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Irradiation

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This article is about the physics of irradiation. For the visual illusion, seeirradiation illusion.
For the 2020 documentary film, seeIrradiated (film).
For the energy received from the sun, seeSolar irradiance.

Irradiationis the process by which an object is exposed toradiation.Anirradiatoris a device used to expose an object to radiation, notablygamma radiation,for a variety of purposes.[1]Irradiators may be used for sterilizing medical and pharmaceutical supplies, preserving foodstuffs, alteration of gemstone colors, studying radiation effects, eradicating insects through sterile male release programs, or calibratingthermoluminescent dosimeters(TLDs).[2]

The exposure can originate from various sources, including natural sources. Most frequently the term refers toionizing radiation,and to a level of radiation that will serve a specific purpose, rather than radiationexposureto normal levels ofbackground radiation.The term irradiation usually excludes the exposure to non-ionizing radiation, such asinfrared,visible light,microwavesfromcellular phonesorelectromagnetic wavesemitted by radio and television receivers and power supplies.

Applications

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Sterilization

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If administered at appropriate levels, all forms ofionizing radiationcansterilizeobjects, including medical instruments, disposables such assyringes,andsterilize food.Ionizing radiation (electron beams,X-raysandgamma rays)[3]may be used to kill bacteria in food or other organic material, including blood.[citation needed]Food irradiation,while effective, is seldom used due to problems with public acceptance.[4]

Medicine

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See also:Blood irradiation therapy

Irradiation is used indiagnostic imaging,cancer therapyandblood transfusion.[5]

In 2011 researchers found that irradiation was successful in the noveltheranostictechnique involving co-treatment withheptamethine dyesto elucidate tumor cells and attenuate their growth with minimal side effects.[6][7]

Ion implantation

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Main article:Ion implantation

Ion irradiation is routinely used to implant impuritiesatomsinto materials, especially semiconductors,to modify their properties. This process, usually known asion implantation,is an important step in the manufacture of siliconintegrated circuits.[8]

Ion irradiation

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Ion irradiation means in general usingparticle acceleratorsto shoot energetic ions on a material. Ion implantationis a variety of ion irradiation, as isswift heavy ionsirradiation fromparticle acceleratorsinducesion tracksthat can be used fornanotechnology.[9][10]

Industrial chemistry

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Main article:Gemstone irradiation
A
B
B
B
C
C
The image above contains clickable links
Pure diamonds, before and after irradiation treatment
AInitial (2×2 mm size)
BIrradiated by different doses of 2MeVelectrons
CIrradiated by different doses and then annealed at 800 °C (1,470 °F)

The irradiation process is widely practiced injewelry industry[11]and enabled the creation of gemstone colors that do not exist or are extremely rare in nature.[12]However, particularly when done in anuclear reactor,the processes can make gemstones radioactive. Health risks related to the residual radioactivity of the treated gemstones have led to government regulations in many countries.[12][13]

Irradiation is used tocross-linkplastics.Due to its efficiency,electron beam processingis often used in the irradiation treatment of polymer-based products to improve their mechanical, thermal, and chemical properties, and often to add unique properties.Cross-linked polyethylenepipe (PEX), high-temperature products such as tubing and gaskets, wire and cable jacket curing, curing of composite materials, and crosslinking of tires are a few examples.

Agriculture

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Main articles:Atomic gardeningandFood irradiation
Further information:Mutation breeding

After its discovery by Lewis Stadler at theUniversity of Missouri,irradiation ofseedand plantgermplasmhas resulted in creating many widely-growncultivarsoffood cropsworldwide.[14]The process, which consists of striking plant seeds or germplasm with radiation in the form ofX-rays,UV waves,heavy-ion beams,orgamma rays,essentially induce lesions of theDNA,leading to mutations in thegenome.The UN has been an active participant through theInternational Atomic Energy Agency.Irradiation is also employed to prevent the sprouting of certaincereals,onions,potatoesandgarlic.[15]Appropriate irradiation doses are also used to produce insects for use in thesterile insect techniqueof pest control.[16]

TheU.S. Department of Agriculture's (USDA) Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS) recognizes irradiation as an important technology toprotect consumers.Freshmeatandpoultryincluding whole or cut up birds, skinless poultry,pork chops,roasts,stew meat,liver,hamburgers,ground meat,and ground poultry are approved for irradiation.[17]

Assassination

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Further information:Poisoning of Alexander Litvinenko
See also:Category:Deaths by acute radiation syndrome

Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej,who died of lung cancer in Bucharest on March 19, 1965, may have been intentionally irradiated during a visit to Moscow, due to his political stance.[18]

In 1999, an article inDer Spiegelalleged that the East GermanMfSintentionally irradiated political prisoners with high-dose radiation, possibly to provoke cancer.[19][20]

Alexander Litvinenko,a secret serviceman who was tackling organized crime in Russia, was intentionally poisoned withpolonium-210;the very large internal doses of radiation he received caused his death.

Nuclear industry

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In thenuclear industry,irradiation may refer to the phenomenon of exposure of the structure of anuclear reactorto neutron flux, making the materialradioactiveand causingirradiation embrittlement,[21][22]or irradiation of thenuclear fuel.

Security

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During the2001 anthrax attacks,theUS Postal Serviceirradiated mailto protect members of the US government and other possible targets. This was of some concern to people who send digital media through the mail, including artists. According to the ART in Embassies program, "incoming mail is irradiated, and the process destroys slides, transparencies and disks."[citation needed]

See also

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References

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  1. ^Irradiator definition.Law Insider (accessed Jan 2023)
  2. ^Irradiators.United States Department of Agriculture (accessed Jan 2023)
  3. ^"Food Standards Agency - Irradiated food".Archived fromthe originalon February 7, 2012.RetrievedJanuary 26,2008.
  4. ^"Spinach and Peanuts, With a Dash of Radiation"Archived2017-07-06 at theWayback Machinearticle by Andrew Marin inThe New York TimesFebruary 1, 2009
  5. ^"Information for patients needing irradiated blood"Archived2018-11-23 at theWayback MachinebyNational Blood Service
  6. ^Tan X, Luo S, Wang D, et al. A NIR heptamethine Dye with intrinsic cancer targeting, imaging and photosynthesizing properties. Journal of Biomaterials China. 33-7 (2011), pp. 2230-2239.
  7. ^F. Pene, E. Courtine, A. Cariou, J.P. Mira. Toward theranostics. Crit Care Med, 37 (2009), pp. S50–S58
  8. ^Meldrum, A.; Haglund, R. F. Jr; Boatner, L. A.; White, C. W. (2001)."Nanocomposite Materials Formed by Ion Implantation".Advanced Materials.13(19): 1431–1444.doi:10.1002/1521-4095(200110)13:19<1431::AID-ADMA1431>3.0.CO;2-Z.ISSN1521-4095.
  9. ^Rawat, Pankaj Singh; Srivastava, R.C.; Dixit, Gagan; Asokan, K. (December 1, 2020)."Structural, functional and magnetic ordering modifications in graphene oxide and graphite by 100 MeV gold ion irradiation".Vacuum.182:109700.Bibcode:2020Vacuu.182j9700R.doi:10.1016/j.vacuum.2020.109700.ISSN0042-207X.S2CID225410221.
  10. ^Andrievskii, R. A. (September 1, 2010). "Effect of irradiation on the properties of nanomaterials".The Physics of Metals and Metallography.110(3): 229–240.Bibcode:2010PMM...110..229A.doi:10.1134/S0031918X10090061.ISSN1555-6190.S2CID136828233.
  11. ^Omi, Nelson M.; Rela, Paulo R. (2007).Gemstone Dedicated Gamma Irradiator Development: Proceedings of the INAC 2007 International Nuclear Atlantic Conference(PDF).Associação Brasileira de Energia Nuclear. p. 1.ISBN978-85-99141-02-1.Archived fromthe original(PDF)on October 21, 2022.RetrievedOctober 21,2022.
  12. ^abHurlbut, Cornelius S.; Kammerling, Robert C. (1991).Gemology(PDF).Wiley-Interscience.p. 170.ISBN0-471-52667-3.Archived(PDF)from the original on November 4, 2022.RetrievedNovember 4,2022– viaLibreTexts.
  13. ^Nuclear Regulatory Commission (April 2019),Backgrounder on Irradiated Gemstones,The U.S.Nuclear Regulatory Commission,archivedfrom the original on September 1, 2022,retrievedNovember 12,2022Public DomainThis article incorporatespublic domain materialfrom websites or documents of theUnited States Government.
  14. ^Ahloowalia, B.S.; Maluszynski, M.; Nichterlein, K. (2004). "Global impact of mutation-derived varieties".Euphytica.135(2): 187–204.doi:10.1023/B:EUPH.0000014914.85465.4f.S2CID34494057.
  15. ^Bly, J.H. "Electron Beam Processing", Yardley, PA: International Information Associates, 1988.
  16. ^International Database on Insect Disinfestation and SterilizationArchived2010-03-28 at theWayback Machine,Joint FAO/IAEA Division of Nuclear Techniques in Food and Agriculture website,Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations,plus theInternational Atomic Energy Agency.
  17. ^Irradiation and Food Safety,U.S. Drug and Food Administration. Retrieved Jan. 5, 2010.
  18. ^"TFP > Alexander Litvinenko Assassination".Archived fromthe originalon July 1, 2011.RetrievedOctober 18,2009.
  19. ^STASI: In Kopfhöhe ausgerichtet.Archived2013-11-06 at theWayback MachineArticle by Peter Wensierski inDer Spiegel20/1999, May 17, 1999
  20. ^Tödliche Strahlung. Die Staatssicherheit der DDR steht im Verdacht, Regimegegner radioaktiv verseucht zu haben.Article by Paul Leonhard inJunge FreiheitApril 14, 2000
  21. ^Materials Ageing – Irradiation Embrittlement.EU Science Hub accessed Jan 2023)
  22. ^Aitkaliyeva, A.; He, L.; Wen, H.; Miller, B.; Bai, X.M.; Allen, T. (2017)."Irradiation effects in Generation IV nuclear reactor materials".Structural Materials for Generation IV Nuclear Reactors.pp. 253–283.doi:10.1016/B978-0-08-100906-2.00007-0.ISBN978-0-08-100906-2.OSTI1476305.
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