Irish orthography

Irish orthographyis theset of conventionsused to writeIrish.Aspelling reformin the mid-20th century led toAn Caighdeán Oifigiúil,the modernstandardwritten formused by theGovernment of Ireland,which regulates bothspellingandgrammar.The reform removed inter-dialectalsilent letters,simplified someletter sequences,and modernised archaic spellings to reflect modern pronunciation, but it also removed letters pronounced in some dialects but not in others.

Irish spelling represents all Irishdialectsto a high degree despite their considerable phonological variation, e.g.crann( "tree" ) is read/kɾˠan̪ˠ/in Mayo andUlster,/kɾˠaːn̪ˠ/in Galway, or/kɾˠəun̪ˠ/inMunster.Some words may have dialectal pronunciations not reflected by their standard spelling, and they sometimes have distinct dialectal spellings to reflect this.

Alphabet

Gaelic type with Roman type equivalents and the additionallenitedletters.

Latin scripthas been thewriting systemused to write Irish since the 5th century, when it replacedOgham,which was used to writePrimitive IrishandOld Irish.Prior to the mid-20th century,Gaelic type(cló Gaelach) was the maintypefaceused to write Irish; now, it is usually replaced byRoman type(cló Rómhánach). The use of Ogham and Gaelic type today is restricted to decorative or self-consciously traditional contexts. Thedot abovealenitedletter in Gaelic type is usually replaced by a following⟨h⟩in Roman type (e.g.⟨ċ⟩→⟨ch⟩).

Letters and letter names

The traditional Irish Alpha bet carved in Gaelic type on a building inDublin,with each type of diacritic (síneadh fadaandponc séimhithe) as well as theTironian et.

The traditional IrishAlpha bet(aibítir) consists of 18 letters:⟨a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, l, m, n, o, p, r, s, t, u⟩.It does not contain⟨j, k, q, v, w, x, y, z⟩,although they are used in scientific terminology and modernloanwordsof foreign origin.⟨v⟩occurs in a small number of (mainlyonomatopoeic) native words (e.g.vácarnach"to quack" andvrác"caw" ) andcolloquialisms(e.g.víogforbíog"chirp" andvísforbís"screw" ).⟨h⟩,when notprefixedto a word initial vowel or after a consonant to showlenition,primarily occurs word initially in loanwords, e.g.hata"hat".⟨k⟩is the only letter not listed byÓ Dónaill.

Vowels may beaccentedwith anacute accent(⟨á, é, í, ó, ú⟩;seebelow).Accented letters are considered variants of their unaccented equivalent, and they follow their unaccented equivalents in dictionaries (i.e.a,á…abhac,ábhacht,abhaile...).

English letter namesare generally used in both colloquial and formal speech but there are modern Irish letter names (based on the originalLatin names), similar to other languages that use aLatin script Alpha bet.Tree names were historically used to name the letters. Tradition taught that they all derived from thenames of Ogham letters,though it is now known that only some of the earliest were named after trees.

Letter	Name	Name (IPA)	Tree Name (Bríatharogam)	Ogham equivalent	Notes
Aa	áa	/aː/	ailm(pine)	ᚐ
Bb	bé	/bʲeː/	beith(birch)	ᚁ
Cc	cé	/ceː/	coll(hazel)	ᚉ
Dd	dé	/dʲeː/	dair(oak)	ᚇ
Ee	éa	/eː/	eadhadh(poplar)	ᚓ
Ff	eif	/ɛfʲ/	fearn(alder)	ᚃ
Gg	gé	/ɟeː/	gort(ivy)	ᚌ
Hh	héis	/heːʃ/	uath(hawthorn)	ᚆ
Ii	ía	/iː/	iodhadh(yew)	ᚔ
Jj	jé	/dʒeː/			[dʒ]is a foreign sound.
Kk	cá	/kaː/
Ll	eil	/ɛlʲ/	luis(rowan)	ᚂ
Mm	eim	/ɛmʲ/	muin(vine)	ᚋ
Nn	ein	/ɛnʲ/	nion(ash)	ᚅ
Oo	óa	/oː/	onn(gorse)	ᚑ
Pp	pé	/pʲeː/	ifín(gooseberryorthorn)	ᚘ	Seeforfeda.
			peith(dwarf alder)	ᚚ
Qq	cú	/kuː/		ᚊ	⟨Q⟩is used to transliterateceirt(apple).
Rr	ear	/aɾˠ/	ruis(elder)	ᚏ
Ss	eas	/asˠ/	sail(willow)	ᚄ
Tt	té	/tʲeː/	tinne(holly)	ᚈ
Uu	úa	/uː/	úr(heather)	ᚒ
Vv	vé	/vʲeː/
Ww	wae	/weː/
Xx	eacs	/ɛksˠ/
Yy	yé	/jeː/
Zz	zae	/zˠeː/		ᚎ	⟨Z⟩is used to transliteratestraif(blackthorn);[zˠ]is a foreign sound.

Grapheme to phoneme correspondence

Ingraphemetophonemecorrespondence tables on this page:

• "U" stands for Mayo and Ulster Irish, "C" for southern Connacht Irish, and "M" for Munster Irish.
• Initially and finally mean word initial or final unless stated otherwise.
• /∅/means silent, i.e. that theletter(s) are not pronounced.
• TheIPAtranscriptions of examples on this page are inConnacht Irish.

SeeIrish phonologyfor an explanation of the symbols used andIrish initial mutationsfor an explanation of eclipsis and lenition.

Consonants

Consonantsare generally "broad" (velarised) when beside⟨a, á, o, ó, u, ú⟩and "slender" (palatalised) when beside⟨e, é, i, í⟩.Irish orthography does not allow consonant letters or digraphs to bedoubled(except in⟨ll, nn, rr⟩), in compound words which would result in doubled consonants they are broken up by a hyphen (see below).

Letter(s)				Phoneme(s)			Example(s)
				U	C	M
b	broad			/bˠ/			bain/bˠanʲ/"take" (imper.),scuab/sˠkuəbˠ/"broom"
	slender			/bʲ/			béal/bʲeːlˠ/"mouth",cnáib/knˠaːbʲ/"hemp"
bh	broad			/w/			bhain/wanʲ/"took",ábhar/ˈaːwəɾˠ/"material",dubhaigh/ˈd̪ˠʊwiː/"blacken" (imper.),taobh/t̪ˠiːw/"side",dubh/d̪ˠʊw/"black"
	slender			/vʲ/			bhéal/vʲeːlˠ/"mouth" (lenited),cuibhreann/ˈkɪvʲɾʲən̪ˠ/"common table",aibhneacha/ˈavʲnʲəxə/"rivers",sibh/ʃɪvʲ/"you" (pl.)
	Seebelowfor⟨(e)abh, (e)obh, (i)ubh⟩
bhf (eclipsis of⟨f⟩)	broad			/w/			bhfuinneog/ˈwɪn̠ʲoːɡ/"window" (eclipsed)
	slender			/vʲ/			bhfíon/vʲiːnˠ/"wine" (eclipsed)
bp (eclipsis of⟨p⟩)	broad			/bˠ/			bpoll/bˠoːl̪ˠ/"hole" (eclipsed)
	slender			/bʲ/			bpríosún/ˈbʲɾʲiːsˠuːnˠ/"prison" (eclipsed)
c	broad			/k/			cáis/kaːʃ/"cheese",mac/mˠak/"son"
	slender			/c/			ceist/cɛʃtʲ/"question",mic/mʲɪc/"sons"
ch	broad			/x/			cháis/xaːʃ/"cheese" (lenited),taoiseach/ˈt̪ˠiːʃəx/"chieftain,Prime Minister of Ireland"
	slender	before⟨t⟩					boichte/bˠɔxtʲə/"poorer"
		usually		/ç/			cheist/çɛʃtʲ/"question" (lenited),deich/dʲɛç/"ten",oíche/ˈiːçə/"night"
d	broad			/d̪ˠ/			dorn/d̪ˠoːɾˠn̪ˠ/"fist",nead/n̠ʲad̪ˠ/"nest"
	slender			/dʲ/			dearg/dʲaɾˠəɡ/"red",cuid/kɪdʲ/"part"
dh	broad	initially		/ɣ/			dhorn/ɣoːɾˠn̪ˠ/"fist" (lenited)
		elsewhere		/∅/			ádh/aː/"luck"
	slender	usually		/j/			dhearg/ˈjaɾˠəɡ/"red" (lenited),fáidh/fˠaːj/"prophet"
		finally		/j/	/∅/	/ɟ/
	Seebelowfor⟨(e)adh, (a)idh, eidh, odh, oidh⟩.SeeExceptions in verb formsfor -⟨dh⟩at the end of verbs endings.
dt	broad	eclipsis of⟨t⟩		/d̪ˠ/			dtaisce/ˈd̪ˠaʃcə/"treasure" (eclipsed)
		elsewhere		/t̪ˠ/			greadta/ˈɟɾʲat̪ˠə/"beaten"
	slender	eclipsis of⟨t⟩		/dʲ/			dtír/dʲiːɾʲ/"country" (eclipsed)
		elsewhere		/tʲ/			goidte/ˈɡɛtʲə/"stolen"
f	broad			/fˠ/			fós/fˠoːsˠ/"still",graf/ɡɾˠafˠ/"graph"
	slender			/fʲ/			fíon/fʲiːnˠ/"wine",stuif/sˠt̪ˠɪfʲ/"stuff"
	SeeExceptions in verb formsfor -⟨f⟩- in future and conditional personal verb endings.
fh				/∅/			fhuinneog/ˈɪn̠ʲoːɡ/"window" (lenited),fhíon/iːnˠ/"wine" (lenited)
g	broad			/ɡ/			gasúr/ˈɡasˠuːɾˠ/"boy",bog/bˠɔɡ/"soft"
	slender			/ɟ/			geata/ˈɟat̪ˠə/"gate",carraig/ˈkaɾˠəɟ/"rock"
gc (eclipsis of⟨c⟩)	broad			/ɡ/			gcáis/ɡaːʃ/"cheese" (eclipsed)
	slender			/ɟ/			gceist/ɟɛʃtʲ/"question" (eclipsed)
gh	broad	initially		/ɣ/			ghasúr/ˈɣasˠuːɾˠ/"boy" (lenited)
		elsewhere		/∅/			Eoghan/ˈoːənˠ/(male name)
	slender	usually		/j/			gheata/ˈjat̪ˠə/"gate" (lenited),dóigh/d̪ˠoːj/"way, manner"
		finally		/j/	/∅/	/ɟ/
	Seebelowfor⟨(e)agh, aigh, eigh, ogh, oigh, (u)igh⟩.SeeExceptions in verb formsfor⟨(a)igh⟩at the end of verbs.
h				/h/			hata/ˈhat̪ˠə/"hat",na héisc/nəheːʃc/"the fish" (plural)
j(loan consonant)				/dʒ/			jab/ˈdʒabˠ/"job",jíp/dʒiːpʲ/"jeep"
l	broad	initially	usually	/l̪ˠ/			luí/l̪ˠiː/"lying (down)"
			lenited	/lˠ/			lann/lˠaːn̪ˠ/"blade" (lenited)
		elsewhere		/lˠ/or/l̪ˠ/			béal/bʲeːlˠ/"mouth"
	slender	initially	usually	/l̠ʲ/			leisciúil/ˈl̠ʲɛʃcuːlʲ/"lazy"
			lenited	/lʲ/			leanbh/ˈlʲanˠəw/"baby" (lenited)
		elsewhere		/lʲ/or/l̠ʲ/			siúil/ˈʃuːlʲ/"walk"
ll	broad			/l̪ˠ/			poll/poːl̪ˠ/"hole"
	slender			/l̠ʲ/			coill/kəil̠ʲ/"woods"
m	broad			/mˠ/			mór/mˠoːɾˠ/"big",am/aːmˠ/"time"
	slender			/mʲ/			milis/ˈmʲɪlʲəʃ/"sweet",im/iːmʲ/"butter"
mb (eclipsis of⟨b⟩)	broad			/mˠ/			mbaineann/ˈmˠanʲən̪ˠ/"takes" (eclipsed)
	slender			/mʲ/			mbéal/mʲeːlˠ/"mouth" (eclipsed)
mh	broad			/w/			mhór/woːɾˠ/"big" (lenited),lámha/ˈl̪ˠaːwə/"hands",léamh/l̠ʲeːw/"reading"
	slender			/vʲ/			mhilis/ˈvʲɪlʲəʃ/"sweet" (lenited),uimhir/ˈɪvʲəɾʲ/"number",nimh/n̠ʲɪvʲ/"poison"
	Seebelowfor⟨(e)amh, (e)omh, (i)umh⟩.
n	broad	initially	usually	/n̪ˠ/			naoi/n̪ˠiː/"nine"
			lenited	/nˠ/			nótaí/nˠoːt̪ˠiː/"notes" (lenited)
		after non⟨s(h)⟩initial cons.		/ɾˠ/		/nˠ/	mná/mˠɾˠaː/"women",cnaipe/ˈkɾˠapʲə/"press"
		usually		/nˠ/or/n̪ˠ/			bean/bʲanˠ/"woman"
	slender	initially	usually	/n̠ʲ/			neart/n̠ʲaɾˠt̪ˠ/"strength"
			lenited	/nʲ/			neart/nʲaɾˠt̪ˠ/"strength" (lenited)
		after non⟨s(h)⟩initial cons.		/ɾʲ/		/nʲ/	gnéas/ɟɾʲeːsˠ/"sex",cníopaire/ˈcɾʲiːpˠəɾʲə/"skinflint"
		usually		/nʲ/or/n̠ʲ/			Eoin/oːnʲ/(male name)
nc	broad			/ŋk/			ancaire/ˈaŋkəɾʲə/"anchor"
	slender			/ɲc/			rinc/ɾˠɪɲc/"dance"
nd (eclipsis of⟨d⟩)	broad			/n̪ˠ/			ndorn/n̪ˠoːɾˠn̪ˠ/"fist" (eclipsed)
	slender			/n̠ʲ/			ndearg/ˈn̠ʲaɾˠəɡ/"red" (eclipsed)
ng	broad	eclipsis of⟨g⟩		/ŋ/			ngasúr/ˈŋasˠuːɾˠ/"boy" (eclipsed)
		elsewhere		/ŋ(g)/			long/l̪ˠuːŋɡ/"ship",teanga/ˈtʲaŋɡə/"tongue"
	slender	eclipsis of⟨g⟩		/ɲ/			ngeata/ˈɲat̪ˠə/"gate" (eclipsed)
		elsewhere		/ɲ(ɟ)/			cuing/kɪɲɟ/"yoke",ingear/ˈɪɲɟəɾˠ/"vertical"
nn	broad			/n̪ˠ/			ceann/caːn̪ˠ/"head"
	slender			/n̠ʲ/			tinneas/ˈtʲɪn̠ʲəsˠ/"illness"
p	broad			/pˠ/			poll/pˠoːl̪ˠ/"hole",stop/sˠt̪ˠɔpˠ/"stop"
	slender			/pʲ/			príosún/ˈpʲɾʲiːsˠuːnˠ/"prison",truip/t̪ˠɾˠɪpʲ/"trip"
ph	broad			/fˠ/			pholl/fˠoːl̪ˠ/"hole" (lenited)
	slender			/fʲ/			phríosún/ˈfʲɾʲiːsˠuːnˠ/"prison" (lenited)
r	broad			/ɾˠ/			ruán/ˈɾˠuːaːnˠ/"buckwheat",cumhra/kuːɾˠə/"fragrant",fuar/fˠuəɾˠ/"cold"
	slender	initially					rí/ɾˠiː/"king"
		before⟨d, l, n, r, s, t, th⟩					airde/aːɾˠdʲə/"height",duirling/ˈd̪ˠuːɾˠl̠ʲən̠ʲ/"stony beach",coirnéal/ˈkoːɾˠn̠ʲeːlˠ/"corner",cuairt/kuəɾˠtʲ/"visit",oirthear/ˈɔɾˠhəɾˠ/"east"
		after⟨s⟩					sreang/sˠɾˠaŋɡ/"string"
		usually		/ɾʲ/			tirim/ˈtʲɪɾʲəmʲ/"dry",fuair/fˠuəɾʲ/"got"
rr				/ɾˠ/			carr/kaːɾˠ/"car, cart"
s	broad			/sˠ/			Sasana/ˈsˠasˠənˠə/"England",tús/t̪ˠuːsˠ/"beginning"
	slender	initially before⟨f, m, p, r⟩					sféar/sˠfʲeːɾˠ/"sphere",speal/sˠpʲalˠ/"scythe",sméar/sˠmʲeːɾˠ/"blackberry",sreang/sˠɾˠaŋɡ/"string"
		usually		/ʃ/			sean/ʃanˠ/"old",cáis/kaːʃ/"cheese"
sh				/h/			Shasana/ˈhasˠənˠə/"England" (lenited),shiúil/huːlʲ/"walked"
t	broad			/t̪ˠ/			taisce/ˈt̪ˠaʃcə/"treasure",ceart/caɾˠt̪ˠ/"correct"
	slender			/tʲ/			tír/tʲiːɾʲ/"country",beirt/bʲɛɾˠtʲ/"two (people)"
thb	usually			/h/c			thuaidh/huə/"north",thíos/hiːsˠ/"below",athair/ˈahəɾʲ/"father",coinnithe/ˈkɪn̠ʲɪhə/"kept",ith/ɪh/"eat",foghlamtha/ˈfˠoːlˠəmˠhə/"learned",ruaigthe/ˈɾˠuəcə/"chased",scuabtha/ˈsˠkuəpˠə/"swept"
	finally after a long vowel or diphthong			/∅/			bláth/bˠlˠaː/"blossom",cliath/clʲiə/"harrow"
ts (mutation of⟨s⟩- afteran"the" )	broad			/t̪ˠ/			an tsolais/ə(n̪ˠ)ˈt̪ˠɔlˠəʃ/"the light (gen.)"
	slender			/tʲ/			an tSín/ə(nʲ)tʲiːnʲ/"China"
v(loan consonant)	broad			/w/			vóta/ˈwoːt̪ˠə/"vote"
	slender			/vʲ/			veidhlín/ˈvʲəilʲiːnʲ/"violin"
z(loan consonant)	broad			/zˠ/			zú/zˠuː/"zoo"
	slender			/ʒ/			Zen/ʒɛnʲ/"Zen"

Vowels

Vowelsequences are common in Irish spelling due to the "caol le caol agus leathan le leathan"(" slender with slender and broad with broad ") rule, i.e. that the vowels on either side of any consonant (orconsonant cluster) must be both slender (⟨e, é, i, í⟩) or both broad (⟨a, á, o, ó, u, ú⟩), to unambiguously determine if the consonant(s) are broad or slender. An apparent exception is⟨ae⟩,which is followed by a broad consonant despite the⟨e⟩.

The pronunciation of vowels in Irish is mostly predictable from the following rules:

• Unstressed short vowels are generally reduced to/ə/.
• ⟨e⟩is silent before a broad vowel.
• ⟨i⟩is silent before⟨u, ú⟩and after a vowel (except sometimes in⟨ei, oi, ui⟩).
• ⟨io, oi, ui⟩have multiple pronunciations that depend on adjacent consonants.
• Accentedvowels (⟨á, é, í, ó, ú⟩) representlong vowelsand indigraphsandtrigraphscontaining them, surrounding unaccented vowels are silent, but there are several exceptions, e.g. when preceded by two unaccented vowels.
• Accented vowels in succession are both pronounced, e.g.séú/ˈʃeːuː/"sixth",ríúil/ˈɾˠiːuːlʲ/"royal, kingly, majestic",báíocht/ˈbˠaːiːxt̪ˠ/"sympathy", etc.
• ⟨i⟩and⟨u⟩are long before⟨á, ó⟩,e.g.fiáin/ˈfʲiːaːnʲ/"wild",ruóg/ˈɾˠuːoːɡ/"twine"
• A following⟨rd, rl, rn, rr⟩lengthens some vowels and in Munster and Connacht a following syllable-final⟨ll, nn⟩or word-final⟨m, ng⟩may lengthen or diphthongise some vowels depending on dialect.

Letter(s)			Phoneme(s)			Example(s)
			U	C	M
a	stressed	usually	/a/			fan/fˠanˠ/"stay" (imper.)
		before⟨rd, rl, rn, rr⟩	/aː/			garda/ˈɡaːɾˠd̪ˠə/"policeman",tarlú/ˈt̪ˠaːɾˠl̪ˠuː/"happening",carnán/ˈkaːɾˠn̪ˠaːnˠ/"(small) heap",barr/bˠaːɾˠ/"tip, point"
		before syllable-final⟨ll, nn⟩and -⟨m⟩	/a/	/aː/	/əu/	mall/mˠaːl̪ˠ/"slow, late",ann/aːn̪ˠ/"there",am/aːmˠ/"time"
	unstressed	usually	/ə/			ólann/ˈoːlˠən̪ˠ/"drink" (present),mála/ˈmˠaːlˠə/"bag"
		before⟨ch⟩	/a/	/ə/		Domhnach/ˈd̪ˠoːnˠəx/"Sunday"
á,ái			/aː/			bán/bˠaːnˠ/"white",dáil/d̪ˠaːlʲ/"assembly",gabháil/ˈɡawaːlʲ/"taking"
ae,aei			/eː/			Gaelach/ˈɡeːlˠəx/"Gaelic",Gaeilge/ˈɡeːlʲɟə/"Irish (language)"
ai	stressed	usually	/a/			baile/ˈbˠalʲə/"home"
		before⟨rd, rl, rn, rr⟩	/aː/			airne/aːɾˠn̠ʲə/"sloe",airde/aːɾˠdʲə/"height"
		before syllable-final⟨ll, nn⟩	/a/	/aː/	/əi/	caillte/ˈkaːl̠ʲtʲə/"lost, ruined",crainn/kɾˠaːn̠ʲ/"trees"
	unstressed		/ə/			eolais/ˈoːlˠəʃ/"knowledge" (genitive)
aí,aío			/iː/			maígh/mˠiːj/"claim" (imper.),gutaí/ˈɡʊt̪ˠiː/"vowels",naíonán/ˈn̪ˠiːnˠaːnˠ/"infant",beannaíonn/ˈbʲan̪ˠiːnˠ/"blesses"
ao			/iː/		/eː/	saol/sˠiːlˠ/"life"
aoi			/iː/			gaois/ɡiːʃ/"shrewdness",naoi/ˈn̪ˠiː/"nine"
e,ei	stressed	usually	/ɛ/			te/tʲɛ/"hot",ceist/cɛʃtʲ/"question"
		before⟨rd, rl, rn⟩	/eː/			eirleach/ˈeːɾˠl̠ʲəx/"destruction",ceirnín/ˈceːɾˠnʲiːnʲ/"record album",ceird/ceːɾˠdʲ/"trade, craft"
		before⟨m, mh, n⟩	/ɪ/			creimeadh/ˈcɾʲɪmʲə/"corrosion, erosion",sceimhle/ˈʃcɪvʲlʲə/"eroded",seinm/ˈʃɪnʲəmʲ/"playing"
		before syllable-final⟨nn⟩and -⟨m⟩	/ɪ/	/iː/	/əi/	greim/ɟɾʲiːmʲ/"grip"
	unstressed		/ə/			míle/ˈmʲiːlʲə/"thousand"
é,éa,éi			/eː/			sé/ʃeː/"he",déanamh/ˈdʲeːnˠəw/"doing",buidéal/ˈbˠɪdʲeːlˠ/"bottle",scéimh/ʃceːvʲ/"beauty",páipéir/ˈpˠaːpʲeːɾʲ/"papers"
ea,eai	stressed	usually	/a/			bean/bʲanˠ/"woman",veain/vʲanʲ/"van"
		before⟨rd, rl, rn, rr⟩	/aː/			ceardaí/caːɾˠd̪ˠiː/"craftsman",bearna/ˈbʲaːɾˠn̪ˠə/"gap",fearr/fʲaːɾˠ/"better"
		before syllable-final⟨ll, nn⟩	/a/	/aː/	/əu/	feall/fʲaːl̪ˠ/"treachery",feanntach/ˈfʲaːn̪ˠt̪ˠəx/"severe"
	unstressed	usually	/ə/			seisean/ˈʃɛʃənˠ/"he" (emphatic)
		before⟨ch⟩	/a/	/ə/		taoiseach/ˈt̪ˠiːʃəx/"chieftain"
eá,eái			/aː/			Seán/ʃaːnˠ/"John",caisleán/ˈkaʃl̠ʲaːnˠ/"castle",meáin/mʲaːnʲ/"middles",caisleáin/ˈkaʃl̠ʲaːnʲ/"castles"
eo,eoi		usually	/oː/			ceol/coːlˠ/"music",dreoilín/ˈdʲɾʲoːlʲiːnʲ/"wren"
		in four words	/ɔ/			anseo/ənʲˈʃɔ/"here", deoch/dʲɔx/"drink", eochair/ˈɔxəɾʲ/"key", seo/ˈʃɔ/"this"
i	stressed	usually	/ɪ/			pic/pʲɪc/"pitch",ifreann/ˈɪfʲɾʲən̪ˠ/"hell"
		before syllable-final⟨ll, nn⟩and -⟨m⟩	/ɪ/	/iː/		cill/ciːl̠ʲ/"church",cinnte/ˈciːn̠ʲtʲə/"sure",im/iːmʲ/"butter"
	unstressed		/ə/			faoistin/ˈfˠiːʃtʲənʲ/"confession"
í,ío			/iː/			gnímh/ɟnʲiːvʲ/"act, deed" (gen.),cailín/ˈkalʲiːnʲ/"girl",síol/ʃiːlˠ/"seed"
ia,iai			/iə/			Diarmaid/dʲiərmədʲ/"Dermot",bliain/bʲlʲiənʲ/"year"
iá,iái			/iː.aː/			bián/ˈbʲiːaːnˠ/"size",liáin/ˈl̠ʲiːaːnʲ/"trowel" (gen.)
io		before⟨d, n, r, s, t, th⟩	/ɪ/			fios/fʲɪsˠ/"knowledge",bior/bʲɪɾˠ/"spit, spike",cion/cɪnˠ/"affection",giota/ˈɟɪt̪ˠə/"bit, piece",giodam/ˈɟɪd̪ˠəmˠ/"restlessness",friotháil/ˈfʲɾʲɪhaːlʲ/"attention"
		before⟨b, c, g, m, ng, p⟩	/ɪ/	/ʊ/		siopa/ˈʃʊpˠə/"shop",liom/lʲʊmˠ/"with me",tiocfaidh/ˈtʲʊkiː/"will come",Siobhán/ˈʃʊwaːnˠ/"Joan",briogáid/ˈbʲɾʲʊɡaːdʲ/"brigade",tiomáin/ˈtʲʊmaːnʲ/"drive" (imper.),ionga/ˈʊŋɡə/"(finger)nail"
		before syllable-final⟨nn⟩		/ʊ/	/uː/	fionn/fʲʊn̪ˠ/"light-haired"
ió,iói			/iː.oː/			sióg/ˈʃiːoːɡ/"fairy",pióg/ˈpʲiːoːɡ/"pie",grióir/ˈɟɾʲiːoːɾʲ/"weakling"
iu			/ʊ/			fliuch/fʲlʲʊx/"wet"
iú,iúi			/uː/			siúl/ʃuːlˠ/"walk",bailiú/ˈbˠalʲuː/"gathering",ciúin/cuːnʲ/"quiet",inniúil/ˈɪn̠ʲuːlʲ/"able, fit"
o	stressed	usually	/ɔ/			post/pˠɔsˠt̪ˠ/"post"
		before⟨rd, rl, rn⟩	/oː/			bord/bˠoːɾˠd̪ˠ/"table",orlach/ˈoːɾˠl̪ˠəx/"inch"
		before⟨n, m⟩	/ɔ/	/ʊ/		conradh/ˈkʊnˠɾˠə/"agreement",cromóg/ˈkɾˠʊmˠoːɡ/"hooked nose"
		before syllable-final⟨nn⟩and -⟨m, ng⟩		/uː/	/əu/	fonn/fˠuːn̪ˠ/"desire, inclination",trom/t̪ˠɾˠuːmˠ/"heavy",long/l̪ˠuːŋɡ/"ship"
	unstressed		/ə/			mo/mˠə/"my",cothrom/ˈkɔɾˠəmˠ/"equal"
ó,ói			/oː/			póg/pˠoːɡ/"kiss",armónach/ˈaɾˠəmˠoːnəx/"harmonic",móin/mˠoːnʲ/"sod, turf",bádóir/ˈbˠaːd̪ˠoːrʲ/"boatman"
oi	stressed	usually	/ɛ/			scoil/sˠkɛlʲ/"school",troid/t̪ˠɾˠɛdʲ/"fight" (imper.),toitín/ˈt̪ˠɛtʲiːnʲ/"cigarette",oibre/ˈɛbʲɾʲə/"work" (gen.),thoir/hɛɾʲ/"in the east",cloiche/ˈklˠɛçə/"stone" (gen.)
		before⟨cht, rs, rt, rth, s⟩	/ɔ/			cois/kɔʃ/"foot" (dat.),cloisfidh/ˈkl̪ˠɔʃiː/"will hear",boicht/bˠɔxtʲ/"poor" (gen. sg. masc.),doirse/ˈd̪ɔɾˠʃə/"doors",goirt/ɡɔɾˠtʲ/"salty",oirthear/ˈɔɾˠhəɾˠ/"east"
		before⟨rd, rl, rn⟩	/oː/			coirnéal/ˈkoːɾˠn̠ʲeːlˠ/"corner",oird/oːɾˠdʲ/"sledgehammers"
		next to⟨n, m, mh⟩	/ɪ/			anois/əˈnˠɪʃ/"now",gloine/ˈɡlˠɪnʲə/"glass",cnoic/knˠɪc/"hills",roimh/ɾˠɪvʲ/"before",coimeád/ˈkɪmʲaːd̪ˠ/"keep" (imper.),loinge/ˈl̪ˠɪɲɟə/"ship" (gen.)
		before syllable-final⟨nn⟩and -⟨m⟩	/ɪ/	/iː/		foinn/fˠiːnʲ/"wish" (gen.),droim/d̪ˠɾˠiːmʲ/"back"
		before syllable-final⟨ll⟩		/əi/	/iː/	goill/gəil̠ʲ/"grieve, hurt",coillte/ˈkəil̠ʲtʲə/"forests"
	unstressed		/ə/			éadroime/eːdˠɾˠəmʲə/"lightness"
oí,oío			/iː/			croíleacán/ˈkɾˠiːlʲəkaːnˠ/"core",croíonna/ˈkɾˠiːn̪ˠə/"hearts"
u	stressed	usually	/ʊ/			dubh/d̪ˠʊw/"black"
		before⟨rd, rl, rn⟩	/uː/			burla/ˈbˠuːɾˠl̪ˠə/"bundle",murnán/ˈmˠuːɾˠn̪ˠaːnˠ/"ankle"
		in English loanwords	/ɔ/or/ʊ/			bus/bˠɔsˠ/,club/klˠɔbˠ/
	unstressed		/ə/			agus/ˈaɡəsˠ/"and"
ú,úi			/uː/			tús/t̪ˠuːsˠ/"beginning",súil/suːlʲ/"eye",cosúil/ˈkɔsˠuːlʲ/"like, resembling"
ua,uai			/uə/			fuar/fˠuəɾˠ/"cold",fuair/fˠuəɾʲ/"got"
uá,uái			/uː.aː/			ruán/ˈɾˠuːaːnˠ/"buckwheat",duán/ˈd̪ˠuːaːnˠ/"kidney, fishhook",fuáil/ˈfˠuːaːlʲ/"sewing, stitching"
ui	stressed	usually	/ɪ/			duine/ˈd̪ˠɪnʲə/"person"
		before⟨rd, rl, rn⟩	/ɪ/	/uː/		duirling/ˈd̪ˠuːɾˠlʲənʲ/"stony beach",tuirne/ˈt̪ˠuːɾˠn̠ʲə/"spinning wheel"
		before syllable-final⟨ll, nn⟩and -⟨m⟩		/iː/		tuillteanach/ˈt̪ˠiːl̠ʲtʲənˠəx/ "deserving",puinn/pˠiːn̠ʲ/ "much",suim/sˠiːmʲ/ "interest"
	unstressed		/ə/			aguisín/ˈaɡəʃiːnʲ/"addition"
uí,uío			/iː/			buígh/bˠiːj/"turn yellow" (imper.),buíon/bˠiːnˠ/"band, troop"
uó,uói			/uː.oː/			cruóg/ˈkɾˠuːoːɡ/"urgent need",luóige/ˈl̪ˠuːoːɟə/"pollock" (gen.)

Followed by⟨bh, dh, gh, mh⟩

When followed by⟨bh, dh, gh, mh⟩,a short vowel usually forms adiphthongor lengthens. For⟨(e)adh, (a)idh, (a)igh⟩,see -⟨dh, (a)igh⟩inexceptions in verb forms.

Letters		Phoneme(s)			Example(s)
		U	C	M
(e)abh,(e)abha,(e)abhai		/oː/or/əu/	/əu/		Feabhra/ˈfʲəuɾˠə/"February",leabhair/l̠ʲəuɾʲ/"books",sabhall/sˠəul̪ˠ/"barn"
(e)adh,(e)adha,(e)adhai,(e)agh,(e)agha,(e)aghai	stressed	/eː/or/əi/	/əi/		meadhg/mʲəiɡ/"whey",adharc/əiɾˠk/"horn",adhairt/əiɾˠtʲ/"pillow",saghsanna/ˈsˠəisˠən̪ˠə/"sorts, kinds",deagha/d̪ˠəi/"centaury",aghaidh/əij/"face"
	unstressed	/uː/	/ə/		margadh/ˈmˠaɾˠəɡə/"market",briseadh/ˈbʲɾʲɪʃə/"breaking"
aidh,aidhe,aigh,aighe,aighea	stressed	/əi/			aidhleann/ˈəilʲən̪ˠ/"rack",aidhe/əi/"aye!",aighneas/əinʲəsˠ/"argument, discussion",aighe/əi/"cow, ox" (gen.),caighean/kəinˠ/"cage"
	unstressed	/iː/	/ə/	/əɟ/	cleachtaidh/ˈclʲaxt̪ˠiː/"practice" (gen.),bacaigh/ˈbˠakiː/"beggar" (gen.)
(e)amh,(e)amha,(e)amhai	stressed	/əu/			ramhraigh/ˈɾˠəuɾˠiː/"fattened",amhantar/ˈəun̪ˠt̪ˠəɾˠ/"venture",Samhain/sˠəunʲ/"November"
	unstressed	/uː/	/ə(w)/	/əw/	acadamh/ˈakəd̪ˠəw/"academy",creideamh/ˈcɾʲɛdʲəw/"belief, religion"
eidh,eidhea,eidhi		/eː/	/əi/		feidhm/fʲəimʲ/"function",eidheann/əin̪ˠ/"ivy",meidhir/mʲəiɾʲ/"mirth"
eigh,eighea,eighi					feighlí/ˈfʲəilʲiː/"overseer",leigheas/l̠ʲəisˠ/"healing",feighil/fʲəilʲ/"vigilance"
idh,(u)igh	stressed	/iː/		/ɪɟ/	ligh/l̠ʲiː/"sit",guigh/giː/"pray"
	unstressed	/iː/	/ə/	/əɟ/	tuillidh/ˈt̪ˠɪl̠ʲiː/"addition" (gen.),coiligh/ˈkɛlʲiː/"rooster" (gen.)
oidh,oidhea,oidhi		/əi/			oidhre/əiɾʲə/"heir",oidheanna/əin̪ˠə/"tragedies"
oigh,oighea,oighi					oighreach/ˈəiɾʲəx/"glacial",oigheann/əin̪ˠ/"oven",loighic/l̪ˠəic/"logic"
(e)obh,(e)obha,(e)obhai		/oː/	/əu/		lobhra/ˈl̪ˠəuɾˠə/"leprosy",lobhar/l̪ˠəuɾˠ/"leper",lobhair/l̪ˠəuɾʲ/"lepers"
(e)odh,(e)odha,(e)odhai					bodhrán/ˈbˠəuɾˠaːnˠ/"deaf person",bodhar/bˠəuɾˠ/"deaf",bodhair/bˠəuɾʲ/"deaf people"
(e)ogh,(e)ogha,(e)oghai					doghra/ˈd̪ˠəuɾˠə/"misery",bogha/bˠəu/"bow",broghais/bˠɾˠəuʃ/"afterbirth (of animal)"
(e)omh,(e)omha,(e)omhai		/oː/			Domhnach/ˈd̪ˠoːnˠəx/"Sunday",comhar/koːɾˠ/"partnership",domhain/d̪ˠoːnʲ/"deep"
(i)ubh		/uː/	/ʊ(w)/	/ʊw/	dubh/d̪ˠʊw/"black",tiubh/tʲʊw/"dense"
(i)umh,(i)umha,(i)umhai		/uː/			cumhra/ˈkuːɾˠə/"fragrant",Mumhan/ˈmˠuːnˠ/"Munster" (gen.),ciumhais/cuːʃ/"edge"

Epenthesis

After ashort vowel,an unwrittenepenthetic/ə/gets inserted between⟨l, n, r⟩+⟨b, bh, ch, f, g, mh⟩(as well as⟨p⟩,when derived from devoiced⟨b, bh, mh⟩), when within amorphemeboundary, e.g.gorm/ˈɡɔɾˠəmˠ/"blue",dearg/ˈdʲaɾˠəɡ/"red",dorcha/ˈd̪ˠɔɾˠəxə/"dark",ainm/ˈanʲəmʲ/"name",deilgneach/ˈdʲɛlʲəɟnʲəx/"prickly, thorny" ’leanbh/ˈl̠ʲanˠəw/"child",airgead/ˈaɾʲəɟəd̪ˠ/"silver, money". The main exception to this is⟨ng⟩which is mainly used for/ŋ/or/ɲ/.

Epenthesis does not occur afterlong vowelsand diphthongs, e.g.téarma/tʲeːɾˠmˠə/"term" ordualgas/ˈd̪ˠuəlˠɡəsˠ/"duty", or acrossmorphemeboundaries (i.e. after prefixes and in compound words), e.g.garmhac/ˈɡaɾˠwak/"grandson" (fromgar-"close, near" +mac"son" ),an-chiúin/ˈan̪ˠçuːnʲ/"very quiet" (froman-"very" +ciúin"quiet" ),carrbhealach/ˈkaːɾˠvʲalˠəx/"carriageway, roadway" (fromcarr"car" +bealach"way, road" ).

In Munster, epenthesis also occurs across morpheme boundaries, when⟨l, n, r⟩follow⟨b, bh, ch, g, mh⟩(after any vowel) or⟨th⟩(after short vowels), and when⟨n⟩follows⟨c, g, m, r⟩.

Exceptions in verb forms

See also:Irish conjugation

Inverbforms, some letters and letter combinations are pronounced differently from elsewhere.

Letter(s)				Phoneme(s)			Example(s)
				U	C	M
-dh	broad	preterite		/w/		/ɡ/	moladh é/ˈmˠɔlˠəweː/"he was praised"
		elsewhere	before⟨s⟩initial pronouns	/tʲ/		/x/	osclaíodh sí/ˈɔsˠklˠiːtʲʃiː/"let her open"
			usually	/w/	/x/		bheannódh mé/ˈvʲan̪ˠoːxmʲeː/"I would bless"
	slender	beforesubject pronouns		/∅/			beannóidh/ˈbʲan̪ˠoː/"will bless"
-ea-	in forms ofbí"be"			/ɛ/				bheadh sé/ˈvʲɛtʲʃeː/"he would be"
-eo(i),ó(i)-	verb endings			/oːxə/	/oː/			bheannóinn/ˈvʲan̪ˠoːn̠ʲ/"I would bless"
-f-	in personal verb endings			/h/c				dhófadh/ˈɣoːhəx/"would burn,déarfaidh/ˈdʲeːɾˠhiː/"will say",brisfidh/ˈbʲɾʲɪʃiː/"will break",scuabfadh/ˈsˠkuəpəx/"would sweep"
-(a)im				/əmˠ/	/əmʲ/			molaim/ˈmˠɔlˠəmʲ/"I praise"
-(a)igh	beforesubject pronouns			/ə/				bheannaigh mé/ˈvʲan̪ˠəmʲeː/"I blessed"

Diacritics

An Irish road sign with a dotless ı inComhaırle,obaır,maoınıú,Roınn,OıdhreachtaandOıleán.

An Caighdeán Oifigiúilcurrently uses onediacritic,the acute accent, though traditionally a second was used, the overdot. If diacritics are unavailable, e.g. on a computer usingASCII,the overdot is replaced by a following⟨h⟩,e.g.Ḃí sé→Bhí sé"He/It was" and there is no standard for replacing an acute accent, though sometimes it is indicated by a followingslash,e.g.fírinne→fi/rinne"truth".

Theacute accent(⟨◌́⟩;agúidor(síneadh) fada"long (sign)" )^ais used to indicate a long vowel, as inbád/bˠaːd̪ˠ/"boat". However, there are other conventions to indicate a long vowel, such as:

• A following⟨rd, rl, rn, rr⟩,e.g.ard/aːɾˠd̪ˠ/"high",eirleach/ˈeːɾˠlʲəx/"destruction",dorn/d̪ˠoːɾˠn̪ˠ/"fist", and, in Connacht, a word-final⟨m⟩,e.g.am/aːmˠ/"time".
• The digraphs⟨ae, ao, eo⟩,e.g.aerach/ˈeːɾˠəx/"gay",maol/mˠiːlˠ/"bare",ceol/coːlˠ/"music".
• The tri/tetragraphs⟨omh(a), umh(a)⟩,e.g.comharsa/ˈkoːɾˠsˠə/"neighbour",Mumhain/mˠuːnʲ/"Munster".
• ⟨i⟩and⟨u⟩before⟨á⟩or⟨ó⟩,e.g.fiáin/ˈfʲiːaːnʲ/"wild",ruóg/ˈɾˠuːoːɡ/"twine".

Theoverdot(⟨◌̇⟩;ponc séimhithe"dot of lenition" ) was traditionally used to indicatelenition,thoughAn Caighdeánexclusively uses a following⟨h⟩for this purpose. InOld Irish,the overdot was only used for⟨ḟ, ṡ⟩,while the following⟨h⟩was used for⟨ch, ph, th⟩and the lenition of other letters was not indicated. Later the two methods were used in parallel to represent lenition of any consonant (except⟨l, n, r⟩) until the standard practice became to use the overdot in Gaelic type and the following⟨h⟩in Roman type. Thus the dotted letters (litreacha buailte"struck letters" )⟨ḃ, ċ, ḋ, ḟ, ġ, ṁ, ṗ, ṡ, ṫ⟩are equivalent to letters followed by a⟨h⟩,i.e.⟨bh, ch, dh, fh, gh, mh, ph, sh, th⟩.

Lowercase⟨i⟩has notittlein Gaelic type, androad signs in the Republic of Ireland.However, as printed and electronic material like books, newspapers and web pages use Roman type almost invariably, the tittle is generally shown. Irish does notgraphemicallydistinguishdotted ianddotless ı,i.e. they are not different letters as they are in, e.g.TurkishandAzeri.

Punctuation

Íoc ⁊ Taispeáin( "Pay & Display") sign in Dublin with the Tironianetforagus"and".

Irishpunctuationis similar to English. An apparent exception is theTironian et(⟨⁊⟩;agus) which abbreviates the wordagus"and", like theampersand(⟨&⟩) abbreviates "and" in English. It is generally substituted by aseven(⟨7⟩) in texts.

Ahyphen(fleiscín) is used in Irish after⟨t, n⟩when prefixed to a masculine vowel-initial word as aninitial mutation,e.g.an t-arán"the bread",a n-iníon"their daughter". However, it is omitted when the vowel is capitalised, e.g.an tAlbanach"the Scotsman",Ár nAthair"Our Father". No hyphen is used when⟨h⟩is prefixed to a vowel-initial word, e.g.a hiníon"her daughter".

A hyphen is also used incompound wordsunder certain circumstances:

• between two vowels, e.g.mí-ádh"misfortune"
• between two similar consonants, e.g.droch-chaint"bad language",grod-díol"prompt payment"
• in a three-part compound, e.g.buan-chomhchoiste"permanent joint committee"
• after the prefixesdo-,fo-,so-before a word beginning with⟨bha, bhla, bhra, dha, gha, ghla, ghra, mha⟩,e.g.do-bhlasta"bad tasting",fo-ghlac"subsume",so-mharfacht"mortality"
• in capitalised titles, e.g.An Príomh-Bhreitheamh"the Chief Justice"
• afteran-"very" anddea-"good", e.g.an-mhór"very big",dea-mhéin"goodwill"

Anapostrophe(uaschamóg) is used to indicate an omitted vowel in the following cases:

• the prepositionsde"from" anddo"to" both becomed'before a vowel or⟨fh⟩+ vowel, as inThit sí d'each"She fell from a horse" andTabhair d'fhear an tí é"Give it to the landlord"
• the possessive pronounsmo"my" anddo"your (singular)" becomem'andd'before a vowel or⟨fh⟩+ vowel, as inm'óige"my youth",d'fhiacail"your tooth"
• the preverbalparticledobecomesd'before a vowel or⟨fh⟩+ vowel, as ind'ardaigh mé"I raised",d'fhanfadh sé"he would wait"
• the copular particlebabecomesb'before a vowel or⟨fh⟩+ vowel, as inB'ait liom é sin"I found that odd" andb'fhéidir"maybe". However,bais used before the pronounsé,í,iad,as inBa iad na ginearáil a choinnigh an chumhacht"It was the generals who kept the power"

Capitalisation

Bilingual signin Ireland. Theeclipsisof⟨P⟩to⟨bP⟩uses lowercase in an otherwiseall-capstext.

Capitalisationrules are similar to English. However, a prefixed letter remains in lowercase when the base initial is capitalised (an tSín"China" ). For text written inall caps,the prefixed letter is kept in lowercase, orsmall caps(STAIR NAHÉIREANN"THE HISTORY OF IRELAND" ).An initial capital is used for:

• Start of sentences
• Names of people, places (except the wordsan,na,de),languages, and adjectives of people and places (Micheál Ó Murchú"Michael Murphy";Máire Mhac an tSaoi"Mary McEntee";de Búrca"Burke";Sliabh na mBan"Slievenamon";Fraincis"French";bia Iodálach"Italian food" )
• Names of months, weeks and feast-days (Meán Fómhair"September";an Luan"Monday";Oíche Nollag"Christmas Eve" )
• Dé"day" (Dé Luain"on Monday" )
• Definitetitles

Abbreviations

Most Irishabbreviationsare straightforward, e.g.leathanach→lch.( "page → p." ) andmar shampla→m.sh.( "exempli gratia(for example) → e.g. "), but two that require explanation are:is é sin→.i.( "that is → i.e." ) andagus araile→⁊rl./srl.( "et cetera(and so forth) → &c./etc. ").Like⟨th⟩in English,⟨ú⟩follows anordinal numeral,e.g.Is é Lá Fheile Phádraig an 17ú lá den Márta"St. Patrick's day is the 17th [day] of March".

Spelling reform

The literaryClassical Irishwhich survived till the 17th century was archaic; the first attempt at simplification was not until 1639.The spelling represented adialect continuumincludingdistinctions lostin all surviving dialects by theGaelic revivalof the late 19th century.

The idea of aspelling reform,linked to the use of Roman or Gaelic type, was controversial in the early decades of the 20th century.TheIrish Texts Society's 1904Irish-English dictionarybyPatrick S. Dinneenused traditional spellings.After the creation of theIrish Free Statein 1922, all Acts of theOireachtaswere translated into Irish, initially using Dinneen's spellings, with a list of simplifications accumulating over the years.WhenÉamon de ValerabecamePresident of the Executive Councilafter the1932 election,policy reverted to older spellings, which were used in the enrolled text of the1937 Constitution.In 1941, de Valera decided to publish a "popular edition" of the Constitution with simplified spelling and established a committee of experts, which failed to agree on recommendations.Instead, the Oireachtas' own translation service prepared a booklet,Litriú na Gaeilge: Lámhleabhar an Chaighdeáin Oifigiúil,published in 1945.

Some pre-reform spellings criticised byT. F. O'Rahillyand their modern forms include:beirbhiughadh→beiriú,imthighthe→imithe,faghbháil→fáil,urradhas→urrús,filidheacht→filíocht.

The booklet was expanded in 1947,and republished asAn Caighdeán Oifigiúil"The OfficialStandard"in 1958, combined with the standard grammar of 1953.It attracted initial criticism as unhistorical and artificial; some spellings fail to represent the pronunciation of some dialects, while others preserveletters unpronouncedin any dialect.Its status was reinforced by use in thecivil serviceand as a guide forTomás de Bhaldraithe's 1959 English–Irish dictionary andNiall Ó Dónaill's 1977 Irish–English dictionary.A review of the written standard, including spelling, was announced in 2010, aiming to improve "simplicity, internal consistency, and logic".The result was the 2017 update ofAn Caighdeán Oifigiúil.

See also

• Irish Braille
• Irish manual Alpha bet
• Scottish Gaelic orthography

Notes

• ^aVowels with an acute accent are read as [á/é/í/ó/ú]fada"long [á/é/í/ó/ú]".
• ^bIn the verbal adjective suffix, -⟨th⟩- becomes⟨t⟩after⟨d, gh, l, n, s, t, th⟩(⟨gh, th⟩are deleted before it is added) and it becomes⟨f⟩after⟨bh, mh⟩which are deleted before it is added.
• ^cAfter consonants,/h/is silent, but devoices preceding voiced consonants. SeeIrish phonology.

References

Bibliography

• Gramadach na Gaeilge agus Litriú na Gaeilge: An Caighdeán Oifigiúil.Dublin: Oifig an tSoláthair. 1994.
• Mac Eoin, Gearóid(1993). "Irish". In Martin J. Ball; James Fife (eds.).The Celtic Languages.London: Routledge. pp. 101–44.ISBN0-415-01035-7.
• Ó Baoill, Dónall P. (1986).Lárchanúint don Ghaeilge(in Irish). Dublin: The Linguistics Institute of Ireland.ISBN0-946452-06-7.
• Ó Murchú, Máirtín (1977)."Successes and Failures in the Modernization of Irish Spelling".In Fishman, Joshua A. (ed.).Advances in the Creation and Revision of Writing Systems.De Gruyter. pp. 267–289.ISBN9783110807097.
• Ó Siadhail, Mícheál(1988).Learning Irish(2nd ed.). New Haven: Yale University Press.ISBN0-300-04224-8.
• Stenson, Nancy; Hickey, Tina (2018).Understanding Irish Spelling A Handbook for Teachers and Learners(PDF).An Chomhairle um Oideachas Gaeltachta & Gaelscolaíochta.
• Graiméar Gaeilge na mBráithre Críostaí(in Irish). Dublin:An Gúm.1999.ISBN1-85791-327-2.