehta) In one study, the University of Tennessee Medical Center researches warned that other blood-borne diseases such asHIV,theAIDS-causing virus, could be transmitted as well.[2]
Risk factors for shared drug paraphernalia
[edit]![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Cocaine_lines_2.jpg/220px-Cocaine_lines_2.jpg)
Sharing snorting equipment (straws, banknotes, bullets, etc) has been linked to the transmission of hepatitis C. (Bonkovsky and Mehta) In one study, the University of Tennessee Medical Center researches warned that other blood-borne diseases such as HIV, the AIDS-causing virus, could be transmitted as well.[4]Drinking makes it harder to resist pressure and clouds your ability to make safe choices. Not only might you miss signs of danger, like blood stains on shared equipment, but alcohol weakens your immune system, making it easier to catch and spread viruses.
Advantages
[edit]The nasal cavity is covered by a thin mucosa which is well vascularised.[5]Therefore, a drug molecule can be transferred quickly across the single epithelial cell layer directly to the systemic blood circulation without first-pass hepatic and intestinal metabolism. The effect is often reached within 5 min forsmaller drug molecules.[6]Nasal administration can therefore be used as an alternative to oral administration, by crushing or grinding tablets or capsules and snorting or sniffing the resulting powder, providing a rapid onset of effects. If a fast effect is desired or if the drug is extensively degraded in the gut or liver.[7]
Large-molecule drugs can also be delivered directly to the brain by the intranasal route, the only practical means of doing so, following the olfactory and trigeminal nerves(see section below),for widespread central distribution throughout thecentral nervous systemwith little exposure to the blood.[8][9][10][11]This delivery method to the brain was functionally demonstrated in humans in 2006, usinginsulin,a largepeptidehormone that acts as a nerve growth factor in the brain.[12]
Limitations
[edit]Nasal administration is primarily suitable for potent drugs since only a limited volume can be sprayed into the nasal cavity. Drugs for continuous and frequent administration may be less suitable because of the risk of harmful long-term effects on the nasal epithelium.[7]Nasal administration has also been associated with a high variability in the amount of drug absorbed. Upper airway infections may increase the variability as may the extent of sensory irritation of the nasal mucosa, differences in the amount of liquid spray that is swallowed and not kept in the nasal cavity and differences in the spray actuation process.[13]However, the variability in the amount absorbed after nasal administration should be comparable to that after oral administration.[14][15]
Nasal drugs
[edit]The area of intranasal medication delivery provides a huge opportunity for research – both for specifically developed pharmaceutical drugs designed for intranasal treatment, as well as for investigating off label uses of commonly available generic medications. Steroids, and a large number of inhalational anaesthetic agents are being used commonly. The recent developments in intranasal drug delivery systems are prodigious. Peptide drugs (hormone treatments) are also available as nasal sprays, in this case to avoid drug degradation after oral administration. The peptide analoguedesmopressinis, for example, available for both nasal and oral administration, for the treatment of diabetes insipidus. Thebioavailabilityof the commercial tablet is 0.1% while that of the nasal spray is 3-5% according to the SPC (Summary of Product Characteristics).[16]Intranasal Calcitonin, calcitonin-salmon is used to treat Hypercalcaemia arising out of malignancy, Paget's disease of bone, post menopausal and steroid induced osteoporosis, Phantom limb pain and other metabolic bone abnormalities, available as Rockbone, Fortical and Miacalcin Nasal Spray. GnRH analogues like nafarelin and busurelin are used for the treatment of anovulatory infertility, hypogonadotropic hypogonadism, delayed puberty andcryptorchidism.Other potential drug candidates for nasal administration include anaesthetics, antihistamines (Azelastine), antiemetics (particularly metoclopramide and ondansetron) andsedativesthat all benefit from a fast onset of effect.[17]Intranasal midazolam is found to be highly effective in acute episodes of seizures in children. Recently, the upper part of the nasal cavity, as high as the cribriform plate, has been proposed for drug delivery to the brain. This "transcribrial route" published first in 2014 was suggested by the author (Baig AM.et al,) for drugs to be given for Primary Meningoencephalitis[18]
Medicines
[edit]Oxytocin
[edit]Oxytocin(brand name Syntocinon) nasal spray is used to increase duration and strength of contractions during labour. Intranasal oxytocin is also being actively investigated for many psychiatric conditions including alcohol withdrawal, anorexia nervosa, PTSD, autism, anxiety disorders, pain sensation and schizophrenia.
Recreational drugs/entheogens
[edit]List of substances that have higher bioavailability when administered intranasally compared to oral administration.
Cocaine
[edit]Insufflation ofcocaineleads to the longest duration of its effects (60–90 minutes).[19]When insufflating cocaine, absorption through the nasal membranes is approximately 30–60%[20]
Ketamine
[edit]![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/SpiRaL.jpg/220px-SpiRaL.jpg)
Among the less invasive routes forketamine,the intranasal route has the highest bioavailability (45–50%)[21][22]
Inketamine,commonly being used for the treatment of breakthrough pain in patients with chronic pain is now becoming an area of significant research interest for the treatment of bipolar disease and major depressive disorder with early results suggesting a strong and prolonged antidepressant effect following a single subdissociative dose (50 mg) of ketamine.
Snuff
[edit]Snuffis a type ofsmokeless tobaccoproductmade from finely ground or pulverizedtobaccoleaves.[23]It issnortedor "sniffed" (alternatively sometimes written as "snuffed" ) into the nasal cavity, deliveringnicotineand a flavored scent to the user (especially if flavoring has been blended with the tobacco).[23]Traditionally, it is sniffed or inhaled lightly after a pinch of snuff is either placed onto the back surface of thehand,held pinched between thumb and index finger, or held by a specially made "snuffing" device.
Yopo
[edit]Snuff traysand tubes similar to those commonly used foryopowere found in the central Peruvian coast dating back to 1200 BC, suggesting thatinsufflationofAnadenantherabeans is a more recent method of use.[24]Archaeological evidence of insufflation use within the period 500-1000 AD, in northern Chile, has been reported.[25]
Research
[edit]Olfactory transfer
[edit]There is about 20 mL capacity in the adult humannasal cavity.[26]The major part of the approximately 150 cm2surface in the human nasal cavity is covered by respiratory epithelium, across which systemic drug absorption can be achieved. Theolfactory epitheliumis situated in the upper posterior part and covers approximately 10 cm2of the human nasal cavity. The nerve cells of the olfactory epithelium project into the olfactory bulb of the brain, which provides a direct connection between the brain and the external environment. The transfer of drugs to the brain from the blood circulation is normally hindered by theblood–brain barrier(BBB), which is virtually impermeable topassive diffusionof all but small, lipophilic substances. However, if drug substances can be transferred along the olfactory nerve cells, they can bypass the BBB and enter the brain directly.[10][11]
Theolfactory transferof drugs into the brain is thought to occur by either slow transport inside the olfactory nerve cells to the olfactory bulb or by faster transfer along the perineural space surrounding the olfactory nerve cells into the cerebrospinal fluid surrounding the olfactory bulbs and the brain (8, 9)[27][28]
Olfactory transfer could theoretically be used to deliver drugs that have a required effect in the central nervous system such as those for Parkinson's or Alzheimer's diseases. Studies have been presented that show that direct transfer of drugs is achievable.[28][29]
References
[edit]- ^Downs, Brian W.; Sauder, Haley M. (2023),"Septal Perforation",StatPearls,Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing,PMID30725893,retrieved2023-10-17
- ^Sharing Drug "Snorting Straws" Spreads Hepatitis C,2016
- ^Laureen Veevers (1 October 2006)."'Shared banknote' health warning to cocaine users ".The Observer.Retrieved2008-07-26.
- ^Sharing Drug “Snorting Straws” Spreads Hepatitis C,2016
- ^D.F. Proctor and I. Andersen. The nose. Upper airway physiology and the atmospheric environment, Elsevier Biomedical Press, Amsterdam, 1982.
- ^Y.W. Chien, K.S.E. Su, and S.-F. Chang. Nasal systemic drug delivery, Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York, 1989.
- ^abFransén, Nelly (2008).Studies on a Novel Powder Formulation for Nasal Drug Delivery(PhD dissertation). Uppsala University.ISBN978-91-554-7288-7.
- ^Thorne, RG; Emory, ER; Ala, TA; Frey, William II (September 18, 1995). "Quantitative analysis of the olfactory pathway for drug delivery to the brain".Brain Research.692(1–2): 278–282.doi:10.1016/0006-8993(95)00637-6.PMID8548316.S2CID11522233.
- ^Thorne, RG; Pronk, GJ; Padmanabhan, V; Frey, WH II (2004). "Delivery of insulin-like growth factor-I to the rat brain and spinal cord along olfactory and trigeminal pathways following intranasal administration".Neuroscience.127(2): 481–96.doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2004.05.029.PMID15262337.S2CID40872017.
- ^abJansson, Björn (2004).Models for the Transfer of Drugs from the Nasal Cavity to the Central Nervous System(PhD dissertation). Uppsala University.ISBN91-554-5834-3.Retrieved18 March2023.
- ^abEspefält Westin, Ulrika (2007).Olfactory Transfer of Analgesic Drugs After Nasal Administration(PhD dissertation). Uppsala University.ISBN978-91-554-6871-2.Retrieved18 March2023.
- ^Reger, MA; Watson, GS; Frey, WH II; Baker, LD; Cholerton, B; Keeling, ML; Belongia, DA; Fishel, MA; Plymate, SR; Belongia, GD; Cherrier, MM; Craft, S (March 2006). "Effects of intranasal insulin on cognition in memory-impaired older adults: modulation by APOE genotype".Neurobiol Aging.27(3): 451–458.doi:10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2005.03.016.PMID15964100.S2CID21158378.
- ^H. Kublik and M.T. Vidgren. Nasal delivery systems and their effect on deposition and absorption. Adv Drug Deliv Rev. 29:157-177 (1998).
- ^B.A. Coda, A.C. Rudy, S.M. Archer, and D.P. Wermeling. Pharmacokinetics and bioavailability of single-dose intranasal hydromorphone hydrochloride in healthy volunteers. Anesth Analg. 97:117-123 (2003).
- ^J. Studd, B. Pornel, I. Marton, J. Bringer, C. Varin, Y. Tsouderos, and C. Christiansen. Efficacy and acceptability of intranasal 17 beta-oestradiol for menopausal symptoms: randomised dose-response study. Aerodiol Study Group. Lancet. 353:1574-1578 (1999).
- ^FerringPharmaceuticals. SPC: Minirin nasal spray, Minirin Freeze-dried tablet and Minirin tablet, 2005.
- ^H.R. Costantino, L. Illum, G. Brandt, P.H. Johnson, and S.C. Quay. Intranasal delivery: physicochemical and therapeutic aspects. Int J Pharm. 337:1-24 (2007).
- ^Baig AM, Khan NA. Novel chemotherapeutic strategies in the management of primary amoebic meningoencephalitis due to Naegleria fowleri.CNS Neurosci Ther. 2014 Mar;20(3):289-90. doi: 10.1111/cns.12225. Epub 2014 Jan 24
- ^Zimmerman JL (October 2012). "Cocaine intoxication".Critical Care Clinics.28(4): 517–26.doi:10.1016/j.ccc.2012.07.003.PMID22998988.
- ^"The Dangers Of Snorting Cocaine (Insufflation)".Vertava Health.Retrieved2022-02-25.
- ^Mathew SJ, Zarate Jr CA (25 November 2016).Ketamine for Treatment-Resistant Depression: The First Decade of Progress.Springer. pp. 8–10, 14–22.ISBN978-3-319-42925-0.Archivedfrom the original on 8 September 2017.
- ^Marland S, Ellerton J, Andolfatto G, Strapazzon G, Thomassen O, Brandner B, Weatherall A, Paal P (June 2013)."Ketamine: use in anesthesia".CNS Neurosci Ther.19(6): 381–9.doi:10.1111/cns.12072.PMC6493613.PMID23521979.
- ^ab The Old Snuff House of Fribourg & Treyer at the Sign of the Rasp & Crown, No.34 James's Haymarket, London, S.W., 1720, 1920. Author: George Evens and Fribourg & Treyer. Publisher: Nabu Press, London, England. Reproduced 5 August 2010,ISBN978-1176904705
- ^Cortella, M. Ruiz. 1995[full citation needed]
- ^Juan P. Ogalde; Bernardo T. Arriaza; Elia C. Soto (2010). "Uso de plantas psicoactivas en el north de Chile: evidencia química del consumo de ayahuasca durante el periodo medio (500-1000 d.C.)".Latin American Antiquity.21(4): 441–450.doi:10.7183/1045-6635.21.4.441.S2CID163915994.
- ^Troy, David; Beringer, Paul, eds. (2006). "39".Remington: The Science and Practice of Pharmacy.Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. p. 752.
- ^S. Mathison, R. Nagilla, and U.B. Kompella. Nasal route for direct delivery of solutes to the central nervous system: Fact or fiction? J Drug Target. 5:415-441 (1998)
- ^abL. Illum. Is nose-to-brain transport of drugs in man a reality? J Pharm Pharmacol. 56:3-17 (2004).
- ^U.E. Westin, E. Bostrom, J. Grasjo, M. Hammarlund-Udenaes, and E. Bjork. Direct nose-to-brain transfer of morphine after nasal administration to rats. Pharm Res. 23:565-572 (2006).