Jump to content

Ferrous metallurgy

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected fromIron (material))
Bloomerysmeltingduring theMiddle Ages.

Ferrous metallurgyis themetallurgyofironand itsalloys.The earliest survivingprehistoriciron artifacts, from the 4th millennium BC inEgypt,[1]were made frommeteoriticiron-nickel.[2]It is not known when or where thesmeltingof iron fromoresbegan, but by the end of the 2nd millennium BC iron was being produced fromiron oresin the region from Greece to India,[3][4][5][6][7][8][page needed]The use ofwrought iron(worked iron) was known by the 1st millennium BC, and its spread defined theIron Age.During the medieval period, smiths in Europe found a way of producing wrought iron fromcast iron,in this context known aspig iron,usingfinery forges.All these processes requiredcharcoalasfuel.

By the 4th century BC southern India had started exportingwootz steel,with a carbon content betweenpig ironand wrought iron, to ancient China, Africa, the Middle East, and Europe.[citation needed]Archaeological evidence ofcast ironappears in 5th-century BC China.[9]New methods of producing it bycarburizingbars of iron in thecementation processwere devised in the 17th century. During theIndustrial Revolution,new methods of producingbar ironby substitutingcokefor charcoal emerged, and these were later applied to producesteel,ushering in a new era of greatly increased use of iron and steel that some contemporaries described as a new "Iron Age".[10]

In the late 1850sHenry Bessemerinvented anew steelmaking processwhich involved blowing air through molten pig-iron to burn off carbon, and so producing mild steel. This and other 19th-century and later steel-making processes have displacedwrought iron.Today, wrought iron is no longer produced on a commercial scale, having been displaced by the functionally equivalent mild or low-carbon steel.[11]: 145 

Meteoric iron[edit]

Main article:Meteoric iron
Willamette Meteorite,the sixth largest in the world, is aniron-nickel meteorite.
Iron meteorites consist overwhelmingly of nickel-iron alloys. The metal taken from these meteorites is known as meteoric iron and was one of the earliest sources of usable iron available to humans.

Iron was extracted fromiron–nickel alloys,which comprise about 6% of allmeteorites that fallon theEarth.That source can often be identified with certainty because of the uniquecrystallinefeatures (Widmanstätten patterns) of that material, which are preserved when the metal is worked cold or at low temperature. Those artifacts include, for example, abeadfrom the 5th millennium BC found inIran[2]and spear tips and ornaments fromancient EgyptandSumeraround 4000 BC.[12]

These early uses appear to have been largely ceremonial or decorative. Meteoric iron is very rare, and the metal was probably very expensive, perhaps more expensive thangold.The earlyHittitesare known to havebarterediron (meteoric or smelted) forsilver,at a rate of 40 times the iron's weight, withAssyriain the first centuries of thesecond millennium BC.[13]

Meteoric iron was also fashioned into tools in theArcticwhen theThule peopleofGreenlandbegan makingharpoons,knives,ulusand other edged tools from pieces of theCape York meteorite.Typically pea-size bits of metal were cold-hammered into disks and fitted to a bone handle.[2]These artifacts were also used as trade goods with other Arctic peoples: tools made from the Cape York meteorite have been found in archaeological sites more than 1,000 miles (1,600 km) distant. When theAmericanpolar explorerRobert Pearyshipped the largest piece of the meteorite to theAmerican Museum of Natural HistoryinNew York Cityin 1897, it still weighed over 33tons.Another example of a late use of meteoric iron is anadzefrom around 1000 AD found inSweden.[2]

Native iron[edit]

Main article:Telluric iron

Nativeiron in the metallic state occurs rarely as small inclusions in certainbasaltrocks. Besides meteoritic iron, Thule people of Greenland have used native iron from theDiskoregion.[2]

Iron smelting and the Iron Age[edit]

Part ofa serieson the
Iron Age
↑Bronze Age
By region
Related topics
↓Ancient history

Iron smelting—the extraction of usable metal fromoxidizediron ores—is more difficult thantinandcoppersmelting. While these metals and their alloys can be cold-worked or melted in relatively simple furnaces (such as the kilns used forpottery) and cast into molds, smelted iron requires hot-working and can be melted only in specially designed furnaces. Iron is a common impurity in copper ores and iron ore was sometimes used as aflux,thus it is not surprising that humans mastered the technology of smelted iron only after several millennia ofbronze metallurgy.[12]

The place and time for the discovery of iron smelting is not known, partly because of the difficulty of distinguishing metal extracted from nickel-containing ores from hot-worked meteoritic iron.[2]The archaeological evidence seems to point to the Middle East area, during theBronze Agein the 3rd millennium BC. However,wrought ironartifacts remained a rarity until the 12th century BC.

TheIron Ageis conventionally defined by the widespread replacement ofbronzeweapons and tools with those of iron and steel.[14]That transition happened at different times in different places, as the technology spread. Mesopotamia was fully into the Iron Age by 900 BC. Although Egypt produced iron artifacts, bronze remained dominant until its conquest by Assyria in 663 BC. The Iron Age began in India about 1200 BC, in Central Europe about 800 BC, and in China about 300 BC.[15][16]Around 500 BC, theNubians,who had learned from the Assyrians the use of iron and were expelled from Egypt, became major manufacturers and exporters of iron.[17]

Ancient Near East[edit]

Mining areas of the ancientMiddle East.Boxes colors:arsenicin brown,copperin red (the important mines of theArabah,TimnaandFeynan,are missing from the map),tinin grey, iron in reddish brown, gold in yellow, silver in white andleadin black. The yellow area stands forarsenic bronze,while grey area stands for tinbronze

One of the earliest smelted iron artifacts, a dagger with an iron blade found in aHattictomb inAnatolia,dated from 2500 BC.[18]About 1500 BC, increasing numbers of non-meteoritic, smelted iron objects appeared inMesopotamia,Anatolia and Egypt.[2]Nineteen meteoric iron objects were found in thetombofEgyptianrulerTutankhamun,who died in 1323 BC, including an iron dagger with a golden hilt, anEye of Horus,the mummy's head-stand and sixteen models of an artisan's tools.[19]An Ancient Egyptian sword bearing the name of pharaohMerneptahas well as abattle axewith an iron blade and gold-decorated bronze shaft were both found in the excavation ofUgarit.[18]

Although iron objects dating from theBronze Agehave been found across the Eastern Mediterranean, bronzework appears to have greatly predominated during this period.[20]As the technology spread, iron came to replace bronze as the dominant metal used for tools and weapons across the Eastern Mediterranean (theLevant,Cyprus,Greece,Crete,Anatolia and Egypt).[14]

Iron was originally smelted inbloomeries,furnaces wherebellowswere used to force air through a pile of iron ore and burningcharcoal.Thecarbon monoxideproduced by the charcoal reduced theiron oxidefrom the ore to metallic iron. The bloomery, however, was not hot enough to melt the iron, so the metal collected in the bottom of the furnace as a spongy mass, orbloom.Workers then repeatedly beat and folded it to force out the moltenslag.This laborious, time-consuming process producedwrought iron,a malleable but fairly soft alloy.[21]

Concurrent with the transition from bronze to iron was the discovery ofcarburization,the process of adding carbon to wrought iron. While the iron bloom contained some carbon, the subsequent hot-workingoxidizedmost of it. Smiths in the Middle East discovered that wrought iron could be turned into a much harder product by heating the finished piece in a bed of charcoal, and thenquenchingit in water or oil. This procedure turned the outer layers of the piece intosteel,an alloy of iron andiron carbides,with an inner core of less brittle iron.

Theories on the origin of iron smelting[edit]

The development of iron smelting was traditionally attributed to theHittitesof Anatolia of the LateBronze Age.[22]It was believed that they maintained a monopoly on iron working, and that their empire had been based on that advantage. According to that theory, the ancientSea Peoples,who invaded the Eastern Mediterranean and destroyed the Hittite empire at the end of the Late Bronze Age, were responsible for spreading the knowledge through that region. This theory is no longer held in the mainstream of scholarship,[22]since there is no archaeological evidence of the alleged Hittite monopoly. While there are some iron objects from Bronze Age Anatolia, the number is comparable to iron objects found in Egypt and other places of the same time period, and only a small number of those objects were weapons.[20]

A more recent theory claims that the development of iron technology was driven by the disruption of thecopperandtintrade routes, due to the collapse of the empires at the end of the Late Bronze Age.[22]These metals, especially tin, were not widely available and metal workers had to transport them over long distances, whereas iron ores were widely available. However, no known archaeological evidence suggests a shortage of bronze or tin in the Early Iron Age.[23]Bronze objects remained abundant, and these objects have the same percentage of tin as those from the Late Bronze Age.

Indian subcontinent[edit]

Theiron pillar of Delhi

The history of ferrous metallurgy in the Indian subcontinent began in the 2nd millennium BC. Archaeological sites inGangetic plainshave yielded iron implements dated between 1800 and 1200 BC.[24]By the early 13th century BC, iron smelting was practiced on a large scale in India.[24]InSouthern India(present dayMysore) iron was in use 12th to 11th centuries BC.[4]The technology of iron metallurgy advanced in the politically stableMauryaperiod[25]and during a period of peaceful settlements in the 1st millennium BC.[4]

Iron artifacts such asspikes,knives,daggers,arrow-heads,bowls,spoons,saucepans,axes,chisels,tongs,door fittings, etc., dated from 600 to 200 BC, have been discovered at several archaeological sites of India.[15]The Greek historianHerodotuswrote the firstwesternaccount of the use of iron in India.[15]The Indian mythological texts, theUpanishads,have mentions of weaving, pottery and metallurgy, as well.[26]TheRomanshad high regard for the excellence of steel from India in the time of theGupta Empire.[27]

Dagger and its scabbard, India, 17th–18th century. Blade:Damascus steelinlaid with gold; hilt: jade; scabbard: steel with engraved, chased and gilded decoration

Perhaps as early as 500 BC, although certainly by 200 AD, high-quality steel was produced in southern India by thecrucible technique.In this system, high-purity wrought iron, charcoal, and glass were mixed in a crucible and heated until the iron melted and absorbed the carbon.[28]Iron chain was used in Indiansuspension bridgesas early as the 4th century.[29]

Wootz steelwas produced in India andSri Lankafrom around 300 BC.[28]Wootz steel is famous fromClassical Antiquityfor its durability and ability to hold an edge. When asked byKing Porusto select a gift,Alexanderis said to have chosen, overgoldorsilver,thirty pounds of steel.[27]Wootz steel was originally a complex alloy with iron as its main component together with varioustrace elements.Recent studies have suggested that its qualities may have been due to the formation ofcarbon nanotubesin the metal.[30]According toWill Durant,the technology passed to thePersiansand from them toArabswho spread it through the Middle East.[27]In the 16th century, theDutchcarried the technology from South India to Europe, where it was mass-produced.[31]

Steel was produced inSri Lankafrom 300 BC[28]by furnaces blown by themonsoon winds.The furnaces were dug into the crests of hills, and the wind was diverted into theair ventsby long trenches. This arrangement created a zone of high pressure at the entrance, and a zone of low pressure at the top of the furnace. The flow is believed to have allowed higher temperatures than bellows-driven furnaces could produce, resulting in better-quality iron.[32][33][34]Steel made in Sri Lanka was traded extensively within the region and in theIslamic world.

See also:Steel § Wootz steel and Damascus steel

One of the world's foremost metallurgical curiosities is aniron pillarlocated in theQutb complexinDelhi.The pillar is made of wrought iron (98%Fe), is almost seven meters high and weighs more than six tonnes.[35]The pillar was erected byChandragupta IIVikramaditya and has withstood 1,600 years of exposure to heavy rains with relatively littlecorrosion.

China[edit]

Finingironoreto make wrought iron from pig iron. The righthand illustration shows men working ablast furnace(Tiangong Kaiwuencyclopedia, 1637)

Historians debate whether bloomery-based ironworking ever spread to China from the Middle East. One theory suggests that metallurgy was introduced through Central Asia.[36]In 2008, two iron fragments were excavated at theMogou site,inGansu.They have been dated to the 14th century BC, belonging to the period ofSiwa culture,suggesting an independent Chinese origin. One of the fragments was made of bloomery iron rather than meteoritic iron.[37][38]

The earliest iron artifacts made from bloomeries in China date to end of the 9th century BC.[39]Cast iron was used inancient Chinafor warfare, agriculture and architecture.[9]Around 500 BC, metalworkers in the southernstate of Wuachieved a temperature of 1130 °C. At this temperature, iron combines with 4.3% carbon and melts. The liquid iron can becastintomolds,a method far less laborious than individually forging each piece of iron from a bloom.

Cast iron is rather brittle and unsuitable for striking implements. It can bedecarburizedto steel or wrought iron by heating it in air for several days. In China, these iron working methods spread northward, and by 300 BC, iron was the material of choice throughout China for most tools and weapons.[9]A mass grave inHebeiprovince, dated to the early 3rd century BC, contains several soldiers buried with their weapons and other equipment. The artifacts recovered from this grave are variously made of wrought iron, cast iron, malleabilized cast iron, and quench-hardened steel, with only a few, probably ornamental, bronze weapons.

An illustration of furnace bellows operated by waterwheels, from theNong Shu,byWang Zhen,1313 AD, during theYuan Dynastyin China

During theHan Dynasty(202 BC–220 AD), the government established ironworking as a state monopoly,repealed during the latter half of the dynasty and returned to private entrepreneurship,and built a series of large blast furnaces inHenanprovince, each capable of producing several tons of iron per day. By this time, Chinese metallurgists had discovered how to fine molten pig iron, stirring it in the open air until it lost its carbon and could be hammered (wrought). In modern Mandarin-Chinese,this process is now calledchao,literallystir frying.Pig iron is known as 'raw iron', while wrought iron is known as 'cooked iron'. By the 1st century BC, Chinese metallurgists had found that wrought iron and cast iron could be melted together to yield an alloy of intermediate carbon content, that is, steel.[40][41][42]

According to legend, the sword ofLiu Bang,the first Han emperor, was made in this fashion. Some texts of the era mention "harmonizing the hard and the soft" in the context of ironworking; the phrase may refer to this process. The ancient city of Wan (Nanyang) from the Han period forward was a major center of the iron and steel industry.[43]Along with their original methods of forging steel, the Chinese had also adopted the production methods of creating Wootz steel, an idea imported from India to China by the 5th century AD.[44]

During the Han Dynasty, the Chinese were also the first to applyhydraulicpower (i.e. awaterwheel) in working the bellows of the blast furnace. This was recorded in the year 31 AD, as an innovation by the Chinese mechanical engineer and politicianDu Shi,Prefectof Nanyang.[45]Although Du Shi was the first to apply water power to bellows in metallurgy, the first drawn and printed illustration of its operation with water power appeared in 1313 AD, in the Yuan Dynasty era text called theNong Shu.[46]

In the 11th century, there is evidence of the production of steel inSong Chinausing two techniques: a "berganesque" method that produced inferior, heterogeneous steel and a precursor to the modern Bessemer process that utilized partial decarbonization via repeated forging under a cold blast.[47]By the 11th century, there was a large amount of deforestation in China due to the iron industry's demands for charcoal.[48]By this time however, the Chinese had learned to usebituminous coketo replace charcoal, and with this switch in resources many acres of prime timberland in China were spared.[48]

See also:Early Japanese Ironworking

Iron Age Europe[edit]

Anaxemade of iron, dating from theSwedish Iron Age

The earliest smelted iron object from Europe is a knife blade from theCatacomb culturein present day Ukraine, dated to c. 2500 BC.[49]During most of the Middle and Late Bronze Age in Europe, iron was present, though scarce. It was used for personal ornaments and small knives, for repairs on bronzes, and for bimetallic items.[50]Early smelted iron finds from central Europe include an iron knife or sickle from Ganovce in Slovakia, possibly dating from the 18th century BC,[51]an iron ring from Vorwohlde in Germany dating from circa the 15th century BC,[52]and an iron chisel from Heegermühle in Germany dating from circa 1000 BC.[53][54]

Iron metallurgy began to bepractised in Scandinaviaduring the laterBronze Agefrom at least the 9th century BC.[55]In the 11th century BC iron swords replaced bronze swords in Southern Europe, especially in Greece, and in the 10th century BC iron became the prevailing metal in use.[56]In theCarpathian Basinthere is a significant increase in iron finds dating from the 10th century BC onwards, with some finds possibly dating as early as the 12th century BC.[57]Iron swords have been found in central Europe dating from the 10th century BC, however the Iron Age began in earnest with theHallstatt culturefrom 800 BC.[58]

From 500 BC theLa Tène culturesaw a significant increase in iron production, with iron metallurgy also becoming common in southern Scandinavia. North of Sweden saw steel manufacturing dating back to around 0 AD through the eastern-western migration of hunter-gatherers in theCap of the North.[59][60]The spread of ironworking in Central and Western Europe is associated withCelticexpansion. Celtic smiths produced steel from circa 800 BC as part of the production of swords,[61]and the production of high-carbon steel is attested in Britain after circa 490 BC.[62]By the 1st century BC,Noric steelwas famous for its quality and sought-after by theRoman military.

The annual iron output of theRoman Empireis estimated at 84,750t.[63]

Sub-Saharan Africa[edit]

Main article:Iron metallurgy in Africa
Examples of African bloomery furnace types

Archaeometallurgicalscientific knowledge and technological developmentoriginated in numerous centers of Africa; the centers of origin were located inWest Africa,Central Africa,andEast Africa;consequently, as these origin centers are located within inner Africa, these archaeometallurgical developments are thus native African technologies.[64]Iron metallurgical development occurred 2631 BCE – 2458 BCE at Lejja, in Nigeria, 2136 BCE – 1921 BCE at Obui, in Central Africa Republic, 1895 BCE – 1370 BCE at Tchire Ouma 147, in Niger, and 1297 BCE – 1051 BCE at Dekpassanware, in Togo.[64]

Though there is some uncertainty, some archaeologists believe that iron metallurgy was developed independently in sub-Saharan Africa (possibly in West Africa).[65][66]

Inhabitants of Termit, in easternNiger,smelted iron around 1500 BC.[67]

In the region of theAïr MountainsinNigerthere are also signs of independent copper smelting between 2500 and 1500 BC. The process was not in a developed state, indicating smelting was not foreign. It became mature about 1500 BC.[68]

Archaeological sites containing iron smelting furnaces and slag have also been excavated at sites in theNsukkaregion of southeastNigeriain what is nowIgboland:dating to 2000 BC at the site ofLejja(Eze-Uzomaka 2009)[69][66]and to 750 BC and at the site ofOpi(Holl 2009).[66]The site of Gbabiri (in the Central African Republic) has yielded evidence of iron metallurgy, from a reduction furnace and blacksmith workshop; with earliest dates of 896–773 BC and 907–796 BC respectively.[70]Similarly, smelting in bloomery-type furnaces appear in theNok cultureof central Nigeria by about 550 BC and possibly a few centuries earlier.[6][7][71][dubious–discuss][65][70]

There is also evidence thatcarbon steelwas made in WesternTanzaniaby the ancestors of theHaya peopleas early as 2,300 to 2,000 years ago (about 300 BC or soon after) by a complex process of "pre-heating" allowing temperatures inside a furnace to reach 1300 to 1400 °C.[72][73][74][75][76][77]

Iron and copper working spread southward through the continent, reaching theCapearound AD 200.[6][7]The widespread use of iron revolutionized theBantu-speaking farming communities who adopted it, driving out and absorbing the rock tool using hunter-gatherer societies they encountered as they expanded to farm wider areas ofsavanna.The technologically superior Bantu-speakers spread across southern Africa and became wealthy and powerful, producing iron for tools and weapons in large, industrial quantities.[6][7]

The earliest records of bloomery-type furnaces inEast Africaare discoveries of smelted iron and carbon inNubiathat date back between the 7th and 6th centuries BC,[78][79][80]particularly inMeroewhere there are known to have been ancient bloomeries that produced metal tools for the Nubians and Kushites and produced surplus for their economy.

Typical bloomery iron production operational sequence starting with acquiring raw materials through smelting and smithing

Medieval Islamic world[edit]

Iron technology was further advanced by severalinventions in medieval Islam,during theIslamic Golden Age.By the 11th century, every province throughout theMuslim worldhad these industrial mills in operation, fromIslamic SpainandNorth Africain the west to theMiddle EastandCentral Asiain the east.[81]There are also 10th-century references tocast iron,as well as archeological evidence ofblast furnacesbeing used in theAyyubidandMamlukempires from the 11th century, thus suggesting a diffusion of Chinese metal technology to the Islamic world.[82]

One of the most famous steels produced in the medieval Near East wasDamascus steelused forswordmaking,and mostly produced inDamascus,Syria,in the period from 900 to 1750. This was produced using thecrucible steelmethod, based on the earlier Indianwootz steel.This process was adopted in the Middle East using locally produced steels. The exact process remains unknown, but it allowedcarbidesto precipitate out as micro particles arranged in sheets or bands within the body of a blade. Carbides are far harder than the surrounding low carbon steel, so swordsmiths could produce an edge that cut hard materials with the precipitated carbides, while the bands of softer steel let the sword as a whole remain tough and flexible. A team of researchers based at theTechnical UniversityofDresdenthat usesX-raysandelectron microscopyto examine Damascus steel discovered the presence ofcementitenanowires[83]andcarbon nanotubes.[84]Peter Paufler, a member of the Dresden team, says that these nanostructures give Damascus steel its distinctive properties[85]and are a result of theforgingprocess.[85][30]

Medieval and early modern Europe[edit]

There was no fundamental change in the technology of iron production in Europe for many centuries. European metal workers continued to produce iron in bloomeries. However, theMedievalperiod brought two developments—the use of water power in the bloomery process in various places (outlined above), and the first European production in cast iron.

Powered bloomeries[edit]

Main article:Bloomery

Sometime in the medieval period, water power was applied to the bloomery process. It is possible that this was at theCistercianAbbey ofClairvauxas early as 1135, but it was certainly in use in early 13th centuryFranceand Sweden.[86]InEngland,the first clear documentary evidence for this is the accounts of a forge of theBishop of Durham,nearBedburnin 1408,[87]but that was certainly not the first such ironworks. In theFurnessdistrict of England, powered bloomeries were in use into the beginning of the 18th century, and nearGarstanguntil about 1770.

The Catalan Forge was a variety of powered bloomery. Bloomeries withhot blastwere used in upstateNew Yorkin the mid-19th century.

Blast furnace[edit]

Main article:Blast furnace
Ironmaking described in "The Popular Encyclopedia"vol.VII, published 1894

The preferred method of iron production in Europe until the development of thepuddling processin 1783–84. Cast iron development lagged in Europe because wrought iron was the desired product and the intermediate step of producing cast iron involved an expensive blast furnace and further refining of pig iron to cast iron, which then required a labor and capital intensive conversion to wrought iron.[11]

Through a good portion of the Middle Ages, in Western Europe, iron was still being made by the working of iron blooms into wrought iron. Some of the earliest casting of iron in Europe occurred in Sweden, in two sites,Lapphyttanand Vinarhyttan, between 1150 and 1350. Some scholars have speculated the practice followed theMongolsacrossRussiato these sites, but there is no clear proof of this hypothesis, and it would certainly not explain the pre-Mongol datings of many of these iron-production centres. In any event, by the late 14th century, a market for cast iron goods began to form, as a demand developed for cast iron cannonballs.

Finery forge[edit]

Main article:Finery forge

An alternative method ofdecarburisingpig ironwas thefinery forge,which seems to have been devised in the region aroundNamurin the 15th century. By the end of that century, thisWalloon processspread to thePay de Brayon the eastern boundary ofNormandy,and then to England, where it became the main method of making wrought iron by 1600. It was introduced to Sweden byLouis de Geerin the early 17th century and was used to make theoregrounds ironfavoured by English steelmakers.

A variation on this was theGerman forge.This became the main method of producingbar ironin Sweden.

Cementation process[edit]

Main article:Cementation process

In the early 17th century, ironworkers inWestern Europehad developed thecementation processforcarburizingwrought iron.Wrought iron bars and charcoal were packed into stone boxes, then sealed with clay to be held at a red heat continually tended in an oxygen-free state immersed in nearly pure carbon (charcoal) for up to a week. During this time, carbon diffused into the surface layers of the iron, producingcement steelorblister steel—also known as case hardened, where the portions wrapped in iron (the pick or axe blade) became harder, than say an axe hammer-head or shaft socket which might be insulated by clay to keep them from the carbon source. The earliest place where this process was used in England was atCoalbrookdalefrom 1619, where Sir Basil Brooke had two cementation furnaces (recently excavated in 2001–2005[88]). For a time in the 1610s, he owned a patent on the process, but had to surrender this in 1619. He probably usedForest of Deaniron as his raw material, but it was soon found that oregrounds iron was more suitable. The quality of the steel could be improved byfaggoting,producing the so-called shear steel.

Crucible steel[edit]

In the 1740s,Benjamin Huntsmanfound a means of melting blister steel, made by the cementation process, in crucibles. The resultingcrucible steel,usually cast in ingots, was more homogeneous than blister steel.[11]: 145 

Transition to coke in England[edit]

Further information:Industrial Revolution § Iron industry

Beginnings[edit]

Early iron smelting used charcoal as both the heat source and the reducing agent. By the 18th century, the availability of wood for making charcoal was limiting the expansion of iron production, so that England became increasingly dependent for a considerable part of the iron required by its industry, on Sweden (from the mid-17th century) and then from about 1725 also on Russia.[citation needed] Smelting with coal (or its derivativecoke) was a long sought objective. The production of pig iron with coke was probably achieved byDud Dudleyaround 1619,[89]and with a mixed fuel made from coal and wood again in the 1670s. However this was probably only a technological rather than a commercial success.Shadrach Foxmay have smelted iron with coke at Coalbrookdale inShropshirein the 1690s, but only to make cannonballs and other cast iron products such as shells. However, in the peace after theNine Years War,there was no demand for these.[90][91]

Abraham Darby and his successors[edit]

Main article:Abraham Darby I

In 1707,Abraham Darby Ipatented a method of making cast iron pots. His pots were thinner and hence cheaper than those of his rivals. Needing a larger supply of pig iron he leased the blast furnace at Coalbrookdale in 1709. There, he made iron using coke, thus establishing the first successful business in Europe to do so. His products were all of cast iron, though his immediate successors attempted (with little commercial success) to fine this to bar iron.[92]

Bar ironthus continued normally to be made with charcoal pig iron until the mid-1750s. In 1755Abraham Darby II(with partners) opened a new coke-using furnace atHorsehayin Shropshire, and this was followed by others. These supplied coke pig iron to finery forges of the traditional kind for the production ofbar iron.The reason for the delay remains controversial.[93]

New forge processes[edit]

Schematic drawing of a puddling furnace

It was only after this that economically viable means of converting pig iron to bar iron began to be devised. A process known aspotting and stampingwas devised in the 1760s and improved in the 1770s, and seems to have been widely adopted in theWest Midlandsfrom about 1785. However, this was largely replaced byHenry Cort's puddling process, patented in 1784, but probably only made to work with grey pig iron in about 1790. These processes permitted the great expansion in the production of iron that constitutes the Industrial Revolution for the iron industry.[94]

In the early 19th century, Hall discovered that the addition of iron oxide to the charge of the puddling furnace caused a violent reaction, in which the pig iron wasdecarburised,this became known as 'wet puddling'. It was also found possible to produce steel by stopping thepuddling processbefore decarburisation was complete.

Hot blast[edit]

Main article:Hot blast

The efficiency of the blast furnace was improved by the change tohot blast,patented byJames Beaumont Neilsonin Scotland in 1828.[89]This further reduced production costs. Within a few decades, the practice was to have a 'stove' as large as the furnace next to it into which the waste gas (containing CO) from the furnace was directed and burnt. The resultant heat was used to preheat the air blown into the furnace.[95]

Industrial steelmaking[edit]

Main article:Steelmaking
Schematic drawing of a Bessemer converter

Apart from some production ofpuddled steel,English steel continued to be made by the cementation process, sometimes followed by remelting to produce crucible steel. These were batch-based processes whose raw material was bar iron, particularly Swedish oregrounds iron.

The problem of mass-producing cheap steel was solved in 1855 by Henry Bessemer, with the introduction of theBessemer converterat his steelworks inSheffield,England. (An early converter can still be seen at the city'sKelham Island Museum). In the Bessemer process, molten pig iron from the blast furnace was charged into a large crucible, and then air was blown through the molten iron from below, igniting the dissolved carbon from the coke. As the carbon burned off, the melting point of the mixture increased, but the heat from the burning carbon provided the extra energy needed to keep the mixture molten. After the carbon content in the melt had dropped to the desired level, the air draft was cut off: a typical Bessemer converter could convert a 25-ton batch of pig iron to steel in half an hour.

In the 1860s development of regenerative furnaces and higher temperature refractory lining allowed to melt steel in anopen hearth.That was slow and energy intensive, but allowed to better control the chemical makeup of the product and recycle iron scrap.

The acidic refractory lining of Bessemer converters and early open hearths didn't allow to remove phosphorus from steel with lime, which prolonged the life of puddling furnaces in order to utilize phosphorous iron ores abundant in Continental Europe. However in the 1870sGilchrist–Thomas processwas developed, and later basic lining was adopted for the open hearths as well.

Finally, thebasic oxygen processwas introduced at the Voest-Alpine works in 1952; a modification of the basic Bessemer process, it lances oxygen from above the steel (instead of bubbling air from below), reducing the amount of nitrogen uptake into the steel. The basic oxygen process is used in all modern steelworks; the last Bessemer converter in the U.S. was retired in 1968. Furthermore, the last three decades have seen a massive increase in the mini-mill business, where scrap steel only is melted with anelectric arc furnace.These mills only produced bar products at first, but have since expanded into flat and heavy products, once the exclusive domain of the integrated steelworks.

Until these 19th-century developments, steel was an expensive commodity and only used for a limited number of purposes where a particularly hard or flexible metal was needed, as in the cutting edges of tools and springs. The widespread availability of inexpensive steel powered theSecond Industrial Revolutionand modern society as we know it. Mild steel ultimately replaced wrought iron for almost all purposes, and wrought iron is no longer commercially produced. With minor exceptions, alloy steels only began to be made in the late 19th century.Stainless steelwas developed on the eve ofWorld War Iand was not widely used until the 1920s.

Modern steel industry[edit]

See also:History of the steel industry (1850–1970),History of the steel industry (1970–present),Global steel industry trends,Steel production by country,andList of steel producers
Steel production (in million tons) by country in 2007

The steel industry is often considered an indicator of economic progress, because of the critical role played by steel in infrastructural and overalleconomic development.[96]In 1980, there were more than 500,000 U.S. steelworkers. By 2000, the number of steelworkers had fallen to 224,000.[97]

Theeconomic boomin China and India caused a massive increase in the demand for steel. Between 2000 and 2005, world steel demand increased by 6%. Since 2000, several Indian[98]and Chinese steel firms have risen to prominence,[according to whom?]such asTata Steel(which boughtCorus Groupin 2007),Baosteel GroupandShagang Group.As of 2017,though,ArcelorMittalis the world'slargest steel producer.[99]In 2005, theBritish Geological Surveystated China was the top steel producer with about one-third of the world share; Japan, Russia, and the US followed respectively.[100]

The large production capacity of steel results in a significant amount of carbon dioxide emissions inherent related to the main production route. In 2019, it was estimated that 7 to 9% of the global carbon dioxide emissions resulted from the steel industry.[101]Reduction of these emissions are expected to come from a shift in the main production route using cokes, more recycling of steel and the application of carbon capture and storage or carbon capture and utilization technology.

In 2008, steel begantrading as a commodityon theLondon Metal Exchange.At the end of 2008, the steel industry faced a sharp downturn that led to many cut-backs.[102]

See also[edit]

Citations[edit]

  1. ^Rehren, T. (2013)."5,000 years old Egyptian iron beads made from hammered meteoritic iron"(PDF).Journal of Archaeological Science.40(12): 4785–4792.doi:10.1016/j.jas.2013.06.002.
  2. ^abcdefgPhotos, E. (1989). "The Question of Meteoritic versus Smelted Nickel-Rich Iron: Archaeological Evidence and Experimental Results".World Archaeology.20(3): 403–421.doi:10.1080/00438243.1989.9980081.JSTOR124562.S2CID5908149.
  3. ^Riederer, Josef; Wartke, Ralf-B.: "Iron", Cancik, Hubert; Schneider, Helmuth (eds.):Brill's New Pauly,Brill 2009
  4. ^abcEarly Antiquity By I.M. Drakonoff. 1991.University of Chicago Press.ISBN0-226-14465-8.p. 372
  5. ^Rao, Kp (2018). "Iron Age in South India: Telangana and Andhra Pradesh". In Uesugi, Akinori (ed.).Iron Age in South Asia.Research Group for South Asian Archaeology.ISBN978-4-9909150-1-8.Retrieved12 April2022.
  6. ^abcdMiller, Duncan E.; van der Merwe, N.J. (1994). "Early Metal Working in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Review of Recent Research".Journal of African History.35:1–36.doi:10.1017/s0021853700025949.S2CID162330270.
  7. ^abcdStuiver, Minze; van der Merwe, N.J. (1968). "Radiocarbon Chronology of the Iron Age in Sub-Saharan Africa".Current Anthropology.9:54–58.doi:10.1086/200878.S2CID145379030.
  8. ^Waldbaum (1978).
  9. ^abcDonald B. Wagner (1993).Iron and Steel in Ancient China.Brill. p. 408.ISBN978-90-04-09632-5.
  10. ^Williams, David (1867), "The Iron Age [weekly journal]",Iron Age,New York: David Williams,ISSN0021-1508,LCCNsc82008005,OCLC5257259
  11. ^abcTylecote (1992).
  12. ^abTylecote (1992). p. 3.
  13. ^Veenhof, Klaas;Eidem, Jesper(2008).Mesopotamia: Annäherungen.Saint-Paul. p. 84.ISBN978-3-525-53452-6.
  14. ^abWaldbaum (1978). pp. 56–58.
  15. ^abcMarco Ceccarelli (2000).International Symposium on History of Machines and Mechanisms: Proceedings HMM Symposium.Springer.ISBN0-7923-6372-8.p. 218
  16. ^White, W. C.: "Bronze Culture of Ancient China", p. 208. University of Toronto Press, 1956.
  17. ^Collins, Rober O. and Burns, James M.The History of Sub-Saharan Africa.New York: Cambridge University Press, p. 37.ISBN978-0-521-68708-9.
  18. ^abRichard Cowen,The Age of Iron,Chapter 5 in a series of essays on Geology, History, and People prepares for a course of the University of California at Davis.Online versionArchived2010-03-14 at theWayback Machineaccessed on 2010-02-11.
  19. ^The Tomb of Tut-Ankh-Amen: Discovered by the Late Earl of Carnarvon and Howard Carter, Volume 3
  20. ^abWaldbaum (1978): 23.
  21. ^Smil, Vaclav (2016).Still the Iron Age.Oxford, England: Butterworth-Heinemann. pp. 2–5.ISBN978-0128042335.
  22. ^abcMuhly, James D. 'Metalworking/Mining in the Levant' pp. 174–183 inNear Eastern Archaeologyed. Suzanne Richard (2003), pp. 179–180.
  23. ^Muhly 2003: 180.
  24. ^abTewari, Rakesh(2003)."The origins of iron-working in India: new evidence from the Central Ganga Plain and the Eastern Vindhyas"(PDF).Antiquity.77(297): 536–544.CiteSeerX10.1.1.403.4300.doi:10.1017/s0003598x00092590.S2CID14951163.Archived(PDF)from the original on 2016-03-05.
  25. ^J. F. Richardset al. (2005).The New Cambridge History of India.Cambridge University Press.ISBN0-521-36424-8.p. 64
  26. ^Patrick Olivelle(1998).Upanisads.Oxford University Press.ISBN0-19-283576-9.p. xxix
  27. ^abcWill Durant (),The Story of CivilizationI: Our Oriental Heritage
  28. ^abcG. Juleff (1996). "An ancient wind powered iron smelting technology in Sri Lanka".Nature.379(3): 60–63.Bibcode:1996Natur.379...60J.doi:10.1038/379060a0.S2CID205026185.
  29. ^"Suspension bridge – engineering".britannica.Archivedfrom the original on 2007-10-16.
  30. ^abSanderson, Katharine (2006-11-15)."Sharpest cut from nanotube sword: Carbon nanotech may have given swords of Damascus their edge".Nature.doi:10.1038/news061113-11.S2CID136774602.Archivedfrom the original on 2006-11-19.Retrieved2006-11-17.
  31. ^Roy Porter (2003).The Cambridge History of Science.Cambridge University Press.ISBN0-521-57199-5.p. 684
  32. ^Juleff, G. (1996). "An ancient wind powered iron smelting technology in Sri Lanka".Nature.379(3): 60–63.Bibcode:1996Natur.379...60J.doi:10.1038/379060a0.S2CID205026185.
  33. ^"ANSYS Fluent Software: CFD Simulation".Archivedfrom the original on 2009-02-21.Retrieved2009-01-23.
  34. ^Simulation of air flows through a Sri Lankan wind driven furnace, submitted to J. Arch. Sci, 2003.
  35. ^R. Balasubramaniam (2002),Delhi Iron Pillar: New Insights.Aryan Books International, DelhiISBN81-7305-223-9."Review: Delhi Iron Pillar: New Insights".Archivedfrom the original on 2007-09-27.Retrieved2007-04-27."List of Publications on Indian Archaeometallurgy".Archivedfrom the original on 2007-03-12.Retrieved2007-04-27.
  36. ^Pigott, Vincent C. (1999).The Archaeometallurgy of the Asian Old World.Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology.ISBN0-924171-34-0,p. 8.
  37. ^Chen, Jianli, Mao, Ruilin, Wang, Hui, Chen, Honghai, Xie, Yan, Qian, Yaopeng, 2012.The iron objects unearthed from tombs of the Siwa culture in Mogou, Gansu, and the origin of iron-making technology in China.Wenwu (Cult. Relics) 8, 45–53 (in Chinese)
  38. ^p. xl, Historical Dictionary of Ancient Greek Warfare, J, Woronoff & I. Spence
  39. ^Wengcheong Lam (2014).Everything Old is New Again? Rethinking the Transition to Cast Iron Production in the Central Plains of China.Chinese University of Hong Kong. p. 519.
  40. ^Needham (1986). Vol. 4, Part 3, p. 197.
  41. ^Needham (1986). Vol. 4, Part 3, p. 277.
  42. ^Needham (1986). Vol. 4, Part 3, p. 563 g
  43. ^Needham (1986). Vol. 4, Part 3, p. 86.
  44. ^Needham (1986). Vol. 4, Part 1, p. 282.
  45. ^Needham (1986). Vol. 4, Part 2, p. 370.
  46. ^Needham (1986). Vol. 4, Part 2, p. 371.
  47. ^Hartwell, Robert (1966). "Markets, Technology and the Structure of Enterprise in the Development of the Eleventh Century Chinese Iron and Steel Industry".Journal of Economic History.26:53–54.doi:10.1017/S0022050700061842.S2CID154556274.
  48. ^ab(2006). 158.
  49. ^Anthony, David (2007).The Horse, the Wheel, and Language.Princeton University Press. p. 336.ISBN978-0-691-05887-0.One unappreciated aspect of Early Bronze Age and Middle Bronze Age steppe metallurgy was its experimentation with iron.… A Catacomb-period grave at Gerasimovka on the Donets (western Russia/Ukraine), probably dated around 2500 BCE, contained a knife with a handle made of arsenical bronze and a blade made of iron. The iron did not contain magnetite or nickel, as would be expected in meteoric iron, so it is thought to have been forged. Iron objects were rare, but they were part of the experiments conducted by steppe metalsmiths during the Early and Middle Bronze Ages
  50. ^"The Iron Age".Encyclopaedia Britannica.
  51. ^Hansen, Svend (2019). "The Hillfort of Teleac and Early Iron in Southern Europe". In Hansen, Svend; Krause, Rüdiger (eds.).Bronze Age Fortresses in Europe.Verlag Dr. Rudolf Habelt GmbH, Bonn. p. 204.
  52. ^Turnbull, Anne (1984).From bronze to iron: The occurrence of iron in the British later Bronze Age(PhD). Edinburgh University. p. 24.S2CID164098953.
  53. ^"Life and Belief in the Bronze Age: Belt Disc from Heegermühle".Neues Museum.
  54. ^"Der Depotfund von Heegermühle bei Eberswalde".askanier-welten.de.
  55. ^Lund, Julie; Melheim, Lene (2011)."Heads and Tails – Minds and Bodies: Reconsidering the Late Bronze Age Vestby Hoard".European Journal of Archaeology.14(3): 441–464.iron technology was practiced in the Nordic region from at least the ninth century BC (Hjärthner-Holdar 1993; Serning 1984)
  56. ^Hansen, Svend (2019). "The Hillfort of Teleac and Early Iron in Southern Europe". In Hansen, Svend; Krause, Rüdiger (eds.).Bronze Age Fortresses in Europe.Verlag Dr. Rudolf Habelt GmbH, Bonn. pp. 204–206.
  57. ^Hansen, Svend (2019). "The Hillfort of Teleac and Early Iron in Southern Europe". In Hansen, Svend; Krause, Rüdiger (eds.).Bronze Age Fortresses in Europe.Verlag Dr. Rudolf Habelt GmbH, Bonn. p. 214.
  58. ^Hansen, Svend (2019). "The Hillfort of Teleac and Early Iron in Southern Europe". In Hansen, Svend; Krause, Rüdiger (eds.).Bronze Age Fortresses in Europe.Verlag Dr. Rudolf Habelt GmbH, Bonn. p. 211.
  59. ^Gjordes stål i norr samtidigt som i romarriket – nu väntas historien skrivas om: SVT
  60. ^Tre frågor om: Så avancerad var ståltillverkningen i norr för 2 000 år sedan; SVT
  61. ^Wells, Peter (1995). "Resources and Industry". In Green, Miranda (ed.).The Celtic World.Routledge. p. 218.ISBN9781135632434.
  62. ^"East Lothian's Broxmouth fort reveals edge of steel".BBC News.15 January 2014.
  63. ^Craddock, Paul T. (2008): "Mining and Metallurgy", in:Oleson, John Peter(ed.):The Oxford Handbook of Engineering and Technology in the Classical World,Oxford University Press,ISBN978-0-19-518731-1,p. 108
  64. ^abBandama, Foreman; Babalola, Abidemi Babatunde (13 September 2023)."Science, Not Black Magic: Metal and Glass Production in Africa".African Archaeological Review.40(3): 531–543.doi:10.1007/s10437-023-09545-6.ISSN0263-0338.OCLC10004759980.S2CID261858183.
  65. ^abEggert (2014). pp.51–59.
  66. ^abcHoll, Augustin F. C. (6 November 2009). "Early West African Metallurgies: New Data and Old Orthodoxy".Journal of World Prehistory.22(4): 415–438.doi:10.1007/s10963-009-9030-6.S2CID161611760.
  67. ^Iron in Africa: Revisiting the HistoryArchived2008-10-25 at theWayback Machine– Unesco (2002)
  68. ^Ehret, Christopher (2002).The Civilizations of Africa.Charlottesville: University of Virginia, pp. 136, 137ISBN0-8139-2085-X.
  69. ^Eze–Uzomaka, Pamela."Iron and its influence on the prehistoric site of Lejja".Academia.edu.University of Nigeria,Nsukka, Nigeria.Retrieved12 December2014.
  70. ^abEggert (2014). pp.53–54.
  71. ^Tylecote (1975) (see below)
  72. ^Schmidt, Peter; Avery, Donald (1978). "Complex Iron Smelting and Prehistoric Culture in Tanzania".Science.201(4361): 1085–1089.Bibcode:1978Sci...201.1085S.doi:10.1126/science.201.4361.1085.JSTOR1746308.PMID17830304.S2CID37926350.
  73. ^Schmidt, Peter; Avery, Donald (1983). "More Evidence for an Advanced Prehistoric Iron Technology in Africa".Journal of Field Archaeology.10(4): 421–434.doi:10.1179/009346983791504228.
  74. ^Schmidt, Peter (1978).Historical Archaeology: A Structural Approach in an African Culture.Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
  75. ^Avery, Donald; Schmidt, Peter (1996). "Preheating: Practice or illusion".The Culture and Technology of African Iron Production.Gainesville: University of Florida Press. pp. 267–276.
  76. ^Schmidt, Peter (2019). "Science in Africa: A history of ingenuity and invention in African iron technology". In Worger, W; Ambler, C; Achebe, N (eds.).A Companion to African History.Hoboken, NJ: Wiley Blackwell. pp. 267–288.
  77. ^Childs, S. Terry (1996). "Technological history and culture in western Tanzania". In Schmidt, P. (ed.).The Culture and Technology of African Iron Production.Gainesville, FL: University of Florida Press.
  78. ^Collins, Robert O.; Burns, James M. (2007).A History of Sub-Saharan Africa.Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-0521867467– via Google Books.
  79. ^Edwards, David N. (2004).The Nubian Past: An Archaeology of the Sudan.Taylor & Francis.ISBN978-0203482766– via Google Books.
  80. ^Humphris J, Charlton MF, Keen J, Sauder L, Alshishani F (June 2018)."Iron Smelting in Sudan: Experimental Archaeology at The Royal City of Meroe".Journal of Field Archaeology.43(5): 399–416.doi:10.1080/00934690.2018.1479085.
  81. ^Lucas 2005,p. 10–11, 27.
  82. ^R. L. Miller (October 1988)."Ahmad Y. Al-Hassan and Donald R. Hill, 'Islamic technology: an illustrated history'".Medical History.32(4): 466–467.doi:10.1017/s0025727300048602.
  83. ^Kochmann, W.; Reibold M.; Goldberg R.; Hauffe W.; Levin A. A.; Meyer D. C.; Stephan T.; Müller H.; Belger A.; Paufler P. (2004). "Nanowires in ancient Damascus steel".Journal of Alloys and Compounds.372(1–2): L15–L19.doi:10.1016/j.jallcom.2003.10.005.ISSN0925-8388.
    Levin, A. A.; Meyer D. C.; Reibold M.; Kochmann W.; Pätzke N.; Paufler P. (2005)."Microstructure of a genuine Damascus sabre"(PDF).Crystal Research and Technology.40(9): 905–916.doi:10.1002/crat.200410456.S2CID96560374.Archived(PDF)from the original on 2007-08-09.
  84. ^Reibold, M.; Levin A. A.; Kochmann W.; Pätzke N.; Meyer D. C. (16 November 2006)."Materials:Carbon nanotubes in an ancient Damascus sabre".Nature.444(7117): 286.Bibcode:2006Natur.444..286R.doi:10.1038/444286a.PMID17108950.S2CID4431079.
  85. ^ab"Legendary Swords' Sharpness, Strength From Nanotubes, Study Says".news.nationalgeographic.Archived fromthe originalon 2016-01-28.
  86. ^Lucas 2005,p. 19.
  87. ^Tylecote (1992). p. 76.
  88. ^Belford and Ross, Paper:English steelmaking in the seventeenth century: the excavation of two cementation furnaces at CoalbrookdaleArchived2018-05-10 at theWayback Machine,Academia.edu, accessdate=30 March 2017
  89. ^abHowe, Henry Marion(1911)."Iron and Steel".InChisholm, Hugh(ed.).Encyclopædia Britannica.Vol. 14 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 803.
  90. ^King, P. W. (2002). "Dud Dudley's contribution to metallurgy".Historical Metallurgy.36(1): 43–53.
  91. ^King, P. W. (2001). "Sir Clement Clerke and the adoption of coal in metallurgy".Trans. Newcomen Soc.73(1): 33–52.doi:10.1179/tns.2001.002.S2CID112533187.
  92. ^A. Raistrick,A dynasty of Ironfounders(1953; 1989); N. Cox, 'Imagination and innovation of an industrial pioneer: The first Abraham Darby'Industrial Archaeology Review12(2) (1990), 127–144.
  93. ^A. Raistrick,Dynasty;C. K. Hyde,Technological change and the British iron industry 1700–1870(Princeton, 1977), 37–41; P. W. King, 'The Iron Trade in England and Wales 1500–1815' (Ph.D. thesis, Wolverhampton University, 2003), 128–141.
  94. ^G. R. Morton and N. Mutton, 'The transition to Cort's puddling process'Journal of Iron and Steel Institute205(7) (1967), 722–728; R. A. Mott (ed. P. Singer),Henry Cort: The great finer: creator of puddled iron(1983); P. W. King, 'Iron Trade', 185–193.
  95. ^A. Birch,Economic History of the British Iron and Steel Industry,181–189; C. K. Hyde,Technological Change and the British iron industry(Princeton 1977), 146–159.
  96. ^"Steel Industry".Archived fromthe originalon 2009-06-18.Retrieved2009-07-12.
  97. ^"Congressional Record V. 148, Pt. 4, April 11, 2002 to April 24, 2002".United States Government Printing Office.
  98. ^Chopra, Anuj (12 February 2007)."India's steel industry steps onto world stage".Cristian Science Monitor.Retrieved2009-07-12.
  99. ^"Top Steelmakers in 2017"(PDF).World Steel Association. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on August 23, 2018.RetrievedAugust 22,2018.
  100. ^"Long-term planning needed to meet steel demand".The News.2008-03-01. Archived fromthe originalon 2024-05-25.Retrieved2010-11-02.
  101. ^De Ras, Kevin; Van De Vijver, Ruben; Galvita, Vladimir V.; Marin, Guy B.; Van Geem, Kevin M. (2019-12-01)."Carbon capture and utilization in the steel industry: challenges and opportunities for chemical engineering"(PDF).Current Opinion in Chemical Engineering.26:81–87.doi:10.1016/j.coche.2019.09.001.ISSN2211-3398.S2CID210619173.
  102. ^Uchitelle, Louis(2009-01-01)."Steel Industry, in Slump, Looks to Federal Stimulus".The New York Times.Retrieved2009-07-19.

Bibliography[edit]

  • Ebrey, Walthall, Palais (2006).East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History.Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.[ISBN missing]
  • Eggert, Manfred (2014). "Early iron in West and Central Africa". In Breunig, P (ed.).Nok: African Sculpture in Archaeological Context.Frankfurt: Africa Magna Verlag Press.ISBN978-3937248462.Retrieved21 February2022.
  • Lucas, Adam Robert (2005). "Industrial Milling in the Ancient and Medieval Worlds: A Survey of the Evidence for an Industrial Revolution in Medieval Europe".Technology and Culture.46(1): 1–30.doi:10.1353/tech.2005.0026.S2CID109564224.
  • Needham, Joseph (1986).Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Part 2;Needham, Joseph (1986).Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Part 3.
  • Tylecote, R. F. (1992).A History of Metallurgy(2nd ed.). London: Maney Publishing, for the Institute of Materials.ISBN978-0901462886.
  • Waldbaum, Jane C. (1978).From Bronze to Iron: The Transition from the Bronze Age to the Iron Age in the Eastern Mediterranean.Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology, vol. LIV.Gothenburg:Paul Åström.ISBN9185058793.

Further reading[edit]

  • Knowles, Anne Kelly. (2013).Mastering Iron: The Struggle to Modernize an American Industry, 1800–1868(University of Chicago Press) 334 pages[ISBN missing]
  • Lam, Wengcheong (2014).Everything Old is New Again? Rethinking the transition to Cast Iron Production in the Plains of Central China,Chinese University of Hong Kong[ISBN missing]
  • Pleiner, R. (2000).Iron in Archaeology. The European Bloomery Smelters,Praha, Archeologický Ústav Av Cr.[ISBN missing]
  • Pounds, Norman J. G. (1957). "Historical Geography of the Iron and Steel Industry of France".Annals of the Association of American Geographers47#1, pp. 3–14.JSTOR2561556.
  • Wagner, Donald (1996).Iron and Steel in Ancient China.Leiden: E.J. Brill.[ISBN missing]
  • Woods, Michael and Mary B. Woods (2000).Ancient Construction (Ancient Technology)Runestone Press[ISBN missing]

External links[edit]

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ferrous_metallurgy&oldid=1227002067"