Iranian languages
 | This articleneeds additional citations forverification.(June 2021) |
| Iranian | |
|---|---|
| Iranic | |
| Ethnicity | Iranian peoples |
| Geographic distribution | West Asia,Eastern Europe,Caucasus,Central Asia,andSouth Asia |
| Linguistic classification | Indo-European
|
| Proto-language | Proto-Iranian |
| Subdivisions | |
| Language codes | |
| ISO 639-2/5 | ira |
| Linguasphere | 58= (phylozone) |
| Glottolog | iran1269 |
 Distribution of the Iranian languages in and around theIranian plateau | |
TheIranian languages,also called theIranic languages,[1][2]are a branch of theIndo-Iranian languagesin theIndo-European language familythat are spoken natively by theIranian peoples,predominantly in theIranian Plateau.
The Iranian languages are grouped in three stages: Old Iranian (until 400 BCE), Middle Iranian (400 BCE – 900 CE) and New Iranian (since 900 CE). The two directly-attested Old Iranian languages areOld Persian(from theAchaemenid Empire) andOld Avestan(the language of theAvesta). Of the Middle Iranian languages, the better understood and recorded ones areMiddle Persian(from theSasanian Empire),Parthian(from theParthian Empire), andBactrian(from theKushanandHephthaliteempires).
Number of speakers
[edit]As of 2000s[update],Ethnologueestimates that there are 86 languages in the group.[3][4]
| Name | speakers |
|---|---|
| Persian | 84 million |
| Pashto | 50 million |
| Kurdish | 35 million |
| Balochi | 15 million |
| Caspian | 10 million |
| Tajik | 8 million |
| Luri | 5 million |
| 150–200 million[5] | |
Terminology and grouping
[edit]| Part ofa serieson |
| Indo-European topics |
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Etymology
[edit]The termIranderives directly fromMiddle PersianĒrān,first attested in a third-century inscription atNaqsh-e Rostam,with the accompanyingParthianinscription using the termAryān,in reference to theIranian peoples.[6]The Middle-Iranianērānandaryānare oblique plural forms ofgentilicnounsēr-(Middle Persian) andary-(Parthian), both deriving fromProto-Iranian language*arya-(meaning "Aryan",i.e." of the Iranians "),[6][7]recognized as a derivative ofProto-Indo-European language*ar-yo-,meaning "one who assembles (skilfully)".[8]In the Iranic languages spoken on the plateau, the gentilic is attested as a self-identifier, included in ancient inscriptions and the literature of theAvesta,[9][note 1]and remains also in other Iranian ethnic namesAlan(Ossetian:ИрIr) andIron(Ирон).[7]
Iranian vs. Iranic
[edit]When used as a linguistic termIranianis applied to any language which descends from the ancestralProto-Iranian language.[10]
Somescholarssuch asJohn R. Perryprefer the termIranicas theanthropologicalname for thelinguisticfamily and ethnic groups of this category, andIranianfor anything about the modern country ofIran.He uses the same analogue as in differentiatingGermanfromGermanicor differentiatingTurkishandTurkic.[11]
This use of the term for the Iranian language family was introduced in 1836 byChristian Lassen.[12]Robert Needham Custused the termIrano-Aryanin 1878,[13]andOrientalistssuch asGeorge Abraham GriersonandMax MüllercontrastedIrano-Aryan(Iranian) andIndo-Aryan(Indic[note 2]). Some recent scholarship, primarily in German, has revived this convention.[14][15][16][17]
Grouping
[edit]The Iranian languages are divided into the following branches:
- TheWestern Iranian languages,subdivided into:
- Southwestern, of whichPersian(including theDariandTajikdialects) andLuriare the dominant members;
- Northwestern, of which theKurdish languagesare the dominant members.
- TheEastern Iranian languages,subdivided into:
According to modern scholarship, theAvestan languagesare not considered to fall under these categories, and are instead sometimes classified as Central Iranian, since they diverged fromProto-Iranianbefore the east-west division rose to prominence. It has traditionally been viewed as Eastern Iranian; however, it lacks a large number of Eastern Iranian features and thus is only "Eastern Iranian" in the sense that it is not Western.[18]
Proto-Iranian
[edit]
The Iranian languages all descend from a common ancestor:Proto-Iranian,which itself evolved fromProto-Indo-Iranian.This ancestor language is speculated to have origins inCentral Asia,and theAndronovo cultureof theBronze Ageis suggested as a candidate for the commonIndo-Iranian culturearound 2000 BCE.[citation needed]
The language was situated precisely in the western part of Central Asia that borders present-dayRussiaandKazakhstan.It was thus in relative proximity to the othersatem ethno-linguistic groupsof theIndo-European family,such asThracian,Balto-Slavicand others, and to common Indo-European's original homeland (more precisely, thePontic-Caspian Steppeto the north of theBlack Seaand theCaucasus), according to the reconstructed linguistic relationships of common Indo-European.
Proto-Iranian thus dates to some time after the Proto-Indo-Iranian breakup, or the early-2nd millennium BCE, as the Old Iranian languages began to break off and evolve separately as the various Iranian tribes migrated and settled in vast areas ofsoutheastern Europe,theIranian Plateau,and Central Asia.
Proto-Iranian innovations compared to Proto-Indo-Iranian include:[19]the turning ofsibilantfricative*s into non-sibilant fricative glottal *h; the voiced aspiratedplosives*bʰ, *dʰ, *gʰ yielding to the voiced unaspirated plosives *b, *d, *g resp.; thevoicelessunaspirated stops *p, *t, *k before another consonant changing into fricatives *f, *θ, *x resp.; voiceless aspirated stops *pʰ, *tʰ, *kʰ turning into fricatives *f, *θ, *x, resp.
Old Iranian
[edit]The multitude ofMiddle Iranianlanguages and peoples indicate that great linguistic diversity must have existed among the ancient speakers of Iranian languages. Of that variety of languages/dialects,directevidence of only two has survived. These are:
- Avestan,the two languages/dialects of theAvesta(theliturgicaltexts ofZoroastrianism).
- Old Persian,the native language of a southwesternIranian peopleknown asPersians.[20]
Indirectlyattested Old Iranian languages are discussedbelow.
Old Persian was an Old Iranian dialect as it was spoken in southwestern Iran (the modern-day province ofFars) by the inhabitants ofParsa,Persia, orPersiswho also gave their name to their region and language. Genuine Old Persian is best attested in one of the three languages of theBehistuninscription, composedc. 520 BCE,and which is the last inscription (and only inscription of significant length) in which Old Persian is still grammatically correct. Later inscriptions are comparatively brief, and typically simply copies of words and phrases from earlier ones, often with grammatical errors, which suggests that by the 4th century BCE the transition from Old Persian to Middle Persian was already far advanced, but efforts were still being made to retain an "old" quality for official proclamations.
The other directly attested Old Iranian dialects are the two forms ofAvestan,which take their name from their use in theAvesta,theliturgicaltexts of indigenous Iranian religion that now goes by the name ofZoroastrianismbut in the Avesta itself is simply known asvohu daena(later:behdin). The language of the Avesta is subdivided into two dialects, conventionally known as "Old (or 'Gathic') Avestan", and "Younger Avestan". These terms, which date to the 19th century, are slightly misleading since 'Younger Avestan' is not only much younger than 'Old Avestan', but also from a different geographic region. The Old Avestan dialect is very archaic, and at roughly the same stage of development asRigvedic Sanskrit.On the other hand, Younger Avestan is at about the same linguistic stage as Old Persian, but by virtue of its use as a sacred language retained its "old" characteristics long after the Old Iranian languages had yielded to their Middle Iranian stage. Unlike Old Persian, which has Middle Persian as its known successor, Avestan has no clearly identifiable Middle Iranian stage (the effect of Middle Iranian is indistinguishable from effects due to other causes).
In addition to Old Persian and Avestan, which are the onlydirectlyattested Old Iranian languages, all Middle Iranian languages must have had a predecessor "Old Iranian" form of that language, and thus can all be said to have had an (at least hypothetical) "Old" form. Such hypothetical Old Iranian languages includeOld Parthian.Additionally, the existence of unattested languages can sometimes be inferred from the impact they had on neighbouring languages. Such transfer is known to have occurred for Old Persian, which has (what is called) a "Median"substrate in some of its vocabulary.[21]Also, foreign references to languages can also provide a hint to the existence of otherwise unattested languages, for example through toponyms/ethnonyms or in the recording of vocabulary, asHerodotusdid for what he called "Scythian"and in one instance,Median(σπάκα"dog" ).
Isoglosses
[edit]Conventionally, Iranian languages are grouped into "western" and "eastern" branches.[22]These terms have little meaning with respect to Old Avestan as that stage of the language may predate the settling of the Iranian peoples into western and eastern groups. The geographic terms also have little meaning when applied to Younger Avestan since it is not known where that dialect (or dialects) was spoken either. Certain is only that Avestan (all forms) and Old Persian are distinct, and since Old Persian is "western", and Avestan was not Old Persian, Avestan acquired a default assignment to "eastern". Further confusing the issue is the introduction of a western Iranian substrate in later Avestan compositions and redactions undertaken at the centers of imperial power in western Iran (either in the south-west in Persia, or in the north-west in Nisa/Parthia and Ecbatana/Media).
Two of the earliest dialectal divisions among Iranian indeed happen to not follow the later division into Western and Eastern blocks. These concern the fate of the Proto-Indo-Iranian first-seriespalatalconsonants, *ć and *dź:[23]
- Avestan and most other Iranian languages havedeaffricatedand depalatalized these consonants, and have *ć >s,*dź >z.
- Old Persian, however, has fronted these consonants further: *ć >θ,*dź > *ð >d.
As a common intermediate stage, it is possible to reconstruct depalatalized affricates: *c, *dz. (This coincides with the state of affairs in the neighboringNuristani languages.) A further complication however concerns the consonant clusters *ćw and *dźw:
- Avestan and most other Iranian languages have shifted these clusters tosp,zb.
- In Old Persian, these clusters yields,z,with loss of the glide *w, butwithoutfurther fronting.
- TheSaka language,attested in the Middle Iranian period, and its modern relativeWakhifail to fit into either group: in these, palatalization remains, and similar glide loss as in Old Persian occurs: *ćw >š,*dźw >ž.
A division of Iranian languages in at least three groups during the Old Iranian period is thus implied:
- Persid (Old Persian and its descendants)
- Sakan (Saka,Wakhi,and their Old Iranian ancestor)
- Central Iranian (all other Iranian languages)
It is possible that other distinct dialect groups were already in existence during this period. Good candidates are the hypothetical ancestor languages ofAlanian/Scytho-Sarmatian subgroup of Scythianin the far northwest; and the hypothetical "Old Parthian" (the Old Iranian ancestor of Parthian) in the near northwest, where original *dw > *b (paralleling the development of *ćw).
Middle Iranian
[edit]What is known in Iranian linguistic history as the "Middle Iranian" era is thought to begin around the 4th century BCE lasting through the 9th century. Linguistically the Middle Iranian languages are conventionally classified into two main groups,WesternandEastern.
The Western family includesParthian(ArsacidPahlavi) andMiddle Persian,whileBactrian,Sogdian,Khwarezmian,Saka,andOld Ossetic(Scytho-Sarmatian) fall under the Eastern category. The two languages of the Western group were linguistically very close to each other, but quite distinct from their eastern counterparts. On the other hand, the Eastern group was an areal entity whose languages retained some similarity to Avestan. They were inscribed in variousAramaic-derived Alpha bets which had ultimately evolved from the Achaemenid ImperialAramaic script,though Bactrian was written using an adaptedGreek script.
Middle Persian (Pahlavi) was the official language under theSasaniandynasty in Iran. It was in use from the 3rd centuryCEuntil the beginning of the 10th century. The script used for Middle Persian in this era underwent significant maturity. Middle Persian, Parthian, and Sogdian were also used as literary languages by theManichaeans,whose texts also survive in various non-Iranian languages, from Latin to Chinese. Manichaean texts were written in a script closely akin to theSyriac script.[24]
New Iranian
[edit]
Teal: countries where Iranian languages are official in a subdivision.
Following theArab conquest of Persia,there were important changes in the role of the different dialects within the Persian Empire. The old prestige form ofMiddle Iranian,also known as Pahlavi, was replaced by a new standard dialect calledDarias the official language of the court. The name Dari comes from the worddarbâr(دربار), which refers to the royal court, where many of the poets, protagonists and patrons of the literature flourished. TheSaffarid dynastyin particular was the first in a line of many dynasties to officially adopt the new language in 875 CE. Dari may have been heavily influenced by regional dialects of eastern Iran, whereas the earlier Pahlavi standard was based more on western dialects. This new prestige dialect became the basis of Standard New Persian. Medieval Iranian scholars such asAbdullah ibn al-Muqaffa(8th century) andIbn al-Nadim(10th century) associated the term "Dari" with the eastern province ofKhorasan,while they used the term "Pahlavi" to describe the dialects of the northwestern areas betweenIsfahanandAzerbaijan,and "Pârsi" ( "Persian" proper) to describe thedialects of Fars(Persia). They also noted that the unofficial language of the royalty itself was yet another dialect, "Khuzi", associated with the western province ofKhuzestan.
The Islamic conquest also brought with it the adoption of theArabic scriptfor writing Persian and much later, Kurdish, Pashto and Balochi. All three were adapted to the writing by the addition of a few letters. This development probably occurred sometime during the second half of the 8th century, when the old middle Persian script began dwindling in usage. The Arabic script remains in use in contemporary modern Persian.Tajik script,used to write theTajik language,was firstLatinisedin the 1920s under the then-Soviet nationality policy. The script was however subsequentlyCyrillicizedin the 1930s by the Soviet government.
The geographical regions in which Iranian languages were spoken were pushed back in several areas by newly neighbouring languages. Arabic spread into some parts of Western Iran (Khuzestan), andTurkic languagesspread through much of Central Asia, displacing various Iranian languages such asSogdianandBactrianin parts of what is todayTurkmenistan,UzbekistanandTajikistan.InEastern Europe,mostly comprising the territory of modern-dayUkraine,southern EuropeanRussia,and parts of theBalkans,the core region of the nativeScythians,Sarmatians,andAlanshad been decisively taken over as a result of absorption and assimilation (e.g.Slavicisation) by the variousProto-Slavicpopulation of the region, by the 6th century CE.[25][26][27][28]This resulted in the displacement and extinction of the once predominantScythian languagesof the region.Sogdian's close relativeYaghnobibarely survives in a small area of the Zarafshan valley east ofSamarkand,andSakaasOsseticin the Caucasus, which is the sole remnant of the once predominant Scythian languages in Eastern Europe proper and large parts of theNorth Caucasus.Various small Iranian languages in thePamir Mountainssurvive that are derived from Eastern Iranian.
Comparison table
[edit] |
| English | Zaza | Sorani Kurdish | Kurmanji Kurdish | Pashto | Tati | Talyshi | Balochi | Gilaki | Mazanderani (Tabari) | Tat | Luri | Shugni | Persian | Middle Persian | Parthian | Old Persian | Avestan | Ossetian |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| beautiful | rınd, xasek | ciwan, nayab | rind, delal, bedew, xweşik | x̌kūlay, x̌āista | xojir | ghašang | dorr, soherâ, mah rang, sharr, juwān | xujīrçī/xujīr | xoşgel, xojir | qəşəng, şihid | qəşaŋ, xoşgel | xushrui, xagh(fem.)
xigh(masc.) |
zibā/xuš-čehr(e)/xoşgel(ak)/ghashanq/najib | hučihr, hužihr | hužihr | naiba | xvaini, sraiia, srao- | ræsughd |
| blood | goni | xwên | xwîn, xûn | wīna | xevn | xun | hon | Xun | xun | xun | xī(n) | xun | xūn | xōn | gōxan | vohuna, vaŋhutāt̰ | tug | |
| bread | nan, non | nan | nan | ḍoḍəi, məṛəi | nun | nun | nān, nagan | nön | nun | nun | nu(n) | gartha | nān | nān | nān | tāiiūiri,drao-naŋh (scared bread) | dzul | |
| bring | ardene | /anîn, hawerdin, hênan | anîn | (rā)wṛəl | vârden, biyordon | varde | âurten, yārag, ārag | hävərdən, härdən, ävərdən, bərdən | biyârden | avardən | o(v)erden, | videu | āwurdan, biyār ( "(you) bring!" ) | āwurdan, āwāy-, āwar-, bar- | āwāy-, āwar-, bar- | bara- | bara, bar- | xæssyn |
| brother | bıra | bira | bira | wror | bərâr | bira, boli | brāt, brās | bərär, bərâr | birâr | birar | berar | værod | barādar | brād, brâdar | brād, brādar | brātar | brātar- | æfsymær |
| come | ameyene | hatin, were, bew (Pehlewanî) | hatin, were, | rā tləl | biyâmiyan | ome | āhag, āyag, hatin | həmän, ämön, hömän | biyamona, enen, biyâmuen | amarən | umae(n) | yà | āmadan | āmadan, awar | awar, čām | āy-, āgam | āgam- | cæwyn |
| cry | bermayene | giryan, girîn, gîristin (Pehlewanî) | girîn | žəṛəl | bərma | berame, bame | greewag, grehten | burmə | birme | girəstən | gerevesen, gereva | náu | gerīstan/gerīye | griy-, bram- | barmâdan | snuδ, | kæwyn | |
| dark | tari | tarî/tarîk | tarî | skəṇ, skaṇ, tyara | ul, gur, târica, târek | toki | tār | zuləmât, tärik | tār, siyo, zolamât | tariki | tārīk | torice | tārīk, tār | tārīg/k | tārīg, tārēn | tārīk | sāmahe, sāma | tar |
| daughter | keyne, çêne/çêneke | kîj, kiç, kenîşk, düêt (Pehlewanî), dwêt (Pehlewanî) | dot, keç | lūr | titiye, dətar | kinə, kila | dohtir, duttag | lâku, kör, kijâ (girl)
dətər (daughter) |
kîjâ(girl), deter (daughter) | duxtər | doxter | rezin | doxtar | duxtar | duxt, duxtar | duxδar | čyzg (Iron), kizgæ (Digor) | |
| day | roce, roje, roze | řoj, rûj (Pehlewanî) | roj | wrəd͡z (rwəd͡z) | revj, ruz | ruj | roç | ruz, ruj | ruz, ruj | ruz | ru | ruz | rūz | rōz | raucah- | raocah- | bon | |
| do | kerdene | kirdin | kirin | kawəl | kardan, kordan | karde | kanag, kurtin | gudən, kudən, kördən | hâkerden, hâkorden | saxtən | kerde | chideu | kardan | kardan | kartan | kạrta- | kәrәta- | kænyn |
| door | ber, keyber, çêber | derge/derke, derga, qapî (Kelhorî) | derî | wər, dərwāza | darvâca | bə | dar, gelo, darwāzag | bər | dar, loş | dər | dər, dar | dêve | dar | dar | dar, bar | duvara- | dvara- | dwar |
| die | merdene | mirdin | mirin | mrəl | bamarden | marde | mireg, murten | murdən, mərdən | bamerden | mürdən | morde | mideu | mordan | murdan | mạriya- | mar- | mælyn | |
| donkey | her | ker, gwêdirêj, xer (Pehlewanî) | ker | xər | astar, xar | hə, hər | har, her, kar | xər | xar | xər | xər | marcabe | xar | xar | kaθβa | xæræg | ||
| eat | werdene | xwardin | xwarin | xwāṛə, xurāk / xwaṛəl | harden | harde | warag, warâk, wārten | xördən, xöndən | xerâk / baxârden | xardən | harde | xideu | xordan / xurāk | parwarz / xwâr, xwardīg | parwarz / xwâr | hareθra / CE-, at- | xærinag | |
| egg | hak, akk | hêk/hêlke, tum, xaye (Pehlewanî), xa (Kelhorî) | hêk | hagəi | merqâna, karxâ | morqana, uyə | heyg, heyk, ā morg | murqönə, murqänə | merqâne, tîm, balî | xaykərg | xā'a | tarmurx | toxm, xāya ( "testicle" ) | toxmag, xâyag | taoxmag, xâyag | taoxma- | ajk | |
| earth | erd | zemîn, zewî, ʿerz, erd | erd, zevî | d͡zməka (md͡zəka) | zemin | zamin | zemin, degār | zəmi, gəl, bunə | zamîn, bene | xari | zemi | zimath | zamīn | zamīg | zamīg | zam- | zãm, zam, zem | zæxx |
| evening | şan | êware, îware (Pehlewanî) | êvar, şev | māx̌ām (māš̥ām) | nomâzyar, nomâšon | shav | begáh | şänsər | nemâşun | şangum | evāra | véga | begáh | ēvārag | êbêrag | arəzaŋh | izær | |
| eye | çım | çaw/çaş | çav | stərga | coš | čaş,gelgan | cham, chem | çum | çəş, bəj | çüm | tīya, çaş | çem | čashm | čašm | čašm | čaša- | čašman- | cæst |
| father | pi, pêr | bawk, bab, babe, bawg (Pehlewanî) | bav, bab | plār | piyar, piya, dada | piya, lala, po | pet, pes | pér | pîyer, pîyar, per | piyər | bua | tat | pedar, bābā | pidar | pid | pitar | pitar | fyd |
| fear | ters | tirs | tirs | wēra (yara), bēra | târs | tars | turs, terseg | tərs | taşe-vaşe, tars | tərsi | ters | hoge | tars, harās | tars | tars | tạrsa- | tares- | tas |
| fiancé | waşti | desgîran,xwşavest | dergistî | čənghol [masculine], čənghəla [feminine] | numzâ | nomja | nāmzād | nömzət | numze | nükürdə | xîsmenz | nāmzād | – | – | para-dāta (affianced) | usag | ||
| fine | weş, hewl | xoş | xweş | x̌a (š̥a), səm | xojir, xar | xoş | wash, hosh | xujīr, xurum | xâr, xeş, xojir | xuş, xas, xub | xu | bashand | xoš, xūb, beh | dārmag | srīra | xorz, dzæbæx | ||
| finger | engışte/gışte, bêçıke | engust, pence,angus, pênce | tilî, pêçî | gwəta | anquš | anqiştə | changol, mordâneg, lenkutk | ənguşt, əngüşt | angus | əngüşt | kelek | angiht | angošt | angust | aṇgušta | ængwyldz | ||
| fire | adır | agir/awir, ahir,ayer | agir | wōr (ōr) | taš | otaş | âch, atesh, âs | təş | taş | ataş | taş, gor | yoç | ātaš, āzar | âdur, âtaxsh | ādur | âç- | ātre-/aēsma- | art |
| fish | mase | masî | masî | māyai | mâyi | moy | māhi, māhig | mäyi | mâhî | mahi | māhi | moie | māhi | māhig | māsyāg | masya | kæsag | |
| go | şiayene | çûn, řoştin, řoyiştin, çün (Pehlewanî) | çûn | tləl | šiyen, bišiyan | şe | shoten | şön | şunen / burden | raftən | ro | sà, tideu | ro/şo | şow/row | ay- | ai- | ay-, fra-vaz | cæwyn |
| God | Homa/Huma/Oma | Yezdan, Xwedê, Xuda, Xodê, Xwa(y) | Xwedê, Xweda, Xudê | Xwədāi | Xədâ | Xıdo | Xoda, Hwdâ | Xuda | Xedâ | Xuda | xodā | Xuthoi | Xodā, Izad, Yazdān, Baq | Xudā/Yazdān | baga- | baya- | xwycaw | |
| good | hewl, rınd, weş | baş, çak, xas | baş, rind | x̌ə (š̥ə) | xâr, xojir | çok | zabr, sharr, jowain | xujīr, xurum | xâr, xeş, xojir | xub, xas | xu | bashand | xub, nīkū, beh | xūb, nêkog, beh | vahu- | vohu, vaŋhu- | xorz | |
| grass | vaş | giya/gya | giya, çêre | wāx̌ə (wāš̥ə) | vâš | alaf | rem, sabzag | vâş | vâş | güyo | sozi, çame | woh | sabzeh, giyāh | giyâ | giya | viş | urvarā | kærdæg |
| great | gırd/gırs, pil | gewre,mezin | mezin, gir | lōy, stər | pilla | yol, yal, vaz, dıjd | mastar, mazan,tuh | pilâ, pillə, pille, gət | gat, pilla | kələ | gap | wazmin | bozorg | wuzurg, pīl, yal | vazraka- | mazaṇt̰, masita, stūi | styr | |
| hand | dest | dest, des | dest | lās | bâl | dast | dast | dəs, bâl | das, bāl | dəs | das | thust | dast | dast | dast | dasta- | zasta- | k'ux / arm |
| head | ser | ser | ser | sər | kalla | sə, sər | sar, sarag, saghar | kəlle, sər | kalle, sar | sər | sar | cile, cale | sar | sar | kalli | sairi | sær | |
| heart | zerri/zerre | dil/dił/dir(Erbil)/zil | dil | zṛə | dəl | dıl | dil, hatyr | dīl, dəl, qlf | del, zel, zil | dül | del | dile, zorth | del | dil | dil | zaraŋh, zarəδiia, aηhuš | zærdæ | |
| horse | estor/ostor/astor | asp/hesp/esp, hês(t)ir | hesp | ās [male], aspa [female] | asb, astar | asp | asp | əsb, əsp | asp, as | əs | asb | vorge | asb | asp, stōr | asp, stōr | aspa | aspa- | bæx |
| house | key/çê | mał, xanû, xanig, ghat | xanî, mal | kor | kiya | ka | ges, dawâr, log | sərə, xöne | sere, kime, xene | xunə | huna | chide | xāne | xânag | demāna-, nmāna- | xædzar | ||
| hungry | vêşan/veyşan | birsî, wirsî (Pehlewanî) | birçî, birsî (behdînî) | lweǵai (lweẓ̌ai) | vašnâ, vešir, gesnâ | vahşian | shudig, shud | vəşnä, viştâ | veşnâ, veşnâsâr | gisnə | gosna | maghzönch | gorosne, goşne | gursag, shuy | veşnâg | ṣ̌uδ | ||
| language(alsotongue) | zıwan, zon, zuan, zuon, juan, jüan | ziman, zuwan | ziman | žəba | zobun, zəvân | zivon | zewān, zobān | zəvön, zuvön, zuvän | zivun, zebun, tok | zuhun | zevu | zive | zabān | zuwān | izβān | hazâna- | hizvā-, zafana (mouth) | ævzag |
| laugh | huyayene | kenîn/pêkenîn, kenîn,xende,xene | kenîn | xandəl/xənda | xurəsen, xandastan | sıre | hendag, xandag | purxə, xənde/ xəndəsən | rîk, baxendesten, xanne | xəndə | xana | shinteu | xande | xande, xand | karta | Syaoθnāvareza- | xudyn | |
| life | cuye, weşiye | jiyan, jîn | jiyan | žwəndūn, žwənd | zindәgi | jimon | zendegih, zind | zīndəgī, zīvəş | zindegî, jan | həyat | zeŋei | zindage, umre | zendegi, jan | zīndagīh, zīwišnīh | žīwahr, žīw- | gaēm, gaya- | card | |
| man | mêrdek, camêrd/cüamêrd | mêrd, pîyaw, cuwamêr | mêr, camêr | səṛay, mēṛə | mardak, miarda | merd | merd | mərd, mərdönə | mardî | mərd | piyā | chorice, mardina | mard | mard | mard | martiya- | mašīm, mašya | adæjmag |
| moon | aşme, menge (for month) | mang, heyv | meh, heyv | spūǵməi (spōẓ̌məi) | mâng | mang, owşum | máh | mâng, məng | ma, munek, mong, rojâ | ma | māh | mêst | mâh, mâng, mânk | māh | māh | mâh- | måŋha- | mæj |
| mother | may, mar | dayik, dayig | dayik, dê | mōr | mâr, mâya, nana | moa, ma, ina | mât, mâs | mâr, mär | mâr, nenâ | may | dā(ya), dāle(ka) | nan | mâdar | mâdar | dayek | mâtar | mātar- | mad |
| mouth | fek | dem | dev | xūla (xʷəla) | duxun, dâ:ân | gəv | dap | dəhən | dâhun, lâmîze, loşe | duhun | dam | gêve | dahân | dahân, rumb | zafan, zafarə, åŋhānō, åñh | dzyx | ||
| name | name | naw, nêw | nav | nūm | num | nom | nâm | nöm | num | num | num | nöme | nâm | nâm | nâman | nãman | nom | |
| night | şew | şew | şev | špa | šö, šav | şav | šap, shaw | şö, şöv, şəb | şow, şu | şöü | şo | hab | shab | shab | xšap- | xšap-, naxti | æxsæv | |
| open (v) | akerdene | kirdinewe, wazkirdin (Kelhorî) | vekirin | prānistəl | vâz-kardan | okarde | pāch, pabozag | vlätən, väzän, vâ-gudən | vâ-hekârden | vakardən | vākerde(n) | ët chideu | bâz-kardan, va-kardan | abâz-kardan, višādag | būxtaka- | būxta- | gom kænyn | |
| peace | haşti/aşti | aştî, aramî | aştî, aramî | rōɣa, t͡sōkāləi | dinj | aşiş | ârâm | əşt | âştî, esket | salaməti, dinci | āş(t)i | salöm | âshti, ârâmeš, ârâmî, sâzish | âštih, râmīšn | râm, râmīšn | šiyâti- | rāma- | fidyddzinad |
| pig | xoz/xonz, xınzır | beraz,goraz | beraz | soḍər, xənd͡zir (Arabic), xug | xu, xuyi, xug | xug | khug, huk | xuk | xî | xug | xuk | xug | xūk | xūk | hū, varāza (boar) | xwy | ||
| place | ca | cê(cêga), ga, şwên, şwîn (Pehlewanî) | cih, geh | d͡zāi | yâga | vira | ja, jaygah, hend | jâ, jigâ, jigə | jâ, gâ, kolâ | cigə, cə | jā | joi | jâh/gâh | gâh | gâh | gâθu- | gātu-, gātav- | ran |
| read | wendene | xwendin/xwêndin, xwenistin | xwendin | lwastəl, kōtəl | baxânden | hande, xwande | wánag, wānten | xöndən, xönəsən | baxenden, baxundesten | xundən | vane(n) | heideu | xândan | xwândan | paiti-pǝrǝs | kæsyn | ||
| say | vatene | gutin, witin | gotin | wayəl | vâten, baguten | vote | gushag, guashten | gutən, guftən | baowten, boten, bagoten | guftirən, gaf saxtən | gute(n) | lövdeu | goftan, gap(-zadan) | guftan, gōw-, wâxtan | gōw- | gaub- | vac, mrū- | dzuryn |
| sister | waye | xweh, xweşk, xoşk, xuşk, xoyşk | xwîşk | xōr (xʷōr) | xâke, xâv, xâxor, xuâr | hova | gwhâr | xâxur, xâxər | xâxer, xâxor, xoar | xuvar | xuar | yàx, yàxbìç | xâhar/xwâhar | xwahar | xvaŋhar- | xo | ||
| small | qıc/qıyt, wırd/werdi | giçke, qicik, hûr, biçûk, büçik (Kelhorî) | biçûk, hûr, qicik | kūčnay, waṛ(ū)kay | qijel, ruk | hırd | gwand, hurd | kuçhī, kujī, kuştə | peçik, biçuk, xerd | küçük, küşkin, kişgələ, kəm | koçek | zulice | kuchak, kam, xurd, rîz | kam, rangas | kam | kamna- | kasu, kamna- | chysyl |
| son | lac, laj | law/kuř | kur, law, pis | d͡zoy (zoy) | pur, zâ | zoə, zurə | possag, baç | vəçə, rikə, pəsər, rəy | peser/rîkâ | kuk | kor | puç | pesar, pur | pur, pusar | puhr | puça | pūθra- | fyrt |
| soul | roh, gan | can, giyan, rewan, revan | reh, can | sā | rəvân | con | rawân | ruh, jön | ro, jân | can | jöne | ravân, jân | rūwân, jyân | rūwân, jyân | urvan- | ud | ||
| spring | wesar/usar | behar, wehar | bihar, behar | spərlay | vâ:âr | əvəsor, bahar | bārgāh | vəhâr, bâhâr | vehâr, behâr | vasal | behār, vehār | bahor | bahâr | wahâr | vâhara- | vaŋhar | ||
| tall | berz | bilind/berz | bilind/berz | lwəṛ, ǰəg | pilla | barz, bılınd | borz, bwrz | burz, bələnd | belen, belend | bülünd | beleŋ | beland | boland / bârz | buland, borz | bârež | bərəzaṇt̰ | bærzond | |
| ten | des | deh/de | deh | ləs | da | da | dah | dä | da, datâ | də | da | thiste | dah | dah | datha | dasa | dæs | |
| three | hirê/hiri | sê | sê | drē | so, se | se, he | sey | su, sə | se, setâ | sə | se | arai | se | sê | hrē | çi- | θri- | ærtæ |
| village | dewe | gund, dêhat, dê, awayî | gund | kəlay | döh, da | di | dehāt, helk, kallag, dê | mällə, məhällə, kəläyə | dih, male, kolâ | di | de | qishloq | deh, wis | wiž | dahyu- | vîs-, dahyu- | vîs | qæw |
| want | waştene | xwastin, wîstin, twastin (Pehlewanî) | xwestin | ɣ(ʷ)ux̌təl | begovastan, jovastan | piye | loath, loteten | xäsən, xästən | bexâsten, bexâsti | xastən, vayistən | hāse | forteu | xâstan | xwâstan | ūna, ainišti | fændyn | ||
| water | awe/awk, owe, ou | aw | av | obə/ūbə | âv, ö | ov, wat(orandian dialect) | âp | ow, âv | ow, ou,u | ou | ow | haç | âb | âb/aw | aw | âpi | avō- | don |
| when | key | key, kengî(Hewlêrî) | kengê, kîngê | kəla | key | keyna | kadi, ked | kén, kəy | ke, kemin, geder | key, çüvəxti | ke | çavaxt | key | kay | ka | cim- | kæd | |
| wind | va | ba, wa (Pehlewanî) | ba | siləi | vâ | vo | gwáth | vâ | vâ | var | bād | huz | bâd | wâd | wa | vāta- | dymgæ / wad | |
| wolf | verg | gurg, | gur | lewə, šarmux̌ (šarmuš̥) | varg | varg | gurk | vərg | verg, verk | gürg | gorg | urge/urj | gorg | gurg | varka- | vehrka | birægh | |
| woman | cıni/ceni | jin, afret, zindage,gyian | jin | x̌əd͡za (š̥əd͡za) | zeyniye, zenak | jen, jiyan | jan, jinik | zən, zənək, zunönə | zenā | zən | zena | ghenice/ghinice, caxoi | zan | zan | žan | gǝnā, γnā, ǰaini-, | sylgojmag / us | |
| year | serre | sal/sał | sal | kāl | sâl | sor, sal | sâl | sâl | sâl | sal | sāl | sol | sâl | sâl | θard | ýāre, sarәd | az | |
| yes / no | ya, heya, ê / nê, ney, ni | bełê, a, erê / ne, nexêr | erê, belê, a / na | Hao, ao, wō / na, ya | ahan / na | ha / ne, na | ere, hān / na | əhâ/nä, nâ | are, ehe / nâ, no | həri, hə / nə | a, ā / na | ön / nai, nå | baleh, ârē, hā / na, née | ōhāy / ne | hâ / ney | yâ / nay, mâ | yā / noit, mā | o / næ |
| yesterday | vızêr | dwênê, dwêke | duho | parūn | azira, zira, diru | zir, zinə | zí | dîru | dîruz, aruz | deydi | diru | biyor | diruz | dêrûž | diya(ka) | zyō | znon | |
| English | Zaza | Sorani | Kurmanji | Pashto | Tati | Talyshi | Balochi | Gilaki | Mazandarani | Tat | Luri | Shugni | Persian | Middle Persian | Parthian | Old Persian | Avestan | Ossetian |
Notes
[edit]- ^In the Avesta, theairiia-are members of the ethnic group of the Avesta-reciters themselves, in contradistinction to theanairiia-(the "non-Arya"). The word also appears four times in Old Persian: One is in theBehistun Inscription,whereariya-is the name of a language (DB 4.89). The other three instances occur inDarius the Great's inscription atNaqsh-e Rostam(DNa 14–15), in Darius I's inscription at Susa (DSe 13–14), and in the inscription ofXerxes IatPersepolis(XPh 12–13). In these, the two Achaemenid dynasties describe themselves aspārsa pārsahyā puça ariya ariyaciça"a Persian, son of a Persian, an Ariya, of Ariya origin." —The phrase withciça( "origin, descendance" ) assures thatariyais an ethnic name wider in meaning thanpārsaand not a simple adjectival epithet.[9]
- ^In modern and colloquial context, the term "Indic" refers more generally to the languages of theIndian subcontinent,thus also including non-Aryan languages likeDravidianandMunda.See e.g.Reynolds, Mike; Verma, Mahendra (2007)."Indic languages".In Britain, David (ed.).Language in the British Isles.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.pp. 293–307.ISBN978-0-521-79488-6.Retrieved2021-10-04.
References
[edit]- ^Johannes Bechert; Giuliano Bernini; Claude Buridant (1990).Toward a Typology of European Languages.Walter de Gruyter.ISBN978-3-11-012108-7.
- ^Gernot Windfuhr (1979).Persian Grammar: History and State of Its Study.Walter de Gruyter.ISBN978-90-279-7774-8.
- ^"Ethnologue report for Iranian".Ethnologue.
- ^Gordon, Raymond G. Jr., ed. (2005)."Report for Iranian languages".Ethnologue: Languages of the World(Fifteenth ed.). Dallas: SIL International.
- ^Windfuhr, Gernot.The Iranian languages.Routledge Taylor and Francis Group.
- ^abMacKenzie, David Niel (1998)."Ērān, Ērānšahr".Encyclopedia Iranica.Vol. 8. Costa Mesa: Mazda. Archived fromthe originalon 13 March 2017.
- ^abSchmitt, Rüdiger (1987),"Aryans",Encyclopedia Iranica,vol. 2, New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul, pp. 684–687
- ^Laroche. 1957. Proto-Iranian*arya-descends from Proto-Indo-European (PIE)*ar-yo-,ayo-adjective to a root*ar"to assemble skillfully", present in Greekharma"chariot", Greekaristos,(as in "aristocracy"), Latinars"art", etc.
- ^abBailey, Harold Walter(1987)."Arya".Encyclopedia Iranica.Vol. 2. New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul. pp. 681–683. Archived fromthe originalon 3 March 2016.
- ^(Skjærvø 2006)
- ^John R. Perry (Summer–Autumn 1998). "A Review of the 'Encyclopaedia Iranica'".Iranian Studies.31(3/4): 517–525.
- ^Lassen, Christian. 1936. Die altpersischen Keil-Inschriften von Persepolis. Entzifferung des Alphabets und Erklärung des Inhalts. Bonn: Weber. S. 182.
This was followed byWilhelm Geigerin hisGrundriss der Iranischen Philologie(1895).Friedrich von Spiegel(1859),Avesta,Engelmann (p. vii) used the spellingEranian. - ^Cust, Robert Needham. 1878.A sketch of the modern languages of the East Indies.London: Trübner.
- ^Dani, Ahmad Hasan.1989.History of northern areas of Pakistan.Historical studies (Pakistan) series. National Institute of Historical and Cultural Research.
"We distinguish between the Aryan languages of Iran, or Irano-Aryan, and the Aryan languages of India, or Indo-Aryan. For the sake of brevity, Iranian is commonly used instead of Irano-Aryan". - ^Lazard, Gilbert.1977.Prefacein: Oranskij, Iosif M.Les langues iraniennes.Traduit par Joyce Blau.
- ^Schmitt, Rüdiger. 1994.Sprachzeugnisse alt- und mitteliranischer Sprachen in Afghanistanin:Indogermanica et Caucasica. Festschrift für Karl Horst Schmidt zum 65. Geburtstag.Bielmeier, Robert und Reinhard Stempel (Hrg.). De Gruyter. S. 168–196.
- ^Lazard, Gilbert. 1998. Actancy. Empirical approaches to language typology. Mouton de Gruyter.ISBN3-11-015670-9,ISBN978-3-11-015670-6
- ^Encyclopaedia Iranica: EASTERN IRANIAN LANGUAGES. By Nicholas Sims-Williams
- ^Michael Witzel(2001): Autochthonous Aryans? The evidence from Old Indian and Iranian texts. Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies 7(3): 1–115.
- ^Roland G. Kent: "Old Persion: Grammar Texts Lexicon". Part I, Chapter I: The Linguistic Setting of Old Persian. American Oriental Society, 1953.
- ^(Skjærvø 2006) vi(2). Documentation.
- ^Nicholas Sims-Williams, Iranica, under entry: Eastern Iranian languages
- ^Windfuhr, Gernot (2009). "Dialectology and Topics".The Iranian Languages.Routledge.pp. 18–21.
- ^Mary Boyce. 1975.A Reader in Manichaean Middle Persian and Parthian,p. 14.
- ^Brzezinski, Richard; Mielczarek, Mariusz (2002).The Sarmatians, 600 BC-AD 450.Osprey Publishing. p. 39.
(..) Indeed, it is now accepted that the Sarmatians merged in with pre-Slavic populations.
- ^Adams, Douglas Q. (1997).Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture.Taylor & Francis. p. 523.
(..) In their Ukrainian and Polish homeland the Slavs were intermixed and at times overlain by Germanic speakers (the Goths) and by Iranian speakers (Scythians, Sarmatians, Alans) in a shifting array of tribal and national configurations.
- ^Atkinson, Dorothy;et al. (1977).Women in Russia.Stanford University Press. p.3.ISBN9780804709101.
(..) Ancient accounts link the Amazons with the Scythians and the Sarmatians, who successively dominated the south of Russia for a millennium extending back to the seventh century B.C. The descendants of these peoples were absorbed by the Slavs who came to be known as Russians.
- ^Slovene Studies.Vol. 9–11. Society for Slovene Studies. 1987. p. 36.
(..) For example, the ancient Scythians, Sarmatians (amongst others), and many other attested but now extinct peoples were assimilated in the course of history by Proto-Slavs.
Bibliography
[edit]- Bailey, H. W.(1979).Dictionary of Khotan Saka.Cambridge University Press. 1979. 1st Paperback edition 2010.ISBN978-0-521-14250-2.
- Schmitt, Rüdiger, ed. (1989).Compendium Linguarum Iranicarum(in German). Wiesbaden: Reichert.ISBN978-3-88226-413-5.
- Sims-Williams, Nicholas (1996). "Iranian languages".Encyclopedia Iranica.Vol. 7. Costa Mesa: Mazda. pp. 238–245.
- Yarshater, Ehsan, ed. (1996)."Iran".Encyclopedia Iranica.Vol. 7. Costa Mesa: Mazda.
- Frye, Richard N. (1996)."Peoples of Iran".Encyclopedia Iranica.Vol. 7. Costa Mesa: Mazda.
- Windfuhr, Gernot L. (1995)."Cases in Iranian languages and dialects".Encyclopedia Iranica.Vol. 5. Costa Mesa: Mazda. pp. 25–37.
- Lazard, Gilbert (1996)."Dari".Encyclopedia Iranica.Vol. 7. Costa Mesa: Mazda.
- Henning, Walter B. (1954)."The Ancient language of Azarbaijan".Transactions of the Philological Society.53(1): 157–177.doi:10.1111/j.1467-968X.1954.tb00282.x.
- Rezakhani, Khodadad (2001)."The Iranian Language Family".Archived fromthe originalon 2004-10-09.
- Skjærvø, Prods Oktor (2006)."Iran, vi. Iranian languages and scripts".Encyclopædia Iranica.Vol. 13.
- Delshad, Farshid (2010).Georgica et Irano-Semitica(PDF).Ars Poetica.Deutscher Wissenschaftsverlag DWV.ISBN978-3-86888-004-5.
- Mallory, J. P.; Adams, Douglas Q. (2006).The Oxford introduction to Proto-Indo-European and the Proto-Indo-European world.Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-929668-2.
- Toroghdar, Zia (2018). "From Astara to Fuman: Comparison words from dialects of different languages Talysh and Tatic".Farhang-e Ilia.pp. 38–172.
Further reading
[edit]- Sokolova, V. S. "New information on the phonetics of Iranic languages." Trudy Instituta jazykoznanija NN SSR (Moskva) 1 (1952): 178–192.
- Jügel, Thomas. "Word-order variation in Middle Iranic: Persian, Parthian, Bactrian, and Sogdian." Word order variation: Semitic, Turkic, and Indo-European languages in contact, Studia Typologica [STTYP] 31 (2022): 39–62.
External links
[edit]- Martin Joachim Kümmel."Areal developments in the history of Iranic: West vs. East"(PDF).Department of Indo-European linguistics,University of Jena.
- Society for Iranian Linguistics
- Kurdish and other Iranic Languages
- Iranian EFL Journal(Archived2019-01-22 at theWayback Machine)
- Iranian language treein Russian, identical with above classification.
- Old Iranian Onlineby Scott L. Harvey and Jonathan Slocum, free online lessons at theLinguistics Research Centerat theUniversity of Texas at Austin
