Isan language

Not to be confused with theEsan languageof Nigeria.

Isan
Northeastern Thai, Thai Isan, Thai Lao
Tai Noi scriptformer use (top) Thai Alpha betcurrently popular with non-standard form (bottom)
Native to	Thailand
Region	Isan(Northeastern Thailand) Also in adjacent areas and Bangkok
Ethnicity	Isan(Tai Lao),Northern Khmer,Kuy,Phuan L2 or L3 of numerous minorities of the Isan region
Native speakers	13-16 million (2005) 22 million (L1 and L2, 2013)
Language family	Kra–Dai Tai Southwestern Tai languages Lao–Phutai Lao Isan
Writing system	Tai Noi(former, secular) Tai Tham(former, religious) Thai Alpha bet(de facto)
Official status
Recognised minority language in	Thailand
Regulated by	Research Institute for Languages and Cultures of Asia,Mahidol University
Language codes
ISO 639-3	tts
Glottolog	nort2741

IsanorNortheastern Thai(autonym:ภาษาลาว/ພາສາລາວ,IPA:[pʰáː.sǎːláːw];Thai:ภาษาอีสานRTGS:Phasa Isan) refers to the local development of theLao languagein Thailand, after the political split of the Lao-speaking world at theMekong Riverat the conclusion of theFranco-Siamese crisis of 1893.The language is still referred to asLaoby native speakers.

As avarietyof the Lao language, Isan belongs to theSouthwestern branch of Tai languagesin theKra-Dai language family.It is most closely related to (other than Lao) "tribal" Tai languages such asPhu ThaiandTai Yo.Isan is officially classified as a dialect of the Thai language by the Thai government. Although (Central) Thai is a closely related Southwestern Tai language, it falls within a different subbranch. Central Thai and Isan aremutually intelligibleonly with difficulty; even though they share over 80% cognate vocabulary, they have very different tonal patterns and vowel qualities, and many commonly-used words in Isan differ from Thai, thus hampering comprehension.

The Lao language has had a long presence in Isan, arriving with migrants who followed the river valleys into Southeast Asia from southern China some time in the 8th to 10th centuries. The region of what is now Isan was nominally under the Lao kingdom ofLan Xangfrom 1354 to 1707. After the fall of Lan Xang, the Lao splinter kingdoms became tributary states of Siam. During the late 18th and much of the 19th century, Siamese soldiers carried out forced migrations of Lao people from the western bank of the Mekong River to the eastern bank, now Isan. As a result of these massive movements, Isan speakers comprise almost one-third of the population of Thailand and represent more than 80% of the population of Lao speakers overall. Isan is natively spoken by roughly 13-16 million people of theIsanregion (2005), although the total population of speakers, including Isan people in other regions of Thailand and those that speak it as a second language, likely exceeds 22 million.

The Lao language in Thailand was preserved due to the Isan region's large population, mountains that separated the region from the rest of the country, a conservative culture and ethnic appreciation of local traditions. The language was officially banned from being referred to as the Lao language in official Thai documents at the turn of the 20th century. Assimilatory laws of the 1930s that promotedThai nationalism,Central Thai culture and mandatory use of Standard Thai led to adiglossicsituation with the region's inhabitants largely being bilingual and viewing themselves as Thai citizens. Isan is reserved as the language of the home, agrarian economy and provincial life. TheTai Noi scriptwas also banned, thus making Isan a spoken language, although an ad hoc system of using Thai script and spelling of cognate words is used in informal communication.

Isan is also one of the poorest, least developed regions of Thailand, with many Isan people having little education, often employed as laborers, domestics, cooks, taxi drivers, and in other menial jobs. Combined with historic open prejudice toward Isan people, this has fueled a negative perception of the language. Despite its vigorous usage, since the mid-20th century, the language has been undergoing a slow relexification by Thai orlanguage shiftto Thai altogether, threatening the vitality of the language.However, with attitudes toward regional cultures becoming more relaxed in the late 20th century onwards, increased research into the language by Thai academics at Isan universities and an ethno-political stance often at odds with Bangkok, some efforts to help stem the slow disappearance of the language are beginning to take root, fostered by a growing awareness and appreciation of local culture, literature and history.

Classification

Further information:Tai–Kadai languages

Kra-Dai

Hlai languages Kam-Sui languages Kra languages Be language Tai languages Northern Tai languages Central Tai languages Southwestern Tai languages Northwestern Tai languages Khamti language Shan language others Chiang Saen languages Northern Thai language Tai Lue language Sukhothai language Thai language Southern Thai language Lao‑Phuthai languages Tai Yo language Phu Thai language Lao language(PDR Lao,Isan language)

As an umbrella term for the Lao varieties as spoken in Northeastern Thailand, Isan remains essentially the same as the Lao language of Laos, albeit nonetheless differentiated in orthography and some minor lexical elements. Both right and left bank varieties are most closely related to the other Lao-Phuthai (Lao-Phoutai) languages such asPhuthai(Phoutai) andTai Yo(Tai Gno), all which are mutually intelligible to each other. The Lao-Phuthai languages are closely related and somewhat mutually intelligible with the otherSouthwesternbranchTai languagessuch as the Chiang Saen languages, which includes Standard Thai, and the Northwestern languages, comprising the speech of theDai/Shanpeoples. Lao and Thai, despite separate development, were pushed closer together due to proximity and adoption of the same Khmer, Sanskrit and Pali loan words. Lao is distantly related to the variousZhuang languagesthat comprise theNorthernandCentralbranches of Tai languages, and even more distantly to the other Kra-Dai languages.

Within Thailand, Isan is officially classified as a 'Northeastern' dialect of the Thai language and is referred to as such in most official and academic works concerning the language produced in Thailand. The use of 'Northeastern Thai' to refer to the language is re-enforced internationally with the descriptors in theISO 639-3andGlottologlanguage codes.Outside of official and academic Thai contexts, Isan is usually classified as a particular sub-grouping of the Lao language such as by native speakers, Laotian Lao and many linguists, it is also classified as a separate language in light of its unique history and Thai-language influence, such as its classification inGlottologandEthnologue.

Names

Endonyms

Isan people have traditionally referred to their speech as theLaolanguage (ภาษาลาว,ພາສາລາວ,[pʰáːsăːláːw]). This is sometimes modified with the wordtai(ไท,ໄທ,[tʰáj],lit. 'inhabitant'or'person') or the related formThai(ไทย,ໄທ,[tʰáj]), which refers to Thailand or the Thai people, thus yieldingPhasa Tai Lao(ภาษาไทลาว,ພາສາໄທລາວ,'language of the Lao people') andPhasa Thai Lao(ภาษาไทยลาว,ພາສາໄທລາວ,'Lao language of Thailand').

Laoderives from an ancient Austroasiatic loan into Kra-Dai, *k.ra:w,which signified a '(venerable) person' and is also ultimately the source of the Isan wordslao(ลาว,ລາວ,[láːw],'he/she/it'), andhao(เฮา,ເຮົາ,[háw],'we/us').TaiandThaiboth derive from another Austroasiatic loan into Kra-Dai, *k.riː,which signifies a '(free) person'. The variousKra–Dai peopleshave traditionally used variants of either *k.riːor *k.ra:was ethnic and linguistic self-appellations, sometimes even interchangeably.

Isan people tend to refer to themselves and their language asLaoonly when in settings with other Isan people, where the language can be used freely, typically away from other Thai-speaking people. Isan speakers typically find the termLaooffensive when used by outsiders, due to its usage as a discriminatory slur, often insinuating their rural upbringings, superstitious beliefs, links with the Lao people of Laos (i.e., not Thai) and traditional, agrarian lifestyles. In dealings with Lao people from Laos, Isan people may sometimes usePhasa Lao Isanor 'Isan Lao language' or simplyIsanwhen clarification is needed as to their origins or why their accents differ. The use ofLaoorLao Isanidentity, although eschewed by younger generations, is making a comeback, but use of these terms outside of private settings or with other Lao people has strong political associations, especially with the far-left political movements advocating greater autonomy for the region.

As a result, younger people have adopted the neologismIsanto describe themselves and their language, as it conveniently avoids ambiguity with the Laotian Lao as well as association with movements, historical and current, that tend to be leftist and at odds with the central government in Bangkok. The language is also called affectionatelyPhasa Ban Hao(ภาษาบ้านเฮา,ພາສາບ້ານເຮົາ,[pʰáːsăːbȃːnháw]), which can be translated as either 'our home language' or 'our village language'.

Exonyms

Isan is known in Thai by the following two names, officially and academically:Phasa Thai Tawan Ok Chiang Nuea(ภาษาไทยตะวันออกเฉียงเหนือ,[pʰāːsăːtʰājtàʔwānʔɔ̀ːktɕʰǐaŋnɯ̌a],'Northeastern Thai language'), andPhasa Thai Thin Isan(ภาษาไทยถิ่นอีสาน,[pʰāːsăːtʰājtʰìnʔīːsăːn],'Thai language of the Isan region'). These names emphasise the official position of Isan speech as a dialect of the Thai language. In more relaxed contexts, Thai people generally refer to the language asPhasa Thai Isan(ภาษาไทยอีสาน,'Isan Thai language') or simplyPhasa Isan(ภาษาอีสาน,[pʰāːsăːʔīːsăːn],'Isan language').

The termIsanderives from an older form (อีศาน), which in turn is a derivative of SanskritĪśāna(ईशान), which signifies the 'northeast' or 'northeastern direction' as well as the name of an aspect of LordShivaas guardian of that direction. It was also the name of the Khmer capital ofChenlawhose rule extended over the southern part of the region. After the integration of theMonthon Laointo Siam in 1893, the Siamese also abolished the use of the terms ofLaoin place names as well as self-references in the census to encourage assimilation of the Lao people within its new borders. However, due to the distinct culture and language and the need to disassociate the people and region fromLaos,the termIsancame into being for the region of Isan as well as its ethnic Lao people and their Lao speech, although it originally only referred to districts which now comprise the southern portion of Northeastern Thailand.

Use ofLaoby native Thai speakers was originally for all Tai peoples that were not Siamese, and was once forNorthern Thai peopleas well, but the term gradually came to be thought of only referring to the ethnic Lao people of Isan and contemporary Laos. When used by Thai people, it is often offensive, given the history of prejudice against Isan people for their distinct culture and language, as well as perceived links with the communist Lao in Laos. Nevertheless, within Northeastern Thailand,Laois the general term used by the various ethnic minorities that speak it as a first, second or third language. Thai speakers may also usePhasa Ban Nok(ภาษาบ้านนอก,[pʰaːsăːbânnɔ̑ːk]), which can translate as 'rural', 'upcountry' or 'provincial language'. Although it is often used by Thai speakers to refer to the Isan language, since the region is synonymous in Thai minds to rural agriculture, it is also used for any rural, unsophisticated accent, even of Central Thai.

In Laos, the Lao people also refer to the language asPhasa Lao(ພາສາລາວ,[pʰáːsăːláːw]), but when necessary to distinguish it from the dialects spoken in Laos, the termsPhasa Tai Lao(ພາສາໄທລາວ,[pʰáːsăːtʰájláːw],'Lao language of Thailand') andPhasa Lao Isan(ພາສາລາວອີສານ,[pʰáːsăːláːwʔiːsăːn],'Isan Lao language') can also be used. In most other languages of the world, 'Isan' or translations of 'Northeastern Thai language' are used.

Geographical distribution

A map showing the provinces of Northeastern Thailand or Isan. The region is a stronghold of the language.

The homeland of the Isan language is mainly the twenty provinces ofNortheastern Thailand,also known asPhak Isan(ภาคอีสาน), 'Isan region' or justIsan.The region is covered by the flat topography of theKhorat Plateau.The Lao language was able to thrive in the region due to its historical settlement pattern, which included the vast depopulation of the left bank of the Mekong to the right bank and its geographical isolation from the rest of what is now Thailand. The peaks of thePhetsabunandDong Phanya Nyenmountains to the west and theSankamphaengto the southwest separate the region from the rest of Thailand and theDamlekridges forming the border withCambodia.ThePhu Phan Mountainsdivide the plateau into a northern third drained by theLoeiandSongkhramrivers and a southern third drained by theMun Riverand its predominate tributary, theSi.TheMekong River'separates' Isan speakers from Lao speakers in Laos as it is the geopolitical boundary between Thailand and Laos, with a few exceptions.

Isan speakers spill over into some portions ofUttaraditandPhitsanulokprovinces as well as the northernmost fringes ofPhetsabunto the northwest of the Isan region, with speakers in these areas generally speaking dialects akin to Luang Phrabang. In the southwest, Isan speakers are also found in portions ofSa KaeoandPhrasinburiprovinces. In addition, large numbers of Isan people have left the region for other major cities of Thailand for employment, with large pockets of speakers found inBangkokand its surrounding areas as well as major cities across the region. Outside of Thailand, it is likely that Isan speakers can also be found in theUnited States,South Korea,Australia,TaiwanandGermanywhich house the largest populations ofOverseas Thai.

History

Shared history with the Lao language

Main article:Lao language § History

Separate development of the Isan language

Integration Period (1893—1932)

After the French established their protectorate over the left bank Lao-speaking territories that became Laos during the conclusion of theFranco-Siamese crisis of 1893,the right bank was absorbed into Siam which was then ruled by KingWachirawut.To prevent further territorial concessions, the Siamese implemented a series of reforms that introduced Western concepts of statehood, administrative reforms and various measures to integrate the region which was until this point ruled as semi-autonomous out-lying territories nominally under the authority of the Lao kings. With the creation of provinces grouped into districts known asmonthon(มณฑล,ມົນທົນ,/móntʰón/), the power of local Lao princes of themueangin tax collection and administration was moved and replaced by crown-appointed governors from Bangkok which removed the official use of Lao written in Tai Noi in local administration. To achieve this, King Wachirawut had the help of his brother, PrinceDamrongrachanuphapwho recommended the system. The end of local autonomy and the presence of foreign troops led the Lao people to rebel under the influence ofmillennialistcult leaders orphu mi bun(ผู้มีบุญ,ຜູ້ມີບຸນ,/pʰȕːmíːbun/) during theHoly Man's Rebellion(1901—1902), the last united Lao resistance to Siamese rule, but the rebellion was brutally suppressed by Siamese troops and the reforms were fully implemented in the region shortly afterward.

Further reforms were implemented to assimilate and integrate the people of the "LaoMonthon"into Siam. References to the 'Lao' and many cities and towns were renamed, such as the former districts Monthon Lao Gao and Monthon Lao Phuan which were renamed as 'Monthon Ubon' and 'Monthon Udon', respectively, shortly after their creation in 1912. Self-designation as Lao in the census was banned after 1907, with the Lao forced to declare themselves as Thai and speakers of a Thai dialect. The unofficial use of Lao to refer to them was discouraged, and the term 'Isan', originally just a name of the southern part of the 'LaoMonthon',was extended to the entire region, its primary ethnic group and language. The name change and replacement of the Lao language by Thai at the administrative level and reforms to implement Thai had very little effect as the region's large Lao population and isolation prevented quick implementation. Monks still taught young boys to read the Tai Noi script written on palm-leaf manuscripts since there were no schools, passages from old literature were often read during festivals and traveling troupes ofmo lamandshadow puppetperformers relied on written manuscripts for the lyrics to poetry and old stories set to song and accompanied by thekhaenalone or alongside other local instruments. Mountains, lack of roads, large areas without access to water during the dry season and flooding in the wet season continued to shield the Isan people and their language from direct Thai-language influence.

Thaification (1930s–1960s)

Main article:Thaification

Suppression of the Isan language came with the 'Thai cultural mandates' and other reforms that aimed to elevate Central Thai culture and language, reverence to the monarchy and the symbols of state and complete integration into Thailand, known as 'Thaification'. Most of these reforms were implemented byPlaek Phibunsongkhram,who changed the English name of Siam to 'Thailand' and whose ultra-nationalistic policies would mark Thailand during his rule from 1938 to 1944 and 1948–1957. These policies implemented an official diglossia. Isan was removed from public and official discourse to make way for Thai and the written language was banned, relegating Isan to an unwritten language of the home. Public schools, which finally were built in the region, focussed heavily on indoctrinating Isan people to revere the Thai monarchy, loyalty to the state and its symbols and mastery of the Thai language, with Isan treated as an inferior dialect. Pride in the language was erased as students were punished or humiliated for using the language in the classroom or writing in Tai Noi, planting the seed for futurelanguage shiftas the region became bilingual.

The old written language and the rich literature written in it were banned and was not discussed in schools. Numerous temples had their libraries seized and destroyed, replacing the old Lao religious texts, local histories, literature and poetry collections with Thai-script, Thai-centric manuscripts. The public schools also dismissed the old monks from their role as educators unless they complied with the new curriculum. This severed the Isan people from knowledge of their written language, shared literary history and ability to communicate via writing with the left bank Lao. In tandem with its removal from education and official contexts, the Thai language made a greater appearance in people's lives with the extension of the railroad to Ubon and Khon Kaen and with it the telegraph, radio and a larger number of Thai civil servants, teachers and government officials in the region that did not learn the local language.

Words for new technologies and the political realities of belonging to the Thai state arrived from Thai, including words of English and Chinese (primarily Teochew) origin, as well as neologisms created from Sanskrit roots. Laos, still under French rule, turned to French, Vietnamese, repurposing of old Lao vocabulary as well as Sanskrit-derived coinages that were generally the same, although not always, as those that developed in Thai. For example, the word or aeroplane (UK)/airplane (US) in Isan washuea bin(Northeastern Thai:ເຮືອບິນ/hɯ́abin/) 'flying boat', but was generally replaced by Thai-influencedkhrueang bin(Northeastern Thai:เครื่องบิน/kʰɯ̄aŋbīn/) 'flying machine', whereas Lao retainedhua bin(Lao:ເຮືອບິນ/hɯ́abìn/) RTGShuea bin.Similarly, a game ofbilliards/bɪljədz/in Isan is (Northeastern Thai:บิลเลียด/bīn.lȋat/from English via Thai; whereas on the left bank, people playbiya(Lao:ບີຢາ/bìː.jàː/) from Frenchbillard/bijaʁ/.Despite this slow shift, the spoken language maintained its Lao features since most of the population was still engaged in agriculture, where Thai was not needed, thus many Isan people never mastered Thai fully even if they used it as a written language and understood it fine.

1960s to Present

The language shift to Thai and the increased influence of the Thai language really came to the fore in the 1960s due to several factors. Roads were finally built into the region, making Isan no longer unreachable for much of the year, and the arrival of television with its popular news broadcasts and soap operas penetrated into people's homes at this time. As lands new lands to clear for cultivation were no longer available, urbanization began to occur, as well as the massive seasonal migration of Isan people to Bangkok during the dry season, taking advantage of the economic boom occurring in Thailand with increased western investment due to its more stable, non-communist government and openness. Having improved their Thai during employment in Bangkok, the Isan people returned to their villages, introducing the Bangkok slang words back home and peppering their speech with more and more Thai words.

Around the 1990s, although the perceived political oppression continues and Thaification policies remain, attitudes towards regional languages relaxed. Academics at Isan universities began exploring the local language, history, culture and other folklore, publishing works that helped bring serious attention to preserving the Lao features of the language and landscape, albeit under an Isan banner. Students can participate in clubs that promote local music, sung in the local Lao language, or local dances native to the area. Knowledge about the history of the region and its long neglect and abuse by Siamese authorities and resurrection of pride in local culture are coming to the fore, increasing expressions of 'Isan-ness' in the region. However, Thaification policies and thelanguage shiftto Thai continue unabated. Recognition of the Isan language as an important regional language of Thailand did not provide any funding for its preservation or maintenance other than a token of acknowledgment of its existence.

Language status

Legal status

Ethnologuedescribes the Isan language as 'de factolanguage of provincial identity' which 'is the language of identity for citizens of the province, but this is not mandated by law. Neither is it developed enough or known enough to function as the language of government business.' Although Thailand does recognise the regional Tai languages, including Isan, as important aspects of regional culture and communication, the Isan language and other minority languages are still inferior to the social and cultural prestige of Standard Thai and its government sanctioned promotion in official, educational and national usage. However, the Thaification laws that banned the old Lao Alpha bet and forced the Lao to refer to themselves and their language as 'Thai Isan' never banned the language in the home nor the fields and the Isan people steadfastly clung to their spoken language.

The situation is in stark contrast to Laos where the Lao language is actively promoted as a language of national unity. Laotian Lao people are very conscious of their distinct, non-Thai language and although influenced by Thai-language media and culture, strive to maintain 'good Lao'. Although spelling has changed, the Lao speakers in Laos continue to use a modified form of theTai Noiscript, the modernLao Alpha bet.

Spoken status

According to the EGIDS scale, Isan is at Stage VIA, or 'vigorous', meaning the language is used for 'face-to-face communication by all generations and the situation is sustainable'.Although various studies indicate that Isan is spoken by almost everyone in Northeastern Thailand, the language is under threat from Thai, as Thai replaces the unique vocabulary specific to Lao speakers, and language shift, as more and more children are being raised to speak only Standard Thai. The lack of prestige of the language and the need for Thai to advance in government, education and professional realms or seek employment outside of Northeastern Thailand, such as Bangkok, necessitate the use and mastery of proper Thai over proper Lao.

The language suffers from a negative perception and diglossia, so speakers have to limit their use of the language to comfortable, informal settings. Parents often view the language as a detriment to the betterment of their children, who must master Standard Thai to advance in school or career paths outside of agriculture. The use of the Thai script, spelling cognate words in Isan as they are in Thai, also gives a false perception of the dialectal subordination of Isan and the errors of Isan pronunciation which deviate from Thai. As a result, a generational gap has arisen with old speakers using normative Lao and younger speakers using a very 'Thaified' version of Isan, increased code-switching or outright exclusive use of Thai. Many linguists and scholars of the Isan language believe that Thai relexification cannot be halted unless the script is returned, but this has little public or government support.

Written language usage and vitality

Portions of an ancient legal text written in the Tai Noi script on a palm-leaf manuscript. The script was banned in the 1930s but survived in Laos as the modern Lao Alpha bet.

The written language is currently at Stage IX, which on the EGIDS scale is a 'language [that] serves as a reminder of heritage identity for an ethnic community, but no one has more than symbolic proficiency'.This applies to both theTai Noiscript used for secular literature and theTua Thamscript previously used for Buddhist texts. Only a handful of people of very advanced age and caretakers of monasteries whose libraries were not destroyed during the Thaification implementation in the 1930s are able to read either script. Evidence for the use of the written language is hard to find, but well-worn murals of very old temples often have small bits of writing in the old script.

In Laos, the orthography is a direct descendant ofTai Noiand continues its role as the official written language of the Lao language of the left bank as well as the script used to transcribe minority languages. The Lao written language has unified the dialects to some extent as well, as though the differences between dialects are sharper in Laos than Isan, one common writing system unites them.

Language threats

Negative perceptions

Acknowledgment of the unique history of the Isan language and the fact it is derived from a closely related albeit separate language is lacking, with the official and public position being that the language is a dialect of Thai. As a result of the great difference from Thai, based on tone, nasal vowels of a different quality and a special set of Lao vocabulary unfamiliar to Thai speakers, it is considered an 'inferior form of Thai' as opposed to its own separate language. The traditional avoidance of the language in the formal sphere re-enforces the superiority of Thai, which the Isan people haveinternalizedto the point many do not have high opinions of their first language. Combined with vocabulary retentions, many of which sound oddly archaic or have become pejorative in Standard Thai, perpetuate the myth and negative perception of Isan as an uncouth language of rural poverty and hard agricultural life. Due to associations withLaos,the language was also viewed as a potential fifth column for Laoirredentismand the spread ofcommunisminto Thailand.It was in the recent past quite common for Isan people to be corrected or ridiculed when they spoke because of their incomplete mastery of Standard Thai.

In polling of language favorability amongst the general population of Thailand, the Isan language ranks last after Standard Thai and the primary Thai dialect of the other regions.As a result of the need for Standard Thai proficiency in order to have better educational and employment prospects and avoid discrimination, anecdotal evidence suggests that more and more Isan children are being raised in the Thai language and are discouraged from using the local language at home.The Thai language has already begun to displace the predominance of Isan in the major market towns, in part because they are often also administrative centers, and in some major cities, universities have attracted students from other regions.

Code-switching

Since the late 1930s, Isan has been a bilingual area, with most people using Isan at home and in the village, but due to diglossia, switching to Thai for school, work and formal situations. Like all bilingual societies, Isan speakers oftencode-switchin and out of the Thai language. For example, in an analysis of the eighty-eight volumes of the comicหนูหิ่น อินเดอะซิตี้(lit. 'Little Hin'in the city), the Thai language was used 62.91 percent of the time to properly quote someone—such as someone that speaks Thai, 21.19 percent of the time to provide further explanation and 8.61 percent of the time to re-iterate a previous statement for clarification.There are seven areas where the Thai language is employed, aside from direct quotation, such as the following: explanations, interjections, Thai culture, emphasis, re-iterations and jokes.

Although some Isan people may not speak the language well, Thai is a convenient language of clarification, especially between Isan speakers of different dialects that may be unfamiliar with local terms of the other speaker. As Isan does not exist in formal, technical, political or academic domains, it is generally more comfortable for Isan speakers to use Thai in these areas as a result of the diglossia, with many Isan speakers unaware or unfamiliar with native terms andbelles-lettresthat are still used in contemporary Lao. Thai is also sometimes used to avoid Isan features that are stigmatized in Thai, such as retention of vocabulary that is pejorative or archaic as well as Lao pronunciations of cognate words that sound 'folksy'. Despite the fact that code-switching is a natural phenomenon, younger generations are blurring the distinction between languages, using more Thai-like features and as they forget to switch back to Isan, language shift takes hold.

Thai-influenced language shift

The Thai language may not be the primary language of Isan, but Isan people are in constant exposure to it. It is required to watch the ever-popularsoap operas,news, and sports broadcasts or sing popular songs, most of it produced in Bangkok or at least in its accent. Thai is also needed as a written language for instructions, to read labels on packages, road signs, newspapers and books. Isan children who may struggle to acquire the language, are forced to learn the language as part ofcompulsory educationand often when they are older, for employment. Although attitudes towards regional cultures and languages began to relax in the late 1980s, the legal and social pressures of Thaification and the need for Thai to participate in daily life and wider society continue. The influence of Thai aside, anecdotal evidence suggests that many older Isan lament the corruption of the spoken language spoken by younger generations and that the younger generations are no longer familiar with the traditional Lao forms used by previous generations.

In a 2016 study of language shift, villagers in an Isan-speaking village were divided by age and asked to respond to various questionnaires to determine lexical usage of Lao terms, with those born prior to 1955, those born between 1965 and 1990 and those born after 1990. The results show what would be expected of a language undergoing language shift. As Isan and Thai already have a similar grammatical structure and syntax, the main variance is in lexical shift, essentially the replacement of Isan vocabulary. The oldest generation, at the time in their 60s or older, uses very normative Lao features little different than those found in Laos. The middle generations, ranging from 35 to 50 years of age, had a greater prevalence of Thai vocabulary, but overall maintained a traditional Isan lexicon, with the Thai terms usually not the primary spoken forms. The youngest generation, although still arguably using very many Lao phrases and vocabulary, had a remarkable replacement of Isan vocabulary, with Thai forms becoming either the primary variant or replacing the Isan word altogether. Similarly, when Isan usage has two variants, generally a common one not understood in Thai and another that is usually a cognate, younger speakers tend to use the cognates with greater frequency, pushing their speech to Thai as older speakers will use them in variance.

Thai loan words were generally localized in pronunciation, easing them into the flow of Isan conversation and unnoticeable to most but the oldest members of the community that preserve 'proper Isan' usage. Although the youngest generation was still speaking a distinct language, each generation brings the increased risk of the Isan language's extinction as it becomes relexified to the point of no longer being a separate language but a dialect of Thai with some Lao influence. The lack of official usage, official support for its maintenance and lack of language prestige hinder attempts to revitalize or strengthen the language against the advance of Thai.

Thai relexification in the speech of Isan youth in Rongsan Village

Central Thai		Isan		Lao		Isan youth		Gloss
โหระพา horapha	/hǒː.ráʔ.pʰāː/	อีตู่ i tu	/ʔīː túː/	ອີ່ຕູ່ i tou	/ʔīː tūː/	โหระพา horapha	/hŏː.làʔ.pʰa᷇ː/	'Thai basil'
พี่สาว phi sao	/pʰîː sǎːw/	เอื้อย uei	/ʔɯ̂aj/	ເອື້ອຍ uei	/ʔɯ̂aj/	พี่สาว phi sao	/pʰīː săːw/	'older sister'
คนใบ้ khon bai	/kʰōn bâj/	คนปากกืก khon pak kuek	/kʰo᷇n pàːk kɯ̀ːk/	ຄົນປາກກືກ khôn pak kuk	/kʰón pȁːk kɯ̏ːk/	คนใบ้ khon bai	/kʰón bȃj/	'mute' (person)
กระรอก krarok	/kràʔ.rɔ̂ːk/	กระฮอก krahok	/kǎʔ.hɔ̂ːk/	ກະຮອກ kahok	/káʔ.hɔ̂ːk/	กระรอก krarok	/kǎʔ.lɔ̑ːk/	'squirrel'
กระซิบ krasip	/kràʔ.síp/	ซิ่ม sim	/sīm/	ຊັບຊິຶ່ມ sap suem	/sāp sɯ̄m/	กระซิบ krasip	/kǎʔ.sìp/	'to whisper'
งีบ ngip	/ŋîːp/	เซือบ suep	/sɯ̂ap/	ເຊືອບ suep	/sɯ̂ap/	งีบ ngip	/ŋȋːp/	'to nap'
รวม ruam	/ruam/	โฮม hom	/ho᷇ːm/	ໂຮມ hôm	/hóːm/	รวม ruam	/lúam/	'to gather together' 'to assemble'
ลูก luk	/lûːk/	หน่วย nuai	/nūaj/	ຫນ່ວຍ/ໜ່ວຍ nouay	/nūaj/	ลูก luk	/lȗːk/	'fruit' (classifier)
ไหล่ lai	/làj/	บ่า ba	/báː/	ບ່າ ba	/bāː/	ไหล่ lai	/lāj/	'shoulder'

Continued survival

The development of 'Isan' identity and a resurgence in attention to the language has brought increased attention and study of the language. Academics at universities are now offering courses in the language and its grammar, conducting research into the old literature archives that were preserved. Digitizing palm-leaf manuscripts and providing Thai-script transcription is being conducted as a way to both preserve the rapidly decaying documents and re-introduce them to the public. The language can be heard on national television during off-peak hours, when music videos featuring many Isan artists ofmolamand Isan adaptations of Central Thailuk thungmusic. In 2003, HRH Princess RoyalSirinthonwas the patron of the Thai Youth Mo Lam Competition.

Phonology

Consonants

Initials

Isan shares its consonant inventory with the Lao language whence it derives. Theplosiveandaffricateconsonants can be further divided into threevoice-onset timesofvoiced,tenuisandaspiratedconsonants. For example, Isan has the plosive set of voiced/b/,tenuis/p/which is like the 'p' in 'spin' and aspirated/pʰ/like the 'p' in 'puff'. Isan and Lao lack the sound/tɕʰ/and its allophone/ʃ/of Thai, replacing these sounds with/s/in analogous environments. Similarly,/r/is rare. Words in Isan and Lao cognate to Thai word with/r/have either/h/or/l/in their place, although educated speakers in Isan or Laos may pronounce some words with/r/.In Central and Southern Thai, words with/r/may be pronounced as/l/(lambdacism) in casual environments although this is frowned upon in formal or cultivated speech.

Unlike Central and Southern Thai, Isan and Lao have a/j/–/ɲ/distinction, whereas cognate words from Isan and Lao with/ɲ/are all/j/in Central and Southern Thai. Substitution of/w/with/ʋ/,which is not used in Thai, is common in large areas of both Laos and Isan but is not universal in either region, but is particularly associated with areas influenced by Vientiane and Central Lao dialects. The glottal stop occurs any time a word begins with a vowel, which is always built around a null consonant.

Isan consonant distribution with Thai and Lao Alpha bets.

		Labial	Dental/Alveolar	(Alveolo-)Palatal	Velar	Glottal
Nasal		/m/ม, หม4ມ, ໝ4/ຫມ4	/n/ณ1,น, หน4ນ, ໜ4/ຫນ4	/ɲ/2,5ญ3,ย3,หญ3,4,หย3,4ຍ5,ຫຽ4,11/ຫຍ4	/ŋ/ง, หง4ງ, ຫງ4
Plosive/ Affricate	voiceless	/p/ป ປ	/t/ฏ1,ต ຕ	/tɕ/จ ຈ	/k/ก ກ	/ʔ/10อ10ອ10
	voicelessaspirated	/pʰ/ผ, พ, ภ ຜ, ພ	/tʰ/ฐ1,ฑ1,ฒ1,ถ, ท, ธ ຖ, ທ	/tɕʰ/6ฉ6,ช6,ฌ1,6ຊ6	/kʰ/ข, ฃ7,ค, ฅ7,ฆ1ຂ, ຄ
	voiced	/b/บ ບ	/d/ฎ1,ด ດ
Fricative		/f/ฝ, ฟ ຝ, ຟ	/s/ซ, ศ1,ษ1,ส ສ, ຊ		[x]13ข, ฃ7,ค, ฅ7,ฆ1ຂ, ຄ	/h/ห, ฮ9ຫ, ຮ9
Approximant		[ʋ]2,5ว5,หว4ວ5,ຫວ4	/l/ล, ฬ1,ร12,หล4,หร4,12ຣ11,ລ, ຫຼ4/ຫລ4,ຫຼ4,11/ຫຣ4,11	/j/ย, อย, หย4ຢ, ຫຽ4,11	/w/ว, หว4ວ, ຫວ4
Rhotic/Liquid			/r/8ร8,หร4,8 ຣ8,11,ຫຼ4,8/ຫຣ4,8,11

• ^1Only used in Sanskrit or Pali loan words.
• ^2Unique to Isan and Lao, does not occur in Thai but/ʋ/is only an allophone of/w/whereas/ɲ/is phonemic.
• ^3Central and Southern Thai spelling does not distinguish/j/from/ɲ/.
• ^4Lao ligature of silent/h/(ຫ) or digraph; Thai digraph with silent/h/(ห).
• ^5Only as syllable-initial consonants.
• ^6Use of/tɕʰ/is Thai interference in Isan and rare in Laos, usually interference from a northern tribal Tai language, almost always/s/.
• ^7Still taught as part of the Alpha bet, 'ฃ' and 'ฅ' are obsolete and have been replaced by 'ข' and 'ค', respectively.
• ^8Mark of interference from Isan or erudition in Laos. Usually replaced by/l/and even by 'ລ'/l/in modern Lao writing.
• ^9Used to mark/h/in words that are etymologically/r/.
• ^10All words that begin with vowels must be written with the anchor consonant and are pronounced with a glottal stop.
• ^11Generally used in pre-1970s Lao.
• ^12Only in very casual, informal Thai.
• ^13Allophone of/kʰ/in some dialects.

Clusters

Consonant clusters are rare in spoken Lao as they disappear shortly after the adoption of writing. In native words, only /kw/ and /kʰw/ are permissible, but these can only occur before certain vowels due to thediphthongizationthat occurs before the vowels /aC/, /am/, /aː/ and /aːj/. Isan speakers, who are educated in Thai and often use Thai spelling of etymological vocabulary to transcribe Isan, will generally not pronounce consonant clusters but may do so when code-switching to Thai or when pronouncing high-brow words of Sanskrit, Pali or Khmer derivation. Lao speakers from Laos will sometimes pronounce clusters in these borrowed loan words, but this is restricted to aging speakers of the Laotian diaspora.

Lack of consonant clusters in Isan

Isan		Thai		Lao		Isan		Thai		Lao		Isan		Thai		Lao
ก	/k/	ก	/k/	ກ	/k/	ค	/kʰ/	ค	/kʰ/	ຄ	/kʰ/	ป	/p/	ป	/p/	ປ	/p/
กร		กร	/kr/			คร		คร	/kʰr/			ปร		ปร	/pr/
กล		กล	/kl/			คล		คล	/kʰl/			ปล		ปล	/pl/
กว1	/kw/1	กว	/kw/	ກວ1	/kw/1	คว1	/kʰw/1	คว	/kʰw/	ຄວ1	/kʰw/1	ผ	/pʰ/	ผ	/pʰ/	ຜ	/pʰ/
ข	/kʰ/	ข	/kʰ/	ຂ	/kʰ/	ต	/t/	ต	/t/	ຕ	/t/	ผล		ผล	/pʰl/
ขร		ขร	/kʰr/			ตร		ตร	/tr/			พ	/pʰ/	พ	/pʰ/	ພ	/pʰ/
ขล		ขล	/kʰl/									พร		พร	/pʰr/
ขว1	/kʰw/1	ขว	/kʰw/	ຂວ1	/kʰw/1							พล		พล	/pʰl/

• ^1Before /aC/, /aː/, /aːj/ and /am/diphthongizationoccurs which assimilates the /w/ so it is only a true cluster in other vowel environments, only occurs in Isan and Lao.

Finals

Isan shares with both Lao and Thai a restrictive set of permissible consonant sounds at the end of a syllable or word. Isan, using its current method of writing according to Thai etymological spelling, preserves the spelling to imply the former sound of borrowed loan words even if the pronunciation has been assimilated. Due to spelling reforms in Laos, the letters that can end a word were restricted to a special set of letters, but older writers and those in the Lao diaspora occasionally use some of the more etymological spellings.

In pronunciation, allplosive sounds(besides theglottal stop/ʔ/) areunreleased,as a result, there is no voicing of final consonants or any release of air. The finals /p/, /t/ and /k/ are thus actually pronounced[p̚],[t̚],and[k̚],respectively.

Of the consonant letters, excluding the disused ฃ and ฅ, six (ฉ ผ ฝ ห อ ฮ) cannot be used as a final and the other 36 are grouped as following.

Isan final consonants with Lao script for comparison

	Labial		Alveolar		Palatal	Velar		Glottal
Nasal	/m/		/n/			/ŋ/
	ม		ญ, ณ, น, ร, ล, ฬ			ง
	ມ		ນ1	ຣ2,ລ2		ງ
Plosive	/p/		/t/			/k/		/ʔ/
	บ, ป, พ, ฟ, ภ		จ, ช, ซ, ฌ, ฎ, ฏ, ฐ, ฑ, ฒ, ด, ต, ถ, ท, ธ, ศ, ษ, ส			ก, ข, ค, ฆ		*3
	ບ1	ປ2,ພ2,ຟ2	ດ1	ຈ2,ສ2,ຊ2,ຕ2,ຖ2,ທ2		ກ1	ຂ2,ຄ2
Approximant	/w/4				/j/4
	ว				ย
	ວ				ຍ

• ^1Where alternative spellings once existed, only these consonants can end words in modern Lao.
• ^2Used in pre-1970s Lao spelling as word-final letters.
• ^3Glottal stop is unwritten but is pronounced at the end of short vowels that occur at the end of a consonant.
• ^4These occur only as parts of diphthongs or triphthongs and are usually included as parts of vowels.

Vowels

The vowel structure of Isan is the similar as the central and southern Lao dialects of Laos. The vowel quality is also similar to Thai, but differs in that the two back vowels,close back unrounded vowel/ɯ/ and theclose-mid back unrounded vowel/ɤ/, centralized as theclose central unrounded vowel/ɨ/ and themid central vowel/ə/ in some speakers, respectively, as well as in diphthongs that may include these sounds. To Thai speakers, Isan and Lao vowels tend to have a nasal quality.

In many cases, especially diphthongs with /u/ as first element is lengthened in Isan as it is in Standard Lao, so that the wordtuawhich means 'body' (Thai:ตัว,written the same in Isan) is pronounced/tua/in Thai but in Isan as/tuːa/in some dialects, similar toLao:ຕົວ.The symbol '◌' indicates the required presence of a consonant, or for words that begin with a vowel sound, the 'null consonant' 'อ' or its Lao equivalent, 'ອ', which in words that begin with a vowel, represents the glottal stop /ʔ/. Short vowels that end with '◌ะ' or Lao '◌ະ' also end with a glottal stop.

Thai and Lao are bothabugidascripts, so certain vowels are pronounced without being written, taking the form of /a/ in open syllables and /o/ in closed syllables, i.e., ending in a consonant. For example, the Khmer loan wordphanomor 'hill' found in many place names in Isan isNortheastern Thai:พนมor 'PH-N-M' but pronounced/pʰàʔ.no᷇m/,with 'PH' as the open syllable and 'N-M' as the closed syllable. In Lao orthography, inherited from Tai Noi, closed syllables are marked with a 'ົ' over the consonants and the /a/ of open syllables was unwritten, thusLao:ພນົມor 'Ph-N-^o-M'. In current practice as a result of spelling reforms, all vowels are written out and in modernLao:ພະນົມor 'Ph-a-N-^o-M' is more common thus modern Lao is no longer a true abugida.

Isan vowel distribution

	Front	Central	Back
Close	/i/	/ɨ/~/ɯ/	/u/
Mid	/e/	/ə/~/ɤ/	/o/
Open	/ɛ/	/a/	/ɔ/

Vowel length

Vowels usually exist in long-short pairs determined byvowel lengthwhich isphonemic,but vowel length is not indicated in the RTGS romanization used in Thai or the BGN/PCGN French-based scheme commonly used in Laos. The Isan word romanized askhaocan represent bothNortheastern Thai:เขา/kʰăw/,'he' or 'she', andNortheastern Thai:ขาว/kʰăːw/,'white' which corresponds toLao:ເຂົາandLao:ຂາວ,respectively, which are also romanized askhao.In these cases, the pairs of words have the same tone and pronunciation and are differentiated solely by vowel length.

Isan Long-Short Vowel Pairs (Thai Script/Lao Pronunciation)

Long vowels				Short vowels
Thai	IPA	Lao	IPA	Thai	IPA	Lao	IPA
				◌ำ	/am/	◌ຳ	/am/
◌า	/aː/	◌າ	/aː/	◌ะ, ◌ั, *1	/aʔ/, /a/	◌ະ, ◌ັ	/aʔ/, /a/
◌ี	/iː/	◌ີ	/iː/	◌ิ	/i/	◌ິ	/i/
◌ู	/uː/	◌ູ	/uː/	◌ุ	/u/	◌ຸ	/u/
เ◌	/eː/	ເ◌	/eː/	เ◌ะ, เ◌็	/eʔ/, /e/	ເ◌ະ, ເ◌ົ	/eʔ/, /e/
แ◌	/ɛː/	ແ◌	/ɛː/	แ◌ะ, แ◌็	/ɛʔ/, /ɛ/	ແ◌ະ, ແ◌ົ	/ɛʔ/, /ɛ/
◌ื, ◌ือ	/ɯː/	◌ື	/ɯː/	◌ื	/ɯ/	◌ຶ	/ɯ/
เ◌อ, เ◌ิ	/ɤː/	ເີ◌	/ɤː/	เ◌อะ	/ɤʔ/	ເິ◌	/ɤʔ/
โ◌	/oː/	ໂ◌	/oː/	โ◌ะ, *2	/oʔ/, /o/	ໂ◌ະ, ◌ົ	/oʔ/, /o/
◌อ	/ɔː/	◌ອ◌, ◌ໍ	/ɔː/	เ◌าะ	/ɔʔ/	ເ◌າະ	/ɔʔ/

• ^1Unwritten in open syllables.
• ^2Unwritten in closed syllables.

Diphthongs

Isan Diphthongs
(Thai Script/Lao Pronunciation)

Long vowels				Short vowels
Thai	IPA	Lao	IPA	Thai	IPA	Lao	IPA
				◌วำ3	/wam/	◌ວຳ	/uam/
◌าย	/aːj/	◌າຍ/◌າຽ2	/aːj/	ไ◌1,ใ◌1,ไ◌ย, ◌ัย	/aj/	ໄ◌1,ໃ◌1,ໄ◌ຍ1,2/ໄ◌ຽ2,◌ັຍ2/◌ັຽ2	/aj/
◌าว	/aːw/	◌າວ	/aːw/	เ◌า1	/aw/	ເ◌ົາ1	/aw/
				◌ิว	/iw/	◌ິວ	/iw/
เ◌ีย	/ia/	ເ◌ຍ/ເ◌ັຽ2,◌ຽ◌	/ia/	เ◌ียะ	/iaʔ/	ເ◌ັຍ/ເ◌ັຽະ2	/iaʔ/
◌อย	/ɔːj/	◌ອຍ/◌ອຽ2/◌ຽ2	/ɔːj/
โ◌ย	/oːj/	ໂ◌ຍ/ໂ◌ຽ2	/oːj/
เ◌ือ, เ◌ือ◌	/ɯa/	ເ◌ືອ, ເ◌ືອ◌	/ɯa/	เ◌ือะ	/ɯaʔ/	ເ◌ຶອ	/ɯaʔ/
◌ัว, ◌ว◌	/ua/	◌ັວ, ◌ວ◌, ◌ວາ,	/ua/	◌ัวะ	/uaʔ/	◌ົວະ,	/uaʔ/
◌ูย	/uːj/	◌ູຍ/◌ູຽ2	/uːj/	◌ຸย	/uj/	◌ຸຍ/◌ຸຽ2	/uj/
เ◌ว	/eːw/	ເ◌ວ	/eːw/	เ◌็ว	/ew/	ເ◌ັວ	/ew/
แ◌ว	/ɛːw/	ແ◌ວ	/ɛːw/
เ◌ย	/ɤːj/	ເ◌ີຍ/ເ◌ີຽ2	/ɤːj/

• ^1Considered long vowels for the purpose of determining tone.
• ^2Archaic usage common in pre-1970s Lao.
• ^3The Thai vowel 'ำ' is a short vowel. In Isan, it is diphthongized after /w/ into /uam/.

Triphthongs

Isan Triphthongs
(Thai Script/Lao Pronunciation)

Thai	IPA	Lao	IPA
เ◌ียว1	/iaw/	◌ຽວ1	/iaw/
◌วย1	/uaj/	◌ວຍ/◌ວຽ1,2	/uaj/
เ◌ือย1	/ɯaj/	ເ◌ືວຍ1/ເ◌ືວຽ1,2	/ɯaj/

• ^1Considered long vowels for the purpose of determining tone.
• ^2Archaic usage common in pre-1970s Lao.

Tones

Isan Tone Distribution (Khon Kaen-Roi Et)

Tone Class	Inherent Tone	Mai ek (อ่)	Mai tho (อ้)	Long Vowel	Short Vowel
High	Low-rising	Mid level	Low-falling	Low-falling	High-rising
Middle	Mid level	High-rising	High-falling	Low-falling	Low-rising
Low	High-mid-falling	Mid level	High-falling	High-falling	Low-falling

Grammar

Isan words are not inflected, declined, conjugated, making Isan, like Lao and Thai, ananalytic language.Special particle words function in lieu of prefixes and suffixes to mark verb tense. The majority of Isan words are monosyllabic, but compound words and numerous other very common words exist that are not. Topologically, Isan is asubject–verb–object(SVO) language, although the subject is often dropped. Word order is an important feature of the language.

Although in formal situations, standard Thai is often used, formality is marked in Isan by polite particles attached to the end of statements, and use of formal pronouns. Compared to Thai, Isan sounds very formal as pronouns are used with greater frequency, which occurs in formal Thai, but is more direct and simple compared to Thai. The ending particles เด้อ (doe,/dɤ̂ː/) or เด (de,/dēː/) function much like ครับ (khrap,/kʰráp/), used by males, and ค่ะ (kha,/kʰàʔ/), used by females, in Thai. (Isan speakers sometimes use the Thai particles in place of or after เด้อ or เด.) Negative statements often end in ดอก (dok,/dɔ̀ːk/), which can also be followed by the particle เด้อ and its variant.

Nouns

Nouns in Isan are not marked for plurality, gender or case and do not require an indefinite or definite article. Some words, mainly inherited from Sanskrit or Pali, have separate forms for male or female, such asthewa(Northeastern Thai:เทวา/tʰe᷇ː.wa᷇ː/,cf.Lao:ເທວາBGN/PCGNthéva), 'god' or 'angel' (masculine) andthewi(Northeastern Thai:เทวี/tʰe᷇ː.wi᷇ː/,cf.Lao:ເທວີBGN/PCGNthévi), 'goddess' or 'angel' (feminine) which derives from masculinedeva(Sanskrit:देव/deʋa/and femininedevī(Sanskrit:देवी/deʋiː/). This is also common in names of Sanskrit origin, such as masculineArun(Northeastern Thai:อรุณ/ʔǎʔ.lu᷇n/,cf.Lao:ອະລຸນ/ອະຣຸນBGN/PCGNAloun/Aroun) and feminineAruni(Northeastern Thai:อรุณี/ʔǎʔ.lù.ni᷇ː/,cf.Lao:ອະລຸນີ/ອະຣຸນີBGN/PCGNArouni/Alounee) which derives fromArunSanskrit:अरुण/aruɳ/) andArunīSanskrit:आरुणि/aruɳiː/,respectively. In native Tai words which usually do not distinguish gender, animals will take the suffixesphu(Northeastern Thai:ผู้/pʰùː/,cf.Lao:ຜູ້BGN/PCGNphou) ormae(Northeastern Thai:แม่/mɛ̄ː/,cf.Lao:ແມ່BGN/PCGNmè). For example, a cat in general ismaeo(Northeastern Thai:แมว/mɛ᷇ːw/,cf.Lao:ແມວBGN/PCGNmèo), but a tomcat ismaeo phu(Northeastern Thai:แมวผู้) and a queen (female cat) ismaeo mae(Northeastern Thai:แมวแม่), respectively.

Classifiers

Isan Classifiers

Classifier	IPA	Category
คน (ฅน)	/kʰo᷇n/	People in general, except clergy and royals.
คัน	/kʰa᷇n/	Vehicles, also used for spoons and forks in Thai.
คู่	/kʰūː/	Pairs of people, animals, socks, earrings, etc.
ฉบับ	/sáʔ.bǎp/	Papers with texts, documents, newspapers, etc.
ตัว	/tūa/	Animals, shirts, letters; also tables and chairs (but not in Lao).
กก	/kǒk/	Trees. ต้น (or Lao ຕົ້ນ)/tôn/is used in all three for columns, stalks, and flowers.
หน่วย	/nūaj/	Eggs, fruits, clouds. ผล/pʰǒn/ used for fruits in Thai.

Verbs are easily made into nouns by adding the prefixes ความ (khwam)/kʰwa᷇ːm/and การ (kan)/kāːn/before verbs that express abstract actions and verbs that express physical actions, respectively. Adjectives and adverbs, which can function as complete predicates, only use ความ.

Pronouns

Isan traditionally uses the Lao-style pronouns, although in formal contexts, the Thai pronouns are sometimes substituted as speakers adjust to the socially mandated use of Standard Thai in very formal events. Although all the Tai languages arepro-drop languagesthat omit pronouns if their use is unnecessary due to context, especially in informal contexts, but they are restored in more careful speech. Compared to Thai, Isan and Lao frequently use the first- and second-person pronouns and rarely drop them in speech which can sometimes seem more formal and distant.More common is to substitute pronouns with titles of professions or extension of kinship terms based on age, thus it is very common for lovers or close friends to call each other 'brother' and 'sister' and to address the very elderly as 'grandfather' or 'grandmother'.

To turn a pronoun into a plural, it is most commonly prefixed withmu(Northeastern Thai:หมู่/mūː/,cf.Lao:ຫມູ່/ໝູ່BGN/PCGNmou) but the variantstu(Northeastern Thai:ตู/tūː/,cf.Lao:ຕູBGN/PCGNtou) andphuak(Northeastern Thai:พวก/pʰûak/,cf.Lao:ພວກBGN/PCGNphouak) are also used by some speakers. These can also be used for the wordhao,'we', in the sense of 'all of us' for extra emphasis. The vulgar pronouns are used as a mark of close relationship, such as long-standing childhood friends or siblings and can be used publicly, but they can never be used outside of these relationships as they often change statements into very pejorative, crude or inflammatory remarks.

		Singular	Plural
1st person	formal	ข้าน้อย khanoi /kʰàː.nɔ̑ːj/	หมู่ข้าน้อย mu khanoi /mūːkʰàː.nɔ̑ːj/
	common	ข้อย khoi /kʰɔ̀j/	เฮา hao /ha᷇w/
			หมู่เฮา mu hao /mūːha᷇w/
	informal	ข้า kha /kʰàː/
	vulgar	กู ku /kūː/
2nd person	formal	ท่าน than /tʰāːn/	หมู่ท่าน mu than /mūːtʰāːn/
	common	เจ้า chao /tɕȃw/	หมู่เจ้า mu chao /mūːtɕȃw/
	informal	เอ็ง eng /ʔēŋ/
	vulgar	มึง mueng /mɯ᷇ŋ/
3rd person	formal	เพิ่น phoen /pʰɤ̄n/	ขะเจ้า khachao /kʰáʔ.tɕȃw/
	common	เขา khao /kʰăw/	หมู่เขา mu khao /mūːkʰăw/
		ลาว lao /la᷇ːw/	หมู่ลาว mu lao /mūːla᷇ːw/
	informal	มัน man /ma᷇n/

Numbers

Number		Gloss	Number		Gloss
๐ ศูนย์ sun	/sǔːn/	0 'zero' nulla	๒๑ ซาวเอ็ด sao et	/sáːw ʔét/	21 'twenty-one' XXI
๑ หนึ่ง nueng	/nɯ̄ŋ/	1 'one' I	๒๒ ซาวสอง sao song	/sáːw sɔ̆ːŋ/	22 'twenty-two' XXII
๒ สอง song	/sɔ̌ːŋ/	2 'two' II	๒๓ ซาวสาม sao sam	/sáːw săːm/	23 'twenty-three' XXII
๓ สาม sam	/sǎːm/	3 'three' III	๓๐ สามสิบ sam sip	/săːm síp/	30 thirty XXX
๔ สี่ si	/sīː/	4 four IV	๓๑ สามสิบเอ็ด sam sip et	/săːm síp ʔět/	31 'thirty-one' XXXI
๕ ห้า ha	/hȁː/	5 'five' V	๓๒ สามสิบสอง sam sip song	/săːm síp sɔ̌ːŋ/	32 'thirty-two' XXXII
๖ หก hok	/hók/	6 six VI	๔๐ สี่สิบ si sip	/sīː síp/	40 'forty' VL
๗ เจ็ด chet	/tɕět/	7 'seven' VII	๕๐ ห้าสิบ ha sip	/hȁː síp/	50 'fifty' L
๘ แปด paet	/pɛ̀ːt/	8 'eight' VIII	๖๐ หกสิบ hok sip	/hók síp/	60 sixty LX
๙ เก้า kao	/kȃw/	9 nine IX	๗๐ เจ็ดสิบ chet sip	/tɕět síp/	70 'seventy' LXX
๑๐ สิบ sip	/síp/	10 ten X	๘๐ แปดสิบ paet sip	/pɛ̀ːt síp/	80 'eighty' LXXX
๑๑ สิบเอ็ด sip et	/síp ʔět/	11 'eleven' XI	๙๐ เก้าสิบ	/kȃw síp/	90 'nintety' XC
๑๒ สิบสอง	/síp sɔ̌ːŋ/	12 'twelve' XII	๑๐๐ (หนึ่ง)ฮ้อย	/(nɯ̄ŋ) hɔ̂ːj/	100 'one hundred' C
๑๓ สิบสาม	/síp săːm/	13 'thirteen' XIII	๑๐๑ (หนึ่ง)ฮ้อยเอ็ด	/(nɯ̄ŋ) hɔ̂ːj ʔét/	101 'one hundred one' CI
๑๔ สิบสี่	/síp sīː/	14 'fourteen' XIV	๑๐๐๐ (หนึ่ง)พัน	/(nɯ̄ŋ) pʰán/	1,000 'one thousand' M
๑๕ สิบห้า	/síp hȁː/	15 'fifteen' XV	๑๐๐๐๐ (หนึ่ง)หมื่น	/(nɯ̄ŋ) mɯ̄ːn/	10,000 ten thousand X.
๑๖ สิบหก	/síp hók/	16 'sixteen' XVI	๑๐๐๐๐๐ (หนึ่ง)แสน	/(nɯ̄ŋ) sɛ̆ːn/	100,000 'one hundred thousand' C.
๑๗ สิบเจ็ด	/síp tɕět/	17 seventeen XVII	๑๐๐๐๐๐๐ (หนึ่ง)ล้าน	/(nɯ̄ŋ) lâːn/	1,000,000 'one million'
๑๘ สิบแปด	/síp pɛ̀ːt/	18 'eighteen' XVIII	๑๐๐๐๐๐๐๐๐๐ (หนึ่ง)พันล้าน	/(nɯ̄ŋ) pʰán lâːn/	1,000,000,000 'one billion'
๑๗ สิบเก้า	/síp kȃw/	19 'nineteen' XIX	๑๐๐๐๐๐๐๐๐๐๐๐๐๐ (หนึ่ง)ล้านล้าน	/(nɯ̄ŋ) lâːn lâːn/	1,000,000,000,000 'one trillion'
๒๐ ซาว(หนึ่ง) sao(nueng)	/sáːw (nɯ̄ŋ)/	20 'twenty' XX	๑๐๐๐๐๐๐๐๐๐๐๐๐๐๐๐๐๐๐ (หนึ่ง)พันล้านล้าน	/(nɯ̄ŋ) pʰán lâːn lâːn/	1,000,000,000,000,000 'one quadrillion'

Adjectives and adverbs

There is no general distinction between adjectives and adverbs, and words of this category serve both functions and can even modify each other. Duplication is used to indicate greater intensity. Only one word can be duplicated per phrase. Adjectives always come after the noun they modify; adverbs may come before or after the verb depending on the word. There is usually no copula to link a noun to an adjective.

• เด็กหนุ่ม (dek num)/děknūm/A young child.
• เด็กหนุ่ม ๆ (dek num num)/děknūmnūm/A very young child.
• เด็กหนุ่มที่ไว้ (dek num thi wai)/děknūmtʰīːwâj/A child who becomes young quickly.
• เด็กหนุ่มที่ไว้ ๆ (dek num thi wai wai)/děknūmtʰīːwâjwâj/A child who becomes young quickly.

Comparatives take the form "A X กว่า B" (kwa)/kwáː/,A is more X than B. The superlative is expressed as "A X ที่สุด (thi sut)/tʰīːsút/,A is most X.

• เด็กหนุ่มกว่าผู้แก่ (dek num kwa phukae)/děknūmkwáːpʰùː.kɛ́ː/The child is younger than an old person.
• เด็กหนุ่มที่สุด (dek num thi sut)/děknūmtʰīːsút/The child is youngest.

Because adjectives or adverbs can be used as predicates, the particles that modify verbs are also used.

• เด็กซิหนุ่ม (dek si num)/děksìʔnūm/The child will be young.
• เด็กหนุ่มแล้ว (dek num laew)/děknūmlɛ̂ːw/The child was young.

Verbs

Verbs are not declined for voice, number, or tense. To indicate tenses, particles can be used, but it is also very common just to use words that indicate the time frame, such as มื้ออื่น (mue uen)/mɯ̂ːʔɯ́ːn/tomorrowor มื้อวานนี้ (mue wan ni)/mɯ̂ːwa᷇ːnnîː/yesterday.

Negation:Negationis indicated by placing บ่ (bo) /bɔ́ː/ before the word being negated.

• อีน้องกินหมากเลน (i nong kin mak len)/ʔīːnɔ̂ːŋkīnmàːkle᷇ːn/Younger sister eats tomatoes.
• อีน้องบ่กินหมากเลน (i nong bao bo kin mak len)/ʔīːnɔ̂ːŋbɔ́ːkīnmàːkle᷇ːn/Younger sister does not eat tomatoes.

Future tense:Future tense is indicated by placing the particles จะ (cha)/tɕǎʔ/or สิ (si)/síʔ/before the verb.

• อีน้องจะกินหมากเลน (i nong cha kin mak len)/ʔīːnɔ̂ːŋtɕáʔkīnmàːkle᷇ːn/Younger sister will eat tomatoes.
• อีน้องสิกินหมากเลน (i nong see kin mak len)/ʔīːnɔ̂ːŋsìʔkīnmàːkle᷇ːn/Younger sister will eat tomatoes.

Past tense:Past tenseis indicated by either placing ได้ (dai)/dâj/before the verb or แล้ว (laew)/lɛ̂ːw/after the verb or even using both in tandem for emphasis. แล้ว is the more common one, and can be used to indicate completed actions or current actions of the immediate past. ได้ is often used with negative statements and never for present action.

• อีน้องได้กินหมากเลน (i nong dai kin mak len)/ʔīːnɔ̂ːŋdâjkīnmȁːkle᷇ːn/Younger sister ate tomatoes.
• อีน้องกินหมากเลนแล้ว (i nong kin mak len laew)/ʔīːnɔ̂ːŋkīnmȁːkle᷇ːnlɛ̂ːw/Younger sister (just) ate tomatoes.
• อีน้องได้กินหมากเลนแล้ว (i nong dai kin mak len laew)/ʔīːnɔ̂ːŋdâjkīnmȁːkle᷇ːnlɛ̂ːw/Younger sister (definitely) ate tomatoes.

Present progressive:To indicate an ongoing action, กำลัง (kamlang)/kām.la᷇ŋ/can be used before the verb or อยู่ (yu)/júː/after the verb. These can also be combined for emphasis. In Isan and Lao, พวม (phuam) /pʰua᷇m/ is often used instead of กำลัง.

• อีน้องกำลังกินหมากเลน (i nong kamlang kin mak len)/ʔīːnɔ̂ːŋkām.la᷇ŋkīnmàːkle᷇ːn/Younger sister is eating tomatoes.
• อีน้องกินอยู่หมากเลน (i nong kin yu mak len)/ʔīːnɔ̂ːŋkīnjúːmȁːkléːn/Younger sister is eating tomatoes.
• อีน้องพวมกินหมากเลน (i nong phuam kin mak len)/ʔīːnɔ̂ːŋpʰu᷇amkīnmȁːkléːn/Younger sister is eating tomatoes.

The verb 'to be' can be expressed in many ways. In use as acopula,it is often dropped between nouns and adjectives. Compare EnglishShe is prettyand Isan สาวงาม (literallylady pretty). There are two copulas used in Isan, as in Lao, one for things relating to people, เป็น (pen)/pēn/,and one for objects and animals, แม่น (maen)/mɛ̄n/.

• นกเป็นหมอ (Nok pen mo)/nòkpēnmɔ̌ː/Nok is a doctor.
• อันนี้แม่นสามล้อ (an ni maen sam lo)/ʔānnîːmɛ̄nsǎːmlɔ̂ː/This is a pedicab.

Questions and answers

UnlikeEnglish,which indicates questions by a rising tone, orSpanish,which changes the order of the sentences to achieve the same result, Isan uses question-tag words. The use of question words makes use of the question mark (?) redundant in Isan.

General yes/no questions end inบ่(same as บ่, "no, not" ).

• สบายดีบ่ (sabai di bo)/sáʔ.bāːjdīːbɔ́ː/Are you well?

Other question words

• จังใด(changdai)/tɕāŋ.dāj/orหยัง(yang) /ɲǎŋ/ เฮ็ดจั่งใด (het changdai)/hèttɕāŋ.dāj/What are you doing?
• ใผ(phai)/pʰǎj/ใผขายไข่ไก่ (phai khai khai kai)/pʰǎjkʰǎːjkʰājkáj/Who sells chicken eggs?
• ใส(sai)/sǎj/Where?ห้องน้ำอยู่ใส (hong nam yu sai) /hɔ̏ŋ nâːm júː sǎj/Where is the toilet?
• อันใด(andai)/ʔān.dāj/Which?เจ้าได้กินอันใด (chao dai kin andai)/tɕâwdâjkīnʔān.dāj/Which one did you eat?
• จัก(chak)/tɕǎk/How many?อายุจักปี (ayu chak pi)/ʔāː.ɲùʔtɕǎkpīː/How old are you?
• ท่อใด(thodai)/tʰɔ̄ː.dāj/How much?ควายตัวบทท่อใด (khwai tua bot thodai)/kʰwájtūabǒttʰɔ̄ː.dāj/How much is that buffalo over there?
• แม่นบ่ (maen bo)/mɛ̄nbɔ́ː/Right?, Is it?เต่าไวแม่นบ่ (Tao vai maen bo)/táwwájmɛ̄nbɔ́ː/Turtles are fast, right?
• แล้วบ่ (laew bo)/lɛ̂ːwbɔ́ː/Yet?, Already?เขากลับบ้านแล้วบ่ (khao kap laew bo)/kʰǎwkǎpbàːnlɛ̂ːwbɔ́ː/Did he go home already?
• หรือบ่ (rue bo)/lɯ̌ːbɔ́ː/Or not?เจ้าหิวข้าวหรือบ่ (chao hio khao rue bo)/tɕâwhǐwkʰȁwlɯ̌ːbɔ́ː/Are you hungry or not?

Answers to questions usually just involve repetition of the verb and any nouns for clarification.

• Question: สบายดีบ่ (sabai di bo)/sáʔ.bājdīːbɔ́ː/Are you well?
• Response: สบายดี (sabai di)/sáʔ.bājdīː/I am wellor บ่สบาย (bo sabai)/bɔ́ːsáʔ.bāj/I am not well.

Words asked with a negative can be confusing and should be avoided. The response, even though without the negation, will still be negated due to the nature of the question.

• Question: บ่สบายบ่ (bo sabai bo)/bɔ́ːsáʔ.bāːjbɔ́ː/Are you not well?
• Response: สบาย (sabai)/sāʔ.bāːj/I am not wellor บ่สบาย (bo sabai)/bɔ́ːsáʔ.bāːj/I am well.

Vocabulary

Isan shares a large corpus of cognate, native vocabulary with other Tai languages of Thailand and Laos. They also share many common words and neologisms that were derived from Sanskrit, Pali, Mon and Khmer and other indigenous inhabitants toIndochina.However, there are traits that distinguish Isan both from Thai and its Lao parent language.

Isan is clearly differentiated from Thai by its Lao intonation and vocabulary. However, Isan differs from Lao in that the former has more English and Chinese loanwords, via Thai, not to mention large amounts of Thai influence. The Lao adopted French and Vietnamese loanwords as a legacy of French Indochina. Other differences between Isan and Lao include terminology that reflects the social and political separation since 1893 as well as differences in neologisms created after this. These differences, and a few very small deviations for certain common words, do not, however, diminish nor erase the Lao character of the language.

Shared vocabulary of Khmer origin

Common vocabulary					Rachasap
Isan	Thai	Lao	Khmer	English	Isan	Thai	Lao	Khmer	English
กระแทะ krathae [kā.tɛ̀ʔ]	กระแทะ krathae [krā.tɛ́ʔ]	ກະແທະ kathè [kā.tɛ̄ʔ]	រទេះ rôthéh /rɔteh/	'oxcart'	บรรทม banthom [bān.tʰo᷇m]	บรรทม banthom [bān.tʰōm]	ບັນທົມ banthôm [bàn.tʰóm]	បន្ទំ banthum /bɑntum/	'to sleep'
เดิน doen [dɤ̄ːn]	เดิน doen [dɤ̄ːn]	ເດີນ deun [dɤ̀ːn]	ដើរ daeu /daə/	'to walk'	ตรัส trat [tǎt]	ตรัส trat [tràt]	ຕັດ tat [tát]	ត្រាស់ trah /trah/	'to speak'
พนม phanom [pʰā.no᷇m]	พนม phanom [pʰā.nōm]	ພະນົມ/ພນົມ phanôm [pʰā.nóm]	ភ្នំ phnum/phnom /pʰnum/	'mountain'	ขนอง khanong [kʰā.nɔ̌ːŋ]	ขนอง khanong [kʰā.nɔ̌ːŋ]	ຂະໜອງ/ຂນອງ khanong [kʰā.nɔ̆ːŋ]	ខ្នង khnâng /knɑːŋ/	'back', 'dorsal ridge'
ถนน thanon [tʰā.nǒn]	ถนน thanon [tʰā.nǒn]	ຖະໜົນ/ຖໜົນ thanôn [tʰā.nǒn]	ថ្នល់ tnâl /tnɑl/	'road'	ศอ so [sɔ̆ː]	ศอ so [sɔ̆ː]	ສໍ so [sɔ̆ː]	សូ[រង] sŭ[rang] /suː[rɑːng]/	'neck'

Shared Thai and Isan vocabulary distinct from Lao

English	Isan	Lao	Thai	English	Isan	Lao	Thai
"ice"	น้ำแข็ง[nâm.kʰɛ̌ŋ]	ນ້ຳກ້ອນ[nâm.kɔ̂ːn]5	น้ำแข็ง[nám.kʰɛ̌ŋ]	"plain" (adj.)	เปล่า[páːw]	ລ້າ[lâː]	เปล่า[plàːw]
"necktie"	เน็กไท[nè(ː)ktʰáj]	ກາຣະວັດ[kàː.lā.wát]6	เน็กไท[né(ː)ktʰáj]	"province"	จังหวัด[tɕāŋ.wát]	ແຂວງ[kʰwɛ̌ːŋ]7	จังหวัด[tɕāŋ.wàt]
"wine"	ไวน์[wáːj]	ແວງ[wɛ́ːŋ]8	ไวน์[wāːj]	"pho"	ก๋วยเตี๋ยว[kǔaj.tǐaw]	ເຝີ[fɤ̌ː]9	ก๋วยเตี๋ยว[kǔaj.tǐaw]
"January"	มกราคม[mòk.kā.la᷇ː.kʰo᷇m]	ມັງກອນ[máŋ.kɔ̀ːn]	มกราคม[mók.kā.rāː.kʰōm]	"paper"	กระดาษ[kā.dàːt]	ເຈ້ຍ[tɕîa]	กระดาษ[krā.dàːt]
"window"	หน้าต่าง[nàː.táːŋ]	ປ່ອງຢ້ຽມ[pɔ̄ŋ.jîam]	หน้าต่าง[nâː.tàːŋ]	"book"	หนังสือ[nǎŋ.sɯ̌ː]	ປຶ້ມ[pɯ̂m]	หนังสือ[nǎŋ.sɯ̌ː]
"motorcycle"	มอเตอร์ไซค์[mɔ᷇ː.tɤ̄ː.sāj]	ຣົຖຈັກ[lōt.tɕák]	มอเตอร์ไซค์[mɔ̄ː.tɤ̄ː.sāj]10	"butter"	เนย[nɤ́ːj]	ເບີຣ໌[bɤ̀ː]11	เนย[nɤ̄ːj]

• ^5Formerlyน้ำก้อน,but this is now archaic/obsolete.
• ^6From Frenchcravate,/kʁa vat/
• ^7Thai and Isan useแขวงto talk about provinces of Laos.
• ^8From Frenchvin,/vɛ̃/ as opposed to Thai and Isanไวน์from Englishwine.
• ^9From Vietnamesephở/fə̃ː/.
• ^10From English "motorcycle".
• ^11From Frenchbeurre,/bøʁ/

A small handful of lexical items are unique to Isan and not commonly found in standard Lao, but may exist in other Lao dialects. Some of these words exist alongside more typically Lao or Thai usages.

Generally distinct vocabulary

English	Isan	Lao	Thai	Isan Variant
"to work"	เฮ็ดงาน[hètŋáːn],het ngan	ເຮັດວຽກ[hētwîak],het wiak	ทำงาน[tʰāmŋāːn],tham ngan	-
"papaya"	บักหุ่ง[bǎkhūŋ],bak hung	ໝາກຫຸ່ງ[mȁːkhūŋ],mak hung	มะละกอ[máʔ.láʔ.kɔ̄ː],malako	-
"fried beef"	ทอดซี้น[tʰɔ̂ːtsîːn],thot sin	ຂົ້ວຊີ້ນ[kʰȕasîːn],khua sin	เนื้อทอด[nɯ́atʰɔ̂ːt],nuea thot	-
"hundred"	ร้อย[lɔ̂ːj],roi	ຮ້ອຍ[hɔ̂ːj],hoi	ร้อย[rɔ́ːj],roi	-
"barbecued pork"	หมูปิ้ง[mǔːpîŋ],mu ping	ປີ້ງໝູ[pîːŋmǔː],ping mu	หมูย่าง[mǔːjâːŋ],mu yang	-
'ice cream'	ไอติม[ʔājtīm],ai tim	ກາແລ້ມ[kà(ː).lɛ̂ːm],kalèm	ไอศกรีม[ʔāj.sā.krīːm],aisakrim	ไอศกรีม[ʔāj.sā.kīːm],aisakrim
'to be well'	ซำบาย[sa᷇m.bāːj],sambai	ສະບາຍ/Archaicສະບາຽ[sā.bàːj],sabai	สบาย[sā.bāːj],sabai	สบาย[sā.bāːj],sabai
'fruit'	บัก[bǎk],bak	ໝາກ/ຫມາກ,[mȁːk],mak	ผล[pʰŏn],phon	หมาก[màːk],mak
'lunch'	ข้าวสวย[kʰà(ː)w.sŭaj],khao suai	ອາຫານທ່ຽງ[ʔàː.hăːntʰīaŋ],ahane thiang	อาหารกลางวัน[ʔāː.hăːnklāːŋ.wān],ahan klangwan	ข้าวเที่ยง[kʰà(ː)wtʰīaŋ],khao thiang
'traditional animist ceremony'	บายศรี[bāːjsĭː],bai si	ບາສີ[bàːsĭː],ba si	บวงสรวง[būaŋsǔaŋ],buang suang	บายศรีสู่ขวัญ[bāːjsĭːsūːkʰwǎn],bai si su khwan

Dialects

Further information:Lao language § Dialects

Geographic distribution of Lao dialects within Northeastern Thailand.

Although Isan is treated separately from the Lao language of Laos due to its use of the Thai script, political sensitivity and the influence of the Thai language, dialectalisoglossescrisscross the Mekong River, mirroring the downstream migration of the Lao people as well as the settlement of Isan from the east to west, as people were forced to the right bank. Isan can be broken up into at least fourteen varieties, based on small differentiations in tonal quality and distribution as well as small lexical items, but these can be grouped into the same five dialectal regions of Laos. As a result of the movements, Isan varieties are often more similar to the Lao varieties spoken on the opposite banks of the Mekong than to other Isan people up- or downstream although Western Lao, formed from the merger of peoples from different Lao regions, does not occur in Laos and is only found in Isan.

Isan may have had historical leveling processes. The settlement of the region's interior areas led to dialect mi xing and the development of transitional areas. The Vientiane dialect also likely had a major role in bringing Isan varieties closer. The provinces of Loei, Nong Khai and Bueang Kan border areas of Laos where Vientiane Lao is spoken, and together with Nong Bua Lamphu and much of Udon Thani, were long settled by Lao speakers of these dialects from the time ofLan Xangas well as theKingdom of Vientiane.The destruction ofVientianeand the forced movement of almost the entire population of the city and surrounding region after theLao rebelliongreatly increased the population of Isan, with these Lao people settled across the region.

Lao Dialects

Dialect	Lao Provinces	Thai Provinces
Vientiane Lao	Vientiane,Vientiane Prefecture,Bolikhamxayand southernXaisômboun	Nong Khai,Nong Bua Lamphu,Chaiyaphum,Udon Thani,portions ofYasothon,Bueng Kan,LoeiandKhon Kaen(Khon Chaen)
Northern Lao Louang Phrabang Lao	Louang Phrabang,Xaignbouli,Oudômxay,Phôngsali,BokèoandLouang Namtha,portions ofHouaphan	Loei,portions ofUdon Thani,Khon Kaen(Khon Chaen), alsoPhitsanulok,PhetchabunandUttaradit(outside Isan)
Northeastern Lao Phuan (Phouan) Lao	Xiangkhouang,portions ofHouaphanandXaisômboun	Scattered in isolated villages ofChaiyaphum,Sakon Nakhon,Udon Thani,Bueng Kan,Nong KhaiandLoei
Central Lao (ลาวกลาง,ລາວກາງ)	Khammouanand portions ofBolikhamxayandSavannakhét	Mukdahan,Sakon Nakhon,Nakhon Phanom,Mukdahan;portions ofNong KhaiandBueng Kan
Southern Lao	Champasak,Saravan,Xékong,Attapeu,portions ofSavannakhét	Ubon Ratchathani(Ubon Ratsathani),Amnat Charoen,portions ofSi Sa Ket,Surin,Nakhon Ratchasima(Nakhon Ratsasima), andYasothon
Western Lao	* Not found in Laos	Kalasin,Roi Et(Hoi Et),Maha Sarakham,portions ofKhon Kaen(Khon Chaen),Chaiyaphum(Saiyaphum) andNakhon Ratchasima(Nakhon Ratsasima)

Writing systems

Tai Noi script

Further information:Tai Noi script

The consonants of the old Tai Noi Alpha bet. Letter shapes have been preserved, with few changes, in the modern Lao Alpha bet.

The original writing system used for Isan was theAkson Thai Noi(Northeastern Thai:อักษรไทน้อย/ʔǎk.sɔ̆ːntʰa᷇jnɔ̑ːj/,cf.Lao:ອັກສອນໄທນ້ອຽBGN/PCGNAkson Tai Noy), 'Little Tai Alpha bet' orTo Lao(Northeastern Thai:โตลาว/tòːláːw/,cf.Lao:ໂຕລາວ), which in contemporary Isan and Lao would beTua Lao(Northeastern Thai:ตัวลาว/tūala᷇ːw/andLao:ຕົວລາວ,respectively, or 'Lao letters.' In Laos, the script is referred to in academic settings as theAkson Lao Deum(Lao:ອັກສອນລາວເດີມ/ʔáksɔ̆ːnláːwd̀ɤ̀ːm/,cf.Northeastern Thai:อักษรลาวเดิมRTGSAkson Lao Doem) or 'Original Lao script.' The contemporary Lao script is a direct descendant and has preserved the basic letter shapes. The similarity between the modern Thai Alpha bet and the old and new Lao Alpha bets is because both scripts derived from a common ancestral Tai script of what is now northern Thailand which was an adaptation of theKhmer script,rounded by the influence of theMon script,all of which are descendants of thePallava scriptof southern India.

Thai Alpha bet

Further information:Thai Alpha bet

Screenshot of a karaoke VCD frommolamsinger,Chintara Phunlap.In the Lao script, the lyrics seen would appear as 'ໜີໄປບວດໃຫ້ມັນແລ້ວສາບໍ້'.

The ban on theTai Noiscript in the 1930s led to the adoption of writing in Thai with theThai script.Very quickly, the Isan people adopted anad hocsystem of using the Thai script to record the spoken Isan language, using etymological spelling for cognate words but spelling Lao words not found in Thai, and with no known Khmer or Indic etymology, similarly to as they would be in the Lao script. This system remains in informal use today, often seen in letters, text messages, social media posts, lyrics to songs in the Isan language, transcription of Isan dialogue and personal notes.

Tai Tham

Further information:Tai Tham Alpha bet

An example of theTai Tham Alpha betformerly used in Laos and Isan for religious literature.

TheTai Thamscript (Northeastern Thai:อักษรไทธรรม/ʔǎk.sɔ̌ːntʰa᷇jtʰa᷇m/RTGSakson Thai Tham,cf.Lao:ອັກສອນໄທທັມ) were also historically known simply astua tham(Northeastern Thai:ตัวธรรม/tūatʰa᷇m/,cf.Lao:ຕົວທຳ/ຕົວທັມBGN/PCGNtoua tham) or 'dharmaletters'. The script is the same as used to writeTai Lanna(Kham Mueang),Tai Lue,Tai Khoenand shares similarities with theBurmese Alpha bet,all of which are ultimately derived from theOld Mon script.Tai Thamwas introduced during the reign ofSetthathirathwho although a prince of Lan Xang, was first crowned king of Lan Na. The dynastic union allowed easy movement of monks from Lan Xang that came to copy the temple libraries to bring back home.

As the name suggests, its use in Lao was restricted to religious literature, either used to transcribe Pali, or religious treatises written in Lao intended solely for the clergy. Religious instructional materials and prayer books dedicated to the laity were written inTai Noiinstead. As a result, only a few people outside the temples were literate in the script. In Isan, evidence of the script includes two stone inscriptions, such as the one housed atWat ThamSuwannakhuhainNong Bua Lamphu,dated to 1564, and another fromWat MahaphoninMaha Sarakhamfrom the same period.Most of the script is recorded on palm-leaf manuscripts, many of which were destroyed during the 'Thaification' purges of the 1930s; contemporaneously this period of Thai nationalization also ended its use as the primary written language inNorthern Thailand.

Khom script

Further information:Khom Thai script

A sutra in the Khom script. This Khmer script was used to write Buddhist, Brahmanic and ritual texts.

The Khom script (Northeastern Thai:อักษรขอม/ʔǎk.sɔ̌ːnkʰɔ̆ːm/akson Khom,cf. Lao ອັກສອນຂອມ,Aksone Khom) was not generally used to write the ancient Lao language of Isan, but was often used to write Pali texts, or Brahmanic rituals often introduced via the Khmer culture.Khomis the ancient Tai word for theKhmer people,who once populated and ruled much of the area before Tai migration and the assimilation of the local people to Tai languages. It was generally not used to write the Lao languageper se,but was often found in temple inscriptions, used in texts that preserve Brahmanic mantras and ceremonies, local mantras adopted for use in Tai animistic religion and other things usually concerned with Buddhism, Brahmanism or black magic, such asyantrasandsakyantattoos.

See also

• Comparison of Lao and Isan
• Comparison of Lao and Thai

External links

• Basic Isaan phrasesArchived2010-03-16 at theWayback Machine(Some basic Isaan phrases with sound files).
• McCargo, Duncan,and Krisadawan Hongladarom. "Contesting Isan‐ness: discourses of politics and identity in Northeast Thailand."Asian Ethnicity5.2 (2004): 219-234.
• Esan108(in Thai)