History of Eastern role-playing video games

This article is about role-playing video games developed in East Asia. For role-playing video games developed in the Western world, seeHistory of Western role-playing video games.

While the early history and distinctive traits ofrole-playing video games(RPGs) inEast Asiahave comefrom Japan,many video games have also arisenin China,developed in South Korea,andTaiwan.

Japanese role-playing games

"JRPG" redirects here. For Japanese pen-and-paper role-playing games, seeTabletop role-playing games in Japan.

Japanese computer role-playing games

See also:Action role-playing game,Tactical role-playing game,andVideo games in Japan

Origins (early 1980s)

YamahaYIS503IIMSXpersonal computer

The Japanesevideo game industryhas long been viewed asconsole-centric within the videogame industry. Due to the worldwide success of Japanese consoles beginning with theNES,the country had in fact produced thousands of commercialPC gamesfrom the late 1970s up until the mid-1990s.The country's computer market was very fragmented at first;Lode Runner,for example, reportedly required 34 conversions to different hardware platforms.The market eventually became dominated by theNEC PC-8801andPC-9801,though with some competition from theSharp X1andX68000;FM-7andFM Towns;andMSXandMSX2.A key difference between Western and Japanese systems at the time was the latter's higherdisplay resolutions(640x400) in order to accommodateJapanese textwhich in turn influenced game design. Japanese computers also employed YamahaFM synthesissound boardssince the early 1980s, allowing video game music composers such asYuzo Koshiroto produce highly regardedchiptunemusic for RPG companies such as Nihon Falcom. Due to hardware differences, only a small portion of Japanese computer games were released in North America, as ports to either consoles (like the NES orGenesis) or American PC platforms (likeMS-DOS).TheWizardryseries (translated byASCII Entertainment) became popular and influential in Japan.Early Japanese RPGs were also influenced byvisual noveladventure games,which were developed by companies such asEnix,Square,Nihon FalcomandKoeibefore they moved onto developing RPGs.In the 1980s, Japanese developers produced a diverse array of creative, experimental computer RPGs, prior to mainstream titles such asDragon QuestandFinal Fantasyeventually cementing genre tropes by the 1990s.

Japan's earliest RPGs were released in 1982. The earliest wasKoei'sUnderground Exploration,released in March 1982.It was followed byPony Canyon'sSpy Daisakusen,released in April 1982; based on theMission: Impossiblefranchise, it replaced the traditionalfantasysetting with a modernespionagesetting.It was then followed by Koei'sThe Dragon and Princess(ドラゴン＆プリンセス) for thePC-8001in 1982; it featuredadventure gameelements and revolved around rescuing a kidnapped princess.Following arandom encounter,the game transitions from atext adventureinterface to a separate, graphical, overhead battle screen, where atacticalturn-basedcombat system is used.Also in 1982,Koei released another early Japanese RPG,Danchizuma no Yuwaku(Seduction of the Condominium Wife),a PC-8001 title that also featured adventure game elements in addition toerogeadult content.These early experimental Japanese RPGs from 1982 are considered "proto-JRPGs" and predated the arrival ofWizardryandUltimain Japan.

Mid-1980s

In June 1983, Koei releasedSword & Sorcery( kiếm と ma pháp ) for the PC-8001, and it also revolved around rescuing a princess in addition to killing a wizard.That same year, Koei releasedSecrets of Khufu(クフ vương の bí mật ), adungeon crawlRPG that revolved around a search for the treasure ofKhufu.ASCII released its own RPG that year calledArfgaldt(アルフガルド), an FM-7 title also featuring adventure game elements.

Also in 1983,Nihon FalcomreleasedPanorama Toh(Panorama Island) for thePC-88.It was developed by Yoshio Kiya, who would go on to create theDragon SlayerandBrandishseries of action RPGs. While its RPG elements were limited, lacking traditional statistical orlevelingsystems, the game featuredreal-timecombat with a gun, bringing it close to the action RPG formula that Falcom would later be known for. The game'sdesert islandoverworldalso featured aday-night cycle,non-player charactersthe player could attack orconversewith, and the need tosurviveby finding and consuming rations to restorehit pointslost with each normal action.

Screenshot of the originalNEC PC-8801version ofHydlide(1984), an earlyopen worldaction role-playing game

The trend of combining role-playing elements with arcade-style action mechanics was popularized byThe Tower of Druaga,anarcade gamereleased byNamcoin June 1984. While the RPG elements inDruagawere very subtle, its success in Japan inspired the near-simultaneous development of three earlyaction role-playing games,combiningDruaga's real-timehack-and-slashgameplay with stronger RPG mechanics, all released in late 1984:Dragon Slayer,Courageous Perseus,andHydlide.A rivalry developed between the three games, withDragon SlayerandHydlidecontinuing their rivalry through subsequent sequels.Nihon Falcom'sDragon Slayer,released in 1984, is a historically significant title that helped lay the foundations for the Japanese role-playing game industry.It was a real-time hack & slashdungeon crawlerthat is considered the firstaction role-playing game.Dragon Slayerwas a major success in Japan,and contributed to the emergence of a distinct action role-playing game subgenre on Japanese computers during the mid-1980s, with Nihon Falcom at the forefront of this new subgenre.Hydlide,an action RPG released for the PC-8801 in 1984 and the Famicom in 1986, was an earlyopen worldgame,rewarding exploration in an open world environment.It also added several innovations to the action RPG subgenre, including the ability to switch between attack mode and defense mode, quicksaveand load options which can be done at any moment of the game through the use ofpasswordsas the primary back-up, and the introduction of ahealth regenerationmechanic where health and magic slowly regenerate when standing still, a feature also used in Falcom'sYsseries from 1987 onwards.The Tower of Druaga,Dragon SlayerandHydlidewere influential in Japan, where they laid the foundations for the action RPG genre, influencing titles such asYsandThe Legend of Zelda.

Also in 1984,The Black Onyx,developed byBullet-Proof Software,led byHenk Rogers,was released on the PC-8801 in Japan. It became one of thebest-selling computer gamesat the time and was votedGame of the YearbyLogin,the largest Japanese computer game magazine at the time. The game is thus credited for bringing wider attention to computer role-playing games in the country.

Dragon Slayer's success led to a 1985 sequelDragon Slayer II: Xanadu,which became the best-selling PC game in Japan.It was a full-fledged RPG with character stats and a large quest,with action-based combat setting it apart from other RPGs,including both melee combat and projectile magic attacks,while incorporating aside-scrollingplatform gameview during exploration and an overhead view during battle.Xanadualso featured innovative gameplay mechanics such as individual experience for equipped items,and an earlyKarmamorality system, where theplayer character's Karma meter will rise if he commits sin which in turn affects the temple's reaction to him.It is also considered a "proto-Metroidvania"game,due to being an "RPG turned on its side" that allowed players to run, jump, collect, and explore.The way theDragon Slayerseries reworked the entire game system of each installment was an influence onFinal Fantasy,which would do the same for each of its installments.According toGames^TMand John Szczepaniak (ofRetro GamerandThe Escapist),Enix'sDragon Questwas also influenced byDragon Slayerand in turn defined many other RPGs.Falcom would soon become one of the three most important Japanese role-playing game developers in the 1980s, alongside Enix and Square,both of which were influenced by Falcom.

Hydlide II: Shine of Darknessin 1985 featured an early morality meter, where the player can bealignedwith justice, normal, or evil, which is affected by whether the player kills evil monsters, good monsters, or humans, and in turn affects the reactions of the townsfolk towards the player.Magical Zoo'sThe Screamer,released for the PC-8801 in 1985, was an early example of a real-timeshooter-based RPG.Set afterWorld War III,the game also featured elements of post-apocalyptic science fiction as well as cyberpunk andbio-horrorthemes.Squarealso released their first RPG that same year, which was an early futuristic sci-fi RPG for the PC-8801,Genesis: Beyond The Revelation,featuring a post-apocalyptic setting.Other sci-fi RPGs released in 1985 includeThe Earth Fighter RayiezabyEnix,andKogado Studio'sMSXgameCosmic Soldier,which introduced an earlydialogue conversationsystem, where the player can recruit allies by talking to them, choose whether to kill or spare an enemy, and engage enemies in conversation, similar to the later more famousMegami Tensei.

Golden Age (late 1980s–early 1990s)

The late 1980s to early 1990s is considered the golden age of Japanese computer gaming, which would flourish until its decline around the mid-1990s, as consoles eventually dominated the Japanese market.A notable Japanese computer RPG from around this time wasWiBArm,the earliest known RPG to feature3D polygonal graphics.It was a 1986 role-playing shooter released byArsys Softwarefor thePC-88in Japan and ported toMS-DOSfor Western release byBrøderbund.InWiBArm,the player controls a transformablemecharobot, switching between a2Dside-scrollingview during outdoor exploration to a fully 3D polygonalthird-personperspective inside buildings, while Boss es are fought in an arena-style 2Dshoot 'em upbattle. The game featured a variety of weapons and equipment as well as anautomap,and the player could upgrade equipment and earn experience to raise stats.Unlike first-person RPGs at the time that were restricted to 90-degree movements,WiBArm'suse of 3D polygons allowed full 360-degree movement.

Another 1986 release was Falcom'sXanadu Scenario II,an early example of anexpansion pack.The game wasnon-linear,allowing the eleven levels to be explored in any order.Dragon Slayer Jr: Romanciasimplified the RPG mechanics ofXanadu,such as removing the character customization and simplifying the numerical statistics into icons, and emphasized faster-paced platform action, with a strict 30-minute time limit. The action took place entirely in a side-scrolling view rather than switching to a separate overhead combat screen like its predecessor. These changesRomanciamore like a side-scrollingaction-adventure game.Square's 1986 release,Cruise Chaser Blassty,was a sci-fi RPG that had the player control a customizablemecharobot from afirst-personview.That same year also saw the arcade release of the sequel toThe Tower of Druaga,The Return of Ishtar,an early action RPGto feature two-playercooperative gameplay,dual-stick controlin single player, a female protagonist, the first heroic couple in gaming, and the firstpasswordsave system in an arcade game.

In 1987,Dragon Slayer IV: Drasle Family(Legacy of the Wizard) returned to the deeper action-RPG mechanics ofXanaduwhile maintaining the fully side-scrolling view ofRomancia.It also featured anopen worldandnonlinear gameplaysimilar to "Metroidvania"platform-adventures, makingDrasle Familyan early example of a non-linear, open-world action RPG.Another "Metroidvania"style open-world action RPG released that year wasSystem Sacom'sSharp X1computer gameEuphory,which was possibly the only Metroidvania-stylemultiplayeraction RPG produced, allowing two-player cooperative gameplay.The fifthDragon Slayertitle,Sorcerian,was also released in 1987. It was a party-based action RPG, with the player controlling a party of four characters at the same time in a side-scrolling view. The game also featured character creation, highly customizable characters, class-based puzzles, and a new scenario system, allowing players to choose which of 15 scenarios, orquests,to play through in the order of their choice. It was also anepisodic video game,with expansion disks released soon after offering more scenarios.Falcom also released thefirst installmentof its popular, long-runningYsseries in 1987. Besides Falcom's ownDragon Slayerseries,Yswas also influenced byHydlide,from which it borrowed certain mechanics such as health-regeneration when standing still, a mechanic that has since become common in video games today.Yswas also a precursor to RPGs that emphasize storytelling,and it is known for its 'bump attack' system, where the protagonist Adol automatically attacks when running into enemies off-center, making the game more accessible and the usually tediouslevel-grindingtask more swift and enjoyable for audiences at the time.The game also had what is considered to be one of the best and most influentialvideo game musicsoundtracks of all time, composed byYuzo Koshiroand Mieko Ishikawa.In terms of the number of game releases,Ysis second only toFinal Fantasyas the largest Eastern role-playing game franchise.

Hydlide 3: The Space Memories,released for theMSXin 1987 and for theMega DriveasSuper Hydlidein 1989, adopted the morality meter of its predecessor, expanded on its time option with the introduction of an in-game clock setting day-night cycles and a need to sleep and eat, and made other improvements such ascut scenesfor the opening and ending, a combat system closer toThe Legend of Zelda,the choice between four distinct character classes, a wider variety of equipment and spells, and a weight system affecting the player's movement depending on the overall weight of the equipment carried.That same year,Kogado Studio's sci-fi RPGCosmic Soldier: Psychic Warfeatured a unique "tug of war"style real-time combat system, where battles are a clash of energy between the party and the enemy, with the player needing to push the energy towards the enemy to strike them, while being able to use a shield to block or a suction ability to absorb the opponent's power. It also featured a unique non-linear conversation system, where the player can recruit allies by talking to them, choose whether to kill or spare an enemy, and engage enemies in conversation, similar toMegami Tensei.Also in 1987, thesurvival horrorgameShiryou Sensen: War of the Dead,anMSX2title developed by Fun Factory and published byVictor Music Industries,was the first truesurvival horrorRPG.Designed by Katsuya Iwamoto, the game revolved around a femaleSWATmember Lila rescuing survivors in an isolated monster-infested town and bringing them to safety in a church. It wasopen-endedlikeDragon Questand hadreal-timeside-view battles likeZelda II.Unlike other RPGs at the time, however, the game had a dark and creepy atmosphere expressed through the story, graphics, and music,while the gameplay used shooter-based combat and gave limited ammunition for each weapon, forcing the player to search for ammo and often run away from monsters in order to conserve ammo.That same year saw the release ofLaplace no Ma,another hybrid of survival horror and RPG, though with more traditional RPG elements such asturn-basedcombat. It was mostly set in a mansion infested withundeadcreatures, and the player controlled a party of several characters with different professions, including a scientist who constructs tools and a journalist who takes pictures.

Star Cruiser(1988), an earlyrole-playing shooter,combinedfirst-person shooterand role-playing game elements along with3D polygongraphics.

In 1988, Arsys Software'sStar Cruiserwas an innovative action RPG released for the PC-8801.It was notable for being an early example of an RPG with fully 3D polygonal graphics,combined withfirst-person shootergameplay,which would occasionally switch tospace flight simulatorgameplay when exploring outer space withsix degrees of freedom.All the backgrounds, objects and opponents in the game were rendered in 3D polygons, many years before they were widely adopted by thevideo game industry.The game also emphasized storytelling, with plot twists and extensive character dialogues,taking place in a futuristic science fiction setting.It won the 1988Game of the Yearawards from the Japanesecomputer game magazinesPOPCOMandOh!X.Star Cruiserwas later ported to theMega Driveconsole in 1990.Another 1988 release,Last Armageddon,produced for the PC-8801 and later ported to thePC Engine CDand NES consoles in 1990, featured a unique post-apocalyptic storyline set in a desolate future where humanity has become extinct and the protagonists are demon monsters waging war against an alien species.The Scheme,released byBothtecfor thePC-8801in 1988, was an action RPG with a similar side-scrollingopen-worldgameplay toMetroid.That same year,Ys IIintroduced the unique ability to transform into a monster, which allows the player to both scare humannon-player charactersfor unique dialogues as well as interact with all the monsters. This is a recurring highlight in the series, offering the player insight into the enemies.Also that same year,War of the Dead Part 2for the MSX2 and PC-88 abandoned certain RPG elements of its predecessor, such asrandom encounters,and instead adopted more action-adventure elements fromMetal Gearwhile retaining the horror atmosphere of its predecessor.

1988 also saw the debut ofTelenet Japan'sExile,a series of action-platform RPGs,beginning withXZR: Idols of Apostate.The series was controversial for its plot, which revolves around a time-travelingCrusades-era SyrianIslamic Assassinwho assassinates various religious/historical figures as well as modern-day political leaders,with similarities to the present-dayAssassin's Creedaction game series.The gameplay ofExileincluded both overhead exploration and side-scrolling combat, featured aheart monitorto represent the player's Attack Power and Armour Class statistics, and another controversial aspect of the game involved taking drugs (instead of potions) that increase/decrease attributes but with side-effects such as affecting the heart-rate or causing death.An early attempt at incorporating apoint-and-clickinterface in a real-time overhead action RPG wasSilver Ghost,a 1988NEC PC-8801game byKure Software Koubou.It was an action-strategy RPGwhere characters could be controlled using a cursor.It was cited byCamelot Software Planning's Hiroyuki Takahashi as inspiration for theShiningseries of tactical RPGs. According to Takahashi,Silver Ghostwas a simulation action type of game where the players had to direct, oversee and command multiple characters.Unlike later tactical RPGs, however,Silver Ghostwas notturn-based,but instead usedreal-time strategyandaction role-playing gameelements.A similar game released by Kure Software Koubou that same year wasFirst Queen,a unique hybrid between a real-time strategy, action RPG, and strategy RPG. Like an RPG, the player can explore the world, purchase items, and level up, and like astrategy video game,it focuses on recruiting soldiers and fighting against large armies rather than small parties. The game's "Gochyakyara" ( "Multiple Characters" ) system let the player control one character at a time while the others are controlled by computerAIthat follow the leader, and where battles are large-scale with characters sometimes filling an entire screen.

Dragon Slayer: The Legend of Heroesin 1989 departed from the action-oriented gameplay of previousDragon Slayertitles, and instead used a more traditionalturn-basedcombat system.In 1990,Data East'sGate of Doomwas anarcadeaction RPG that combined beat 'em upfighting gameplaywith fantasy role-playing and introduced anisometric perspective.That same year,Enixreleased a uniquebiological simulationaction RPG byAlmanicthat revolved around the theme ofevolution,46 Okunen Monogatari,a revised version of which was released in 1992 asE.V.O.: Search for Eden.That same year,Alpha Denshi'sCrossed Swordsfor thearcadescombined the first-personbeat 'em upgameplay ofSNK'sThe Super Spy(released the same year) with RPG elements, while replacing the first-person shooting with hack & slash combat.Also in 1990,Hideo Kojima'sSD Snatcher,while turn-based, abandonedrandom encountersand introduced an innovative first-person shooter-based battle system where firearm weapons (each with different abilities and target ranges) have limited ammunition and the player can aim at specific parts of the enemy's body with each part weakening the enemy in different ways; an auto-battle feature could also be enabled. Such a battle system has rarely been used since,though similar battle systems based on targeting individual body parts can later be found in Square'sVagrant Story(2000),Bethesda'sFallout 3(2008), andNippon Ichi'sLast Rebellion(2010).

Decline and independent titles (late 1990s–2000s)

See also:Dōjin softandRPG Maker

From the mid-1990s, the Japanese video game industry began declining. This was partly due to the death of theNEC PC-9801computer format, as theSega SaturnandSony PlayStationbecame increasingly powerful in the console market while the computer market became increasingly dominated by theIBM Personal ComputerandMicrosoft Windows 95.This led to many Japanese PC manufacturers either continuing to develop for Windows 95 or moving over to the more lucrative console market. While most developers turned their attention to the console market, some developers dedicated to content unsuitable for consoles (such aserogeand complex militarystrategy games) continued their focus on the PC market.

In 1996,Night Slavewas ashooter RPGreleased for thePC-98that combined theside-scrolling shootergameplay ofAssault Suits ValkenandGradius,including an armaments system that employs recoilphysics,with many RPG elements such as permanently levelling up themechaand various weapons using power-orbs obtained from defeating enemies as well as storylinecut scenes.These cut scenes also occasionallycontain lesbianadult content.

Lastly, in the late 1990s, a new Internetfadbegan, owing to simplisticsoftware development kitssuch as the JapaneseRPG Makerseries (1988 onwards). Influenced by console RPGs and based mostly on thegameplayand style of theSNESandSega Genesisgames, a large group of youngprogrammersand aficionados across the world began creating independent console-style computer RPGs and sharing them online.An early successful example wasCorpse Party(1996), asurvival horrorindie gamecreated using the RPG Maker engine. Much like the survival horroradventure gamesClock Tower(1995 onwards) and laterHaunting Ground(2005), theplayer charactersinCorpse Partylack any means of defending themselves; the game also featured up to 20possible endings.The game was not released in Western markets until 2011.In an interview withGameDailyin 2007,MTVN's Dave Williams remarked that "games like this [user generated] have been sort of under the radar for something that could be the basis of a business. We have the resources and we can afford to invest more... I think it's going to be a great thing for the consumer".

Steam and resurgence (2010s)

In the 2010s, Japanese RPGs have been experiencing a resurgence on PC, with a significant increase in the number of Japanese RPGs releasing for theSteamplatform. This began with the 2010 release of doujin/indie gameRecettear(2007) for Steam,selling over 500,000 units on the platform.This led to many Japanese doujin/indie games releasing on Steam in subsequent years.The early part of the decade also saw the debut ofNihon Falcom'sYsseries on PC as well asFromSoftware'sDark Souls,which sold millions on the platform. Other Japanese RPGs were subsequently ported to the platform, such as the previously nicheValkyria ChroniclesandThe Legend of Heroes: Trails in the Sky,as well as ports of severalFinal Fantasygames.

By 2015, Japan had become the world's fourth largestPC gamemarket, behind onlyChina,theUnited States,andSouth Korea.The Japanese game development engineRPG Makerhas also gained popularity, with hundreds of games being created with it and released on Steam by the late 2010s.

Japanese console role-playing games

See also:Action role-playing game,Tactical role-playing game,andVideo games in Japan

Origins (mid-1980s)

The earliest RPG on a console wasDragonstomperon theAtari 2600in 1982.Bokosuka Wars,originally released for theSharp X1computer in 1983,was ported to theNESconsole in 1985, and was a commercial success in Japan, where it laid the foundations for thetactical role-playing gamesubgenre.Other notable early console RPGs included ports ofNamco's 1984arcadeaction role-playing games:The Tower of Druaga,which was ported to the NES in 1985,andDragon Buster,the first video game to feature alife meter(called "Vitality" in-game),also ported to the NES in 1987.

Dragon Quest(1986), which combined the overhead exploration ofUltimawith the first-person menu-driven combat ofWizardry,created a streamlined gameplay format that made console RPGs accessible to a wider audience.

In 1985,Yuji Horiiand his team atChunsoftbegan production onDragon Quest(Dragon Warrior).AfterEnixpublished the game in early 1986, it became the template for future console RPGs.The game was influenced by the first-person random battles inWizardry,the overhead movement inUltima,and the mystery storytelling in Horii's own 1983visual novelgameThe Portopia Serial Murder Case.Horii's intention behindDragon Questwas to create a RPG that appealed to a wider audience unfamiliar with the genre or video games in general. This required the creation of a new kind of RPG, that did not rely on previousD&Dexperience, nor requirehundreds of hours of rote fighting,and that could appeal to any kind of gamer.Compared to statistics-heavy computer RPGs,Dragon Questwas a more streamlined, faster-paced game based on exploration and combat, and featured atop-down viewin dungeons, in contrast to thefirst-person viewused for dungeons in earlier computer RPGs. The streamlined gameplay ofDragon Questthus made the game more accessible to a wider audience than previous computer RPGs.The game also placed a greater emphasis on storytelling and emotional involvement,building on Horii's previous workThe Portopia Serial Murder Case,but this time introducing acoming of agetale forDragon Questthat audiences could relate to, making use of the RPG level-building gameplay as a way to represent this.It also featured elements still found in most console RPGs, like major quests interwoven with minor subquests, an incremental spell system,thedamsel-in-distressstoryline that many RPGs follow,and a romance element that remains a staple of the genre,alongsideanime-style art byAkira Toriyamaand aclassicalscore byKoichi Sugiyamathat was considered revolutionary for consolevideo game music.

The gameplay ofDragon Questitself wasnon-linear,with most of the game not blocked in any way other than by being infested with monsters that can easily kill an unprepared player. This was balanced by the use of bridges to signify a change in difficulty and a new level progression that departed fromD&D,where in the 1st and 2nd editions, players are given random initial stats and a constant growth rate.Dragon Questinstead gave the player some extra hit points at the start and a level progression where the effective rate of character growth decelerates over time, similar to how the more recenteditions ofD&Dhave balanced the gameplay.Dragon Questalso gave players a clear objective from the start of the game and a series of smaller scenarios to build up the player's strength in order to achieve that objective.The ending could also be altered depending on the moral dialogue choice of whether or not the protagonist should join the antagonist on his evil conquest towards the end of the game.The game also had a limited inventory requiring item management,while the caves were dark, requiring the use of a torch to display a field of vision around the character.WithDragon Questbecoming widely popular in Japan, such that local municipalities were forced to place restrictions on where and when the game could be sold,theDragon Questseriesis still considered a bellwether for the Japanese video game market.Dragon Questdid not reach North America until 1989, when it was released asDragon Warrior,the first NES RPG to be released in North America.The release ofDragon Questwas followed by NES remakes of the earlyWizardryandUltimatitles over the next several years byPony Canyon.

Other releases at the time were the action role-playing gamesDeadly Towers(1986) andRygar(1987), which were notable as some of the first Japanese console RPGs to be released in North America, where they were well received for being a new kind of RPG that differed from both the consoleaction-adventures(such asCastlevania,Trojan,andWizards & Warriors) andAmerican computer RPGs(such asWizardry,Ultima,andMight & Magic) that American gamers were previously more familiar with at the time.Deadly TowersandRygarwere particularly notable for theirpermanent power-upmechanic, which at the time blurred the line between thepower-upsused in action-adventures and the experience points used in RPGs.

Evolution (late 1980s)

In 1987,Digital Devil Story: Megami TenseibyAtlusfor theNintendo Famicomabandoned the common medieval fantasy setting andsword and sorcerytheme in favour of a modern science-fiction setting and horror theme. It also introduced themonster-catchingmechanic with its demon-summoning system, which allowed the player to recruit enemies into their party, through a conversation system that gives the player a choice of whether to kill or spare an enemy and allows them to engage any opponent in conversation.Sega'soriginalPhantasy Starfor theMaster Systemestablished a number of genre conventions, and its setting combined sci-fi and fantasy in a way that set it apart from theD&Dstaple.It also featured pre-definedplayer characterswith their own backstories, which would later become common in console RPGs.It was also one of the first games to feature a female protagonist and animated monster encounters,and allowed inter-planetary travel between three planets.Boys' Lifemagazine in 1988 predicted thatPhantasy Staras well as theZeldagames may represent the future of home video games, combining the qualities of botharcadeandcomputer games.Another 1987 titleMiracle Warriors: Seal of the Dark Lordwas athird-personRPG that featured a wideopen worldand amini-mapon the corner of the screen.TheDragon Slayerseries also made its debut on the NES console (and thus to American audiences) in 1987, with the port ofLegacy of the Wizard(Dragon Slayer IV), anon-linearaction RPG featuring a Metroidvania-styleopen world,and the release ofFaxanadu,a side-story toXanadu.Wonder Boy in Monster Landcombined theplatform gameplayof the originalWonder Boywith many RPG elements,which would inspire later action RPGs such asPopful Mail(1991).

The Magic of Scheherazade,released in 1987, was notable for several innovations, including a unique setting based on theArabian Nights,time travel between five different time periods, a unique combat system featuring both real-time solo action andturn-basedteam battles, and the introduction of team attacks where two party members could join forces to perform an extra-powerful attack.Castlevania II: Simon's Questwas an action RPG that combined theplatform-actionmechanics of the originalCastlevaniawith the open world of an action-adventure and RPG mechanics such asexperience points.It also introduced a day-night cycle that affects when certainNPCsappear in certain locations and offered three possiblemultiple endingsdepending on the time it took to complete the game.Square'sCleopatra no Mahōwas anadventureRPG with a unique plot revolving aroundarcheology.Square'soriginalFinal Fantasyfor the NES had acharacter creationsystem that allowed the player to create their own parties and assign different character classes to party members, who in turn evolve through an earlyclass changesystem later in the game.It also featured concepts such as time travel;side-view battles, with theplayer characterson the right and the enemies on the left, which soon became the norm for numerous console RPGs;and the use of transportation for travel, "by ship, canoe, and even flying airship".While creatingFinal Fantasy,Hironobu Sakaguchitook inspiration from certain elements inHayao Miyazaki'sanimefilms, such as theairshipsbeing inspired byCastle in the Sky.Some of these 1987 releases proved popular and went on to spawn their own RPG franchises, particularly theMegami Tensei,Phantasy StarandFinal Fantasyseries. In particular, theFinal FantasyandDragon Questseries remain popular today,Final Fantasymore so in the West andDragon Questmore so in Japan.

In 1988,Dragon Quest IIIintroduced a character progression system allowing the player to change the party's character classes during the course of the game, and keep a character's stats and skills learned from previous classes.This class-changing system shaped the gameplay of future console RPGs, especially theFinal Fantasyseries,While the earlierDragon Questgames were also non-linear,Dragon Quest IIIwas the most substantial example of open-world gameplay among the earlyDragon Questgames. It also allowed the player to swap characters in and out of the party at will,and another major innovation was the introduction of day/night cycles; certain items, characters, and quests are only accessible at certain times of day.Final Fantasy IIis considered "the first trueFinal Fantasygame ", introducing an" emotional story line, morally ambiguous characters, tragic events "and a story to be" emotionally experienced rather than concluded from gameplay and conversations ". It also replaced traditional levels and experience points with anactivity-based progressionsystem, where "the more you use a skill, the better you are with it",a mechanic that later appeared inSaGa,Grandia,Final Fantasy XIV,andThe Elder Scrolls.Final Fantasy IIalso featured open-ended exploration,and had adialogue systemwhere keywords or phrases can be memorized and mentioned during conversations with NPCs,the theme of an evil empire against a small band of rebels (similar toStar Wars), and the iconicchocobo,a fictional creature inspired by Hayao Miyazaki'sNausicaa of the Valley of the Wind.That same year,World Court Tennisfor theTurboGrafx-16introduced a new form of gameplay: a unique tennis-themedsportsRPG mode.

Sega'sPhantasy Star II(1989) was an important milestone in the genre, establishing conventions such as anepic,dramatic, character-driven storyline,and science fiction setting.

In 1989,Phantasy Star IIfor theGenesisestablished many conventions of the genre, including anepic,dramatic, character-driven storyline dealing with serious themes and subject matter, and a strategy-based battle system.Its purely science fiction setting was also a major departure for RPGs, which had previously been largely restricted tofantasyorscience fantasysettings.The game's science fiction story was also unique, reversing the commonalien invasionscenario by instead presentingEarthlingsas the invading antagonists rather than the defending protagonists.The game's strong characterization, and use ofself-discoveryas a motivating factor for the characters and the player, was a major departure from previous RPGs and had a major influence on subsequent RPGs such as theFinal Fantasyseries.It also made a bold attempt at social commentary years before theFinal Fantasyseries started doing the same.Capcom'sSweet Homefor the NES introduced a modernJapanese horrortheme and laid the foundations for thesurvival horrorgenre, later serving as the main inspiration forResident Evil(1996).LikeResident Evil,Sweet Homefeatured the use of scattered notes as a storytelling mechanic and a number ofmultiple endingsdepending on which characters survived to the end.Tengai Makyo: Ziriareleased for thePC Engine CDthat same year was the first RPG released onCD-ROMand the first in the genre to feature animatedcut scenesand voice acting. The game's plot was also unusual for itsfeudal Japansetting and its emphasis on humour; the plot and characters were inspired by the Japanese folk taleJiraiya Goketsu Monogatari.The music for the game was also composed by noted musicianRyuichi Sakamoto.Also in 1989, the earlyenhanced remakeYs I & IIwas one of the first games to useCD-ROM,utilized to provide enhanced graphics, animatedcut scenes,aRed Book CDsoundtrack,and voice acting.The game offered a "much larger, more colorful world, populated with lifelike characters who communicated with voice instead of text", heralding "the evolution of the standard role-playing game" according to RPGFan.ItsEnglish localizationwas also one of the first to usevoice dubbing.Ys I & IIwent on to receive theGame of the Yearaward fromOMNI Magazinein 1990, as well as many other prizes.

1989 also saw the release ofDungeon Explorer,developed by Atlus for the TurboGrafx-16, which is considered a pioneer title in the action RPG genre with itsmultiplayercooperative gameplay,allowing up to five players to play simultaneously.That year also saw the release ofSuper Hydlide,theMega Driveport of the 1987MSXaction RPGHydlide 3: The Space Memories,which adopted the morality meter of its 1985 predecessorHydlide II: Shine of Darknesswhere the player'salignmentchanges depending on whether the player kills humans, good monsters, or evil monsters, and expanded its predecessor's time option, which speeds up or slows down the gameplay, with the introduction of an in-game clock setting day-night cycles and a need to sleep and eat. It also made other improvements such ascut scenesfor the opening and ending, a combat system closer toThe Legend of Zelda,the choice between distinct character classes, and a weight system affecting the player's movement depending on the weight of carried equipment.The Final Fantasy Legend,the first in theSaGaseries, adoptedFinal Fantasy II'sactivity-based progression, expanding it with weapons that shatter with repeated use, and added new ideas such as a race of monsters that mutate depending on which fallen foes they consume.The game also introduced the concept ofmemento mori,with a theme revolving around death, while the plot consisted of loosely connected stories andsidequestsrather than an epic narrative.That same year,River City Ransomfeatured elements of both thebeat 'em upand action RPG genres, combining brawler combat with many RPG elements, including an inventory, buying and selling items, learning new abilities and skills, needing to listen for clues, searching to find all the Boss es, shopping in the malls, buying items to heal, and increasing stats.It was also an earlysandboxbrawler reminiscent ofGrand Theft Auto.

Golden Age (1990s–mid-2000s)

The 'golden age' of console RPGs is often dated from the 1990sto the early 2000s.Console RPGs distinguished themselves from computer RPGs to a greater degree in the early 1990s. As console RPGs became more heavily story-based than their computer counterparts, one of the major differences that emerged during this time was in the portrayal of the characters, with most American computer RPGs at the time having characters devoid of personality or background as their purpose was to representavatarswhich the player uses to interact with the world, in contrast to Japanese console RPGs which depicted pre-defined characters who had distinctive personalities, traits, and relationships, such asFinal FantasyandLufia,with players assuming the roles of people who cared about each other, fell in love or even had families. Romance in particular was a theme that was common in most console RPGs but alien to most computer RPGs at the time.Japanese console RPGs were also generally more faster-paced andaction-adventure-oriented than their American computer counterparts.The console RPG market became more profitable, which led to several American manufacturers releasing console ports of traditional computer RPGs such asUltima,though they received mixed reviews due to console gamers at the time considering them to be not "as exciting as the Japanese imports".

During the 1990s, console RPGs had become increasingly dominant.Console RPGs had eclipsed computer RPGs for some time, though computer RPGs began making a comeback towards the end of the decade.

Early 1990s

In 1990,Dragon Quest IVsegmented its plot into segregated chapters,making the game more linear than its predecessor while allowing for greater characterization.The game also introduced anAIsystem called "Tactics" which allowed the player to modify the strategies used by the allied party members while maintaining full control of the hero.This "Tactics" system is seen as a precursor toFinal Fantasy XII's "Gambits"system.Final Fantasy IIIintroduced the classic "job system",a character progression engine allowing the player to change thecharacter classes,as well as acquire new and advanced classes and combine class abilities, during the course of the game.That same year also saw the release ofNintendo'sFire Emblem: Ankoku Ryu to Hikari no Tsurugi,a game that set the template for thetactical role-playing gamegenre and was the first entry in theFire Emblemseries.Another notable strategy RPG that year wasKoei'sBandit Kings of Ancient China,which was successful in combining the strategy RPG andmanagement simulationgenres, building on its ownNobunaga's Ambitionseries that began in 1983.Several early RPGs set in apost-apocalypticfuture were also released that year, includingDigital Devil Story: Megami Tensei II,andCrystalis,which was inspired by Hayao Miyazaki'sNausicaa of the Valley of the Wind.Crystalisalso made advances to the action role-playing game subgenre, being a true action RPG that combined the real-timeaction-adventurecombat andopen worldofThe Legend of Zeldawith the level-building and spell-casting of traditional RPGs likeFinal Fantasy.That year also saw the release ofPhantasy Star III: Generations of Doom,which featured an innovative and original branching storyline, which spans three generations of characters and can be altered depending on which character the protagonist of each generation marries,leading to four possible endings.

Final Fantasy IV(1991) helped popularize dramatic storytelling in RPGs (alongside the earlierPhantasy Stargames) and introduced the hybrid "Active Time Battle"system.

In 1991,Final Fantasy Adventure,the first in theManaseries, featured the ability to kill townspeople.The most important RPG that year, however, wasFinal Fantasy IV,one of the first role-playing games to feature a complex, involving plot,placing a much greater emphasis on character development, personal relationships, and dramatic storytelling.It also introduced a newbattle system:the "Active Time Battle"system, developed byHiroyuki Ito,where thetime-keeping systemdoes not stop.InFinal Fantasy IV,the ATB system would be hidden to the player. However, starting withFinal Fantasy V,the meter would be visible to the player. On the battle screen, each character has an ATB meter that gradually fills, and the player is allowed to issue a command to that character once the meter is full.The fact that enemies can attack or be attacked at any time is credited with injecting urgency and excitement into the combat system.The ATB combat system was considered revolutionary for being a hybrid betweenturn-basedandreal-timecombat, with its requirement of faster reactions from players appealing to those who were more used toaction games.That same year,Crea-Tech'sMetal Maxwas an earlynon-linear,open-ended, post-apocalyptic,vehicle combatRPG that lacked a predetermined story path and instead allowed the player to choose whichmissionsto follow in whatever order while being able to visit any place in the game world.The ending also can be determined by the player's actions, while they can continue playing the game even after the ending.The game also allowed the player to choose the character classes for eachplayer characteras well as create and modify the tanks used in battle.TheMetal Maxseries continued to allow tank customization and open-ended gameplay,while also allowing the player to obtain an ending at almost any time, particularlyMetal Saga,which could be completed with an ending scenario just minutes into the game, making it the shortest possible RPG.Telenet Japanreleased a console remake of its 1988 action-platform RPGExile,which was controversial, with a plot revolving around a time-travelingCrusades-era SyrianIslamic Assassinwho assassinates various religious/historical figures as well as modern-day political leaders,with similarities to the present-dayAssassin's Creedaction game series,while the gameplay ofExileinvolved taking drugs that increase or decrease statistics and affect the player's heart-rate, displayed using aheart monitor.

In 1992,Final Fantasy Vimproved on the ATB system by introducing a time gauge to indicate to the player which character's turn is next,and it expanded the job system by offering more customization options with more than 22 job classes and giving each character greater flexibility by allowing them to learn secondary abilities from each job before changing classes.The job and ATB systems continued to be used in laterFinal Fantasytitles,and helped differentiate the series from the character class systems and turn-based systems of traditional CRPGs.1992 also saw the release ofDragon Quest V,a game that has been praised for its involving, emotional family-themed narrative divided by different periods of time, something that has appeared in very few video games before or since.It has also been credited as the first known video game to feature a playable pregnancy, a concept that has since appeared in later games such asStory of Seasons,The Sims 2andFable II.Dragon Quest V'smonster-collecting mechanic, where monsters can be defeated, captured, added to the party, and gain their own experience levels, also influenced many later franchises such asPokémon,DigimonandDokapon.In turn, the concept of collecting everything in a game, in the form ofachievementsor similar rewards, has since become a common trend in video games.Dragon Quest Valso expanded theAI"Tactics" system of its predecessor by allowing each ally's AI routines to be set individually.Shin Megami Tensei,released in 1992 for the SNES, introduced an early moralalignmentsystem that influences the direction and outcome of the storyline. It gave the player the freedom to choose between three different paths: Chaos, Law, and Neutral, none of which is portrayed as right or wrong. The deep personal choices the player makes throughout the game affects the protagonist's alignment, leading to different possible paths andmultiple endings.This has since become a hallmark of theMegami Tenseiseries.Another non-linear RPG released that year wasRomancing Saga,an open-world RPG by Square that offered many choices and allowed players to completequestsin any order, with the decision of whether or not to participate in any particular quest affecting the outcome of the storyline. The game also allowed players to choose from eight different characters, each with their own stories that start in different places and offer different outcomes.Romancing SaGathus succeeded in providing a very different experience during each run through the game, something that later non-linear RPGs such asSaGa FrontierandFablehad promised but were unable to live up to.TheSaGaseries has since become known for its open-ended gameplay.The series is also known for having an activity-based progression system instead of experience levels, and sinceRomancing Saga,a combo system where up to five party members can perform a combined special attack.Unlike other RPGs at the time,Romancing SaGaalso required characters to pay mentors to teach them abilities, whether it was using certain weapons or certain proficiencies like opening a chest or dismantling a trap.Data East'sHeracles no Eikō III,written byKazushige Nojima,introduced the plot element of a namelessimmortalsuffering fromamnesia,and Nojima would later revisit the amnesia theme inFinal Fantasy VIIandGlory of Heracles.Climax Entertainment'sLandstalker: The Treasures of King Nolewas an earlyisometricRPG that combined the gameplay of an open-world action RPG with anisometric platformer,alongside an emphasis on variedpuzzle-solvingas well as strong characterization and humorous conversations.TheTurboGrafx-CDport ofDragon Knight IIreleased that year was also notable for introducingeroticadultcontent to consoles,though such content had often appeared in Japanese computer RPGs since the early 1980s.That same year,Game Artsbegan theLunarseries on theSega CDwithLunar: The Silver Star,one of the first successful CD-ROM RPGs, featuring both voice and text, and considered one of the best RPGs in its time.The game was praised for its soundtrack, emotionally engaging storyline, and strong characterization.It also introduced an early form of level-scaling where the Boss es would get stronger depending on the protagonist's level,a mechanic that was later used in Enix'sThe 7th Sagaand extended to normal enemies in Square'sRomancing Saga 3and laterFinal Fantasy VIII.

Mid-1990s

In 1993, Square'sSecret of Mana,the second in theManaseries, further advanced theaction RPGsubgenre with its introduction ofcooperative multiplayerinto the genre. The game was created by a team previously responsible for the first threeFinal Fantasytitles:Nasir Gebelli,Koichi Ishii,andHiromichi Tanaka.It was intended to be one of the first CD-ROM RPGs, as a launch title for theSNES CDadd-on, but had to be altered to fit onto a standard game cartridge after the SNES CD project was dropped.The game received considerable acclaim,for its innovativepausable real-timebattle system,the "Ring Command"menu system,its innovative cooperativemultiplayergameplay,where the second or third players could drop in and out of the game at any time rather than players having to join the game at the same time,and the customizable AI settings for computer-controlled allies.The game has influenced a number of later action RPGs.That same year also saw the release ofPhantasy Star IV: The End of the Millennium,which introduced the use of pre-programmable combat manoeuvers called 'macros', a means of setting up the player's party AI to deliver custom attack combos.Madou Monogatari,a 1989 MSX andPC-98computer RPG ported to theGame Gearhandheld console in 1993, had several unique features, including magic-oriented turn-based combat that completely lacked physical attacks, and the replacement of numerical statistics with visual representations, where the protagonist's condition is represented by her facial expressions andspritegraphics while experience is measured in jewels that encircle the screen, with the only visible numerical statistic being the collected gold.That year also saw the release ofRomancing Saga 2,which further expanded the non-linear gameplay of its predecessor. While in the originalRomancing Sagascenarios were changed according to dialogue choices during conversations,Romancing Saga 2further expanded on this by having unique storylines for each character that can change depending on the player's actions, including who is chosen, what is said in conversation, what events have occurred, and who is present in the party.PCGamesNcreditsRomancing SaGa 2for having laid the foundations for modern Japanese RPGs with its progressive, non-linear,open worlddesign and subversive themes.

In 1994,Final Fantasy VImoved away from themedievalsetting of its predecessors, instead being set in asteampunkenvironment.The game received considerable acclaim, and is seen as one of the greatest RPGs of all time,for improvements such as its broadened thematic scope,plotlines, characters, multiple-choice scenarios,and variation of play.Final Fantasy VIdealt with mature themes such as suicide, war crimes, child abandonment,teen pregnancy,and coping with the deaths of loved ones.Square'sLive A Live,released for the Super Famicom in Japan, featured eight different characters and stories, with the first seven unfolding in any order the player chooses, as well as four different endings.The game'sninjachapter in particular was an early example ofstealth gameelements in an RPG, requiring the player to infiltrate a castle, rewarding the player if the entire chapter can be completed without engaging in combat.Other chapters had similar innovations, such as Akira's chapter where the character uses telepathic powers to discover information.That same year saw the release of the3DOconsole port of the 1991 PC RPGKnights of Xentar,which had introduced a unique pausable real-time battle system,where characters automatically attack based on a list of different AI scripts chosen by the player.FromSoftware's first video game title,King's Field,a first-person RPG, is noted for being one of the earliest known3Dconsole role-playing games. In addition, the game is known for its difficulty and unconventional structure, and would go on to influence FromSoftware's future RPG titles includingShadow TowerandDemon's Souls,the latter described by its staff as a spiritual successor toKing's Field.RobotrekbyQuintetandAncientwas a predecessor toPokémonin the sense that the protagonist does not himself fight, but sends out his robots to do so. LikePokémon,Robotrekwas designed to appeal to a younger audience, allowed team customization, and each robot was kept in a ball.However, unlike the mentioned game, the protagonist sometimes use Big Bombs or Weather as a defense.

During this period, comparatively few Eastern RPGs were released in Europe. The market for the genre was not as large as in Asia or North America, and the increasing amount of time and money required for translation as JRPGs became more text-heavy, in addition to the usual need to optimize the games forPALsystems, often made localizing the games to Europe a high-cost venture with little potential payoff.As a result, JRPG releases in Europe were largely limited to games which had previously been localized for North America, thus reducing the amount of translation required.

In 1995, Square'sChrono Triggerraised the standards for the genre, with certain aspects that were considered revolutionary in its time, including itsnonlinear gameplay,branching plot,the "Active Time Event Logic" system,more than a dozen different endings,plot-related sidequests, a unique battle system with innovations such as combo attacks, and lack of random encounters.It also popularized the concept ofNew Game+.Chrono Triggeris frequently listed as one of thegreatest video games of all time.That same year, Square'sRomancing Saga 3featured a storyline that could be told differently from the perspectives of up to eight different characters and introduced a level-scaling system where the enemies get stronger as the characters do,a mechanic that was later used inFinal Fantasy VIII.Enix'sDragon Quest VIintroduced an innovative scenario with a unique real world and dream world setting, which seems to have had an influence on the laterSquarerole-playing gamesChrono CrossandFinal Fantasy X.Dragon Quest VIalso improved on the inventory management of its predecessors with the addition of a bag to store extra items.Meanwhile,Quintet'sTerranigmaallowed players to shape the game world throughtown-buildingsimulationelements, expanding on its 1992 predecessorSoul Blazer,while Square'sSeiken Densetsu 3allowed a number of different possible storyline paths and endings depending on which combination of characters the player selected.Beyond the Beyondintroduced aturn-basedbattle system dubbed the "Active Playing System", which allows the player to increase the chances of landing an improved attack or defending from an attack by pressing the X button at the correct time during battle, similar to the timing-based attacks in the later gameFinal Fantasy VIII.

In 1996, the tactical RPGFire Emblem: Genealogy of the Holy Wargave players the ability to affect the relationships between different characters, which in turn affected the storyline as these relationships led to different characters appearing in the second generation of the game's plot.Enixreleasedtri-Ace's sci-fi action RPGStar Ocean,which also gave players the ability to affect the relationships between different characters through its "private actions" social system, where the protagonist's relationship points with the other characters are affected by the player's choices, which in turn affects the storyline, leading to branching paths and multiple different endings.Treasure'sGuardian Heroesallowed players to alter the storyline through their actions, such as choosing between a number of branching paths leading to multiple different endings and through the Karma meter which changes depending on whether the player kills civilians or shows mercy to enemies.That same year, thefirst installmentof theStory of Seasonsseries introduced a new form of gameplay: a role-playing simulation centred around managing a farm. The series would later inspire popularsocial network gamessuch asFarmVillein the late 2000s.

Late 1990s

Sega'sSakura Warsfor theSaturncombined tactical RPG combat withdating simandvisual novelelements, introducing areal-timebranching choicesystem where, during an event or conversation, the player must choose an action ordialogue choicewithin a time limit, or not to respond at all within that time; the player's choice, or lack thereof, affects theplayer character's relationship with other characters and in turn the characters' performance in battle, the direction of the storyline, and the ending. Later games in the series added several variations, including an action gauge that can be raised up or down depending on the situation, and a gauge that the player can manipulate using theanalog stickdepending on the situation.The success ofSakura Warsled to a wave of games that combine the RPG and dating sim genres, includingThousand Armsin 1998,Riviera: The Promised Landin 2002, andLuminous Arcin 2007.

Final Fantasy VII(1997), with its use of3D graphicsandCD-ROMdiscs, was an important milestone that popularized the genre worldwide.

The next major revolution came in the late 1990s, which saw the rise of3D computer graphicsandoptical discsinfifth generationconsoles. The implications for RPGs were enormous—longer, more involved quests, better audio, andfull-motion video.This was clearly demonstrated in 1997 by the phenomenal success ofFinal Fantasy VII,which is considered one of the most influential games of all time,akin to that ofStar Warsin the movie industry. With a record-breaking production budget of around $45 million,the ambitious scope ofFinal Fantasy VIIraised the possibilities for the genre, with its more expansive world to explore,much longer quest, more numerous sidequests,dozens of minigames,and much higher production values. The latter includes innovations such as the use of 3D characters on pre-rendered backgrounds,battles viewed from multiple different angles rather than a single angle, and for the first time full-motionCGIvideo seamlessly blended into the gameplay,effectively integrated throughout the game.Gameplay innovations included the materia system, which allowed a considerable amount of customization and flexibility through materia that can be combined in many different ways and exchanged between characters at any time, and the limit breaks, special attacks that can be performed after a character's limit meter fills up by taking hits from opponents.The materia system is similar to, but more sophisticated than, the slotted item system inDiablo II(2000).Final Fantasy VIIcontinues to be listed among thebest games of all time,for its highly polished gameplay, high playability, lavish production, well-developed characters, intricate storyline,and an emotionally engaging narrative that is much darker and sophisticated than most other RPGs.The game's storytelling and character development was considered a major narrative jump forward for video games and was often compared to films and novels at the time.

The explosion ofFinal Fantasy VII's sales and the ascendance of thePlayStationrepresented the dawning of a new era of RPGs. Backed by a clever multimillion-dollar marketing campaign,Final Fantasy VIIbrought RPGs to a much wider console audience and played a key role in the success of the PlayStation gaming console.Following the success ofFinal Fantasy VII,console RPGs, previously a niche genre outside Japan, skyrocketed in popularity across the world.The game was soon ported to the PC. The game was also responsible not only for popularizing RPGs on consoles, but its high production budget played a key role in the rising costs of video game development in general, and it led to Square's foray into films withFinal Fantasy: The Spirits Within.

Later in 1997, Square releasedSaGa Frontier,which expands on the non-linear gameplay of itsRomancing Sagapredecessors. It has a setting that spans multiple planets and an overarching plot that becomes apparent after playing through each of the different characters' quests that tie together at certain places.The characters have several different possible endings each,and there can be up to 15 characters in the party at the same time, organized into three groups of five characters.The ambitious amount of freedom the game offered was a departure from most RPGs in its time, but this led to a mixed reception due to its lack of direction.Quintet's 1997 releaseThe Granstream Sagawas an early fully 3D action RPG that had a uniquethird-personone-on-one combat system and a storyline that, while being mostly linear, offered a difficult moral choice towards the end of the game regarding which of two characters to save, each leading to a different ending.LandStalker's1997 spiritual successorAlundrais considered "one of the finest examples of action/RPG gaming", combining platforming elements and challenging puzzles with an innovative storyline revolving around entering people's dreams and dealing with mature themes.

In 1998, Square'sXenogearswas acclaimed for the ambitious scope of its storyline, which spanned millennia and explored themes rarely dealt with in video games, including topics such as religion and the origin of mankind,and social commentary dealing with racism, poverty, war, and human psychology, along with narrative references to the philosophies ofSigmund Freud,Carl JungandFriedrich Nietzsche.It is today considered one of the greatest examples of video game storytelling.That year also saw the rise ofmonster-collectingRPGs which, although originating fromMegami Tensei,Dragon Quest V,andRobotrek,was further advanced and popularized byPokémon,which featuredmultiplayergameplay and was released in North America that year.Pokémonhas since become the best-selling RPG franchise of all time.Another 1998 title,Suikoden II,was acclaimed for its "winding, emotionally charged narrative" that involved recruiting an army and gave players the choice of whether to "redeem or kill" key characters.The same year also saw the release ofThe Legend of Zelda: Ocarina of Time,which was considered an action RPG at the time and was "poised to shape the action RPG genre for years to come".While it is still considered one of the best games of all time, its status as an action RPG continues to be debated, much likes its predecessors.

In 1999, the cinematic trend set byFinal Fantasy VIIcontinued withFinal Fantasy VIII,which introduced characters with a proportionately sized human appearance. The game also featured a level-scaling system where the enemies scale in level along with the player's party.Similar level-scaling mechanics have been used in a number of later RPGs, includingThe Elder Scrolls IV: Oblivion,Silverfall,Dragon Age: Origins,Fable II,Fallout 3,andThe Elder Scrolls V: Skyrim.Square also expanded on the non-linearity ofSaGa Frontierwith their 1999 action RPGLegend of Mana,the most open-ended in theManaseries,allowing the player to build the game world they choose, complete anyquestsand subplots they choose in any order of their choice, and choose which storyline paths to follow,departing from most other action RPGs in its time.That same year, Square'ssurvival horrorRPGParasite Eve IIfeatured branching storylines and up to three different possible endings,while the sci-fi RPGStar Ocean: The Second Storyboasted as many as 86 different endings,with each of the possible permutations to these endings numbering in the hundreds, setting a benchmark for the amount of outcomes possible for a video game. Using a relationship system inspired bydating sims,each of the characters inStar Oceanhad friendship points and relationship points with each of the other characters, allowing the player to pair together, orship,any couples (both romanticheterosexualrelationships as well as friendships) of their choice, allowing a form offan fictionto exist within the game itself. This type of social system was later extended to allow romantic lesbian relationships inBioWare's 2007 sci-fi RPGMass Effect.However, the relationship system inStar Oceannot only affected the storyline, but also the gameplay, affecting the way the characters behave towards each other in battle.Another 1999 RPG,Persona 2,also featured dating elements, including the option to engage in a homosexual relationship.That same year saw the release ofChrono Cross,which became the third game to receive a perfect score fromGameSpot,afterThe Legend of Zelda: Ocarina of TimeandSoulcalibur.The game featured two major parallel dimensions, where the player must go back and forth between the worlds to recruit party members, obtain items, and advance the plot, with events in one dimension influencing the other.Like its predecessorChrono Trigger,Chrono Crossfeatured aNew Game+option and multiple endings, with at least a dozen possible endings based on the player's actions.

Early 2000s

In 2000,Phantasy Star Onlineon theDreamcastintroduced online gaming to consoles and was responsible for pushing console gamers "to dial up with the Dreamcast to play online and to experience a new style of play".It resulted in taking "consoles online" and defining "small-scale multiplayer RPGs", paving the way for larger-scaleMMORPGefforts such asFinal Fantasy XI,setting the template for small-scale online RPGs such asCapcom'sMonster Hunterseries and some of the laterDragon QuestandFinal Fantasygames, and giving rise to "an entire pantheon of multiplayerdungeon crawlersthat continue to dominate the Japanese sales charts ". More generally,Phantasy Star Onlinemade "both online gaming and the concept of fee-based services a reality for consoles", paving the way for the online gaming services later provided by all three of theseventh-generation consoles.That same year,Vagrant Storyintroduced apausable real-timebattle system based on targeting individual body parts,using both melee and bow & arrow weapons;similar body-targeting battle systems were later used inBethesda'sFallout 3(2008) andNippon Ichi'sLast Rebellion(2010).That year also saw the release of thePlayStation 2,which would become thebest-selling game consoleof all time, due in large part to its large variety of Japanese RPGs (including franchises such asFinal Fantasy,Grandia,andTales) that established its dominance over the RPG market.

In 2001,Final Fantasy Xmade advancements in portraying realistic emotions through voice-overs and detailed facial expressions, which have since become a staple of the series, withFinal Fantasy X-2and other subsequent titles (such asDirge of Cerberus: Final Fantasy VIIandFinal Fantasy XII) also featuring this development. It also replaced anoverworldmap with the traversing of real-time 3D environments, which has also become a standard of the series, as demonstrated inFinal Fantasy XI,XIIandXIII.The game introduced several other gameplay elements to the series, such as itsConditional Turn-Based Battle Systemand OverdriveLimit Breaks.It became a major worldwide success, largely due to its "dynamic" presentation, "movie-quality CGI"cutscenes,and "well-scripted, well-acted dialogue", that helped it become a major success, helping to establish the PlayStation 2 as "the console of choice for gamers looking for a cinematic experience and narrative polish" that had been lacking in most previous RPGs. Around the same time, thefirst entryin theShadow Heartsseries was released. The series would later be acclaimed for its darkerLovecraftian horrornarrative revolving around "an emotional journey through the reluctantanti-hero's quest toward redemption ".Much like theChronoseries, theShadow Heartsgames offer multiple endings.

In 2002,Final Fantasy XIfor the PlayStation 2 (and later thePCandXbox 360) introduced themassively multiplayer online role-playing gamegenre to consoles. In 2003,Final Fantasy X-2for the PlayStation 2 followed the "stylish narrative formula" established byFinal Fantasy X,though with a more "Charlie's Angels-esque "approach. That same year saw the release of the more experimentalShin Megami Tensei III: Nocturne,the third main entry in theShin Megami Tenseiseries. Much like its predecessors, it was "psychologically challenging" and featured a branching narrative with multiple endings.Nocturne"carved out a toehold for the series in America with its post-apocalyptic adventure set in a bombed-out Japan" where instead of "trying to stop the apocalypse", the "demonic main character's end goal is to assert his will on the new world".

Mid 2000s

In 2003,Konami'sGame Boy Advancehandheld video gameBoktai: The Sun Is in Your Handhad a uniquestealth-basedaction gameplay that made use of asolar-powersensor.

In 2004,Dragon Quest VIIIwas released and became the first game in theDragon Questseries to have 3D graphics and voice acting.CapcomreleasedMonster Hunter,the first title of the franchise, for the PlayStation 2. The game introduced up-to 8 players team based online hunting gameplay-style. On handhelds,Kingdom Hearts: Chain of Memories,Dragon Quest V: Hand of the Heavenly Bride,andFire Emblem: The Sacred Stoneswere released.

In 2005,Kingdom Hearts IIwas released, which solidified theKingdom Heartsseries as the new JRPG series.Fire Emblem: Path of Radiance,developed byIntelligent Systemsand published byNintendo,was released for theGameCube.Other notable releases includeDrakengard 2,Xenosaga Episode II: Jenseits von Gut und Böse,Radiata Stories,Romancing SaGa -Minstrel Song-,Tales of the Abyss,andTales of Legendia.On handhelds,Pokémon Mystery Dungeon,Final Fantasy IV AdvanceandMetal Gear Acidwere released.

In 2006,Final Fantasy XIIwas released. It was the firstFinal Fantasygame to have enemies on the field, seamless battle transitions, anopen world,a controllable camera and customizable AI. When it was released it became the firstFinal Fantasygame to get a perfect score fromFamitsu Weeklymagazine. Other notable releases areSuikoden V,Xenosaga Episode III: Also sprach Zarathustra,and.hack//G.U. vol.3//Redemption.

Relative decline (late 2000s)

In 2006,Persona 3,developed byAtlusfor the PlayStation 2, was released. Other notable releases areWild ARMs 5,Eternal Sonata,Final Fantasy Crystal Chronicles: My Life as a KingandTales of Symphonia: Knight of Ratatosk.

In 2008,Lost Odyssey,developed byMistwalkerandFeelplusfor theXbox 360,was released. Other notable releases arePersona 4,Tales of Vesperia,Disgaea 3: Absence of JusticeandValkyria Chronicles.

In 2009,Demon's Souls,developed byFromSoftwarefor thePlayStation 3,was released. The game received notable awards by video game media including GameSpot's Game of the Year, GameTrailers' Best RPG, IGN's Best RPG for the PS3, andPC World's Game of the Year.

Handheld game consoles,however, particularlyNintendo handheldssuch as theNintendo DS,have featured a number of innovative RPGs during the late 2000s.Square Enix'sThe World Ends with You(2007) featured a uniquedual-screenaction combat system that involves controlling two characters at the same time.Level-5'sInazuma Eleven(2008) introduced uniquesoccer footballRPG gameplay incorporatingsports gameelements.TheAtlustitleShin Megami Tensei: Devil Survivor(2009)blends together both traditional andtactical RPGgameplay along with non-linearadventure gameelementsas well as an innovative demon auction system and a death clock system where each character has a specified time of deathand the player's actions has consequences on who lives and dies.On thePlayStation Portable(PSP),Half-Minute Hero(2009) is arole-playing shooterfeaturing self-referential humour and a 30-second time limit for each level and Boss encounter.Infinite Space(2009) byPlatinumGamesis a hybrid oftactical role-playing game,real-time strategyandspace simulatorelements,and features anon-linear branching narrativewith numerous choices that can have dramatic consequences,and an epic scale spanning hundreds of planets.

Aftermath (early 2010s)

In the early 2010s, new intellectual properties such asXenoblade ChroniclesfromMonolith SoftandThe Last StoryfromMistwalkerfound a home on Nintendo'sWiiconsole late in its lifespan, gaining unanimously solid reviews. Many reviewers claimed the games revitalized the genre, keeping its best traits while modernizing other gameplay elements which could appeal to a wide audience.Xenoblade,in particular, revitalized the genre with an extremely expansiveopen world.However,Nintendo of Americaannounced its decision to not localize the games, not having enough faith in their commercial appeal to American audiences. In response, a widespread internet campaign known as "Operation Rainfall"petitioned the release ofXenoblade,The Last Story,andPandora's Towerin America, with participants flooding Nintendo's official Facebook page with requests and sending mail to NOA's headquarters. The former two games were released in America in 2012, withXenobladedebuting at the top ofGameStop's best seller list the week of its release. Despite this, the sales of both games were far less than those of console WRPGs such as Mass Effect 2andFallout 3.

On handhelds, the 2010 Atlus titleRadiant Historiaintroduced a unique take on the concept ofnon-linearbranching storylines that gives the player the freedom to alter the course of history through time travel across two parallel timelines.The 2010PSPversion ofTactics Ogrefeatures a similar "World" system that allows players to revisit key plot points and make different choices to see how the story unfolds differently.Imageepoch's 2011 titleSaigo no Yakusoku no Monogatari(Final Promise Story) for the PSP has a strategic command-based battle system where enemies learn from previous skirmishes and where characters can die permanently during gameplay which in turn affects the game's storyline.

In 2011, Nintendo made a conscious effort to revitalize the Pokémon brand with thePokémon Black&Whiteduology, which streamlined the battle system and introduced an entirely new lineup of characters in a new region based on New York City. These games were followed up with adirect numbered sequelin 2012, a first for the main series. 2012 also saw the release ofPokémon Conquest,a crossover with theNobunaga's Ambitionseries of strategy role-playing games.

In 2012 and onwards, a surge in new JRPGs such asXenoblade Chronicles,Persona 4 Golden,Fire Emblem Awakening,Shin Megami Tensei 4,Tales of Graces,Kingdom Hearts 3D: Dream Drop Distance,Etrian Odyssey IV: Legends of the Titan,Ni no Kuni: Wrath of the White WitchandTales of Xilliaare generally well received by fans of the genre and some critics while a number of popular WRPGs such asMass Effect 3and the PC version ofDiablo IIIsuffered from poor feedback by non-critic reviewers, especially onMetacritic.JRPG installments from mainstream franchises such asPaper Mario: Sticker Starperformed well below expectations, continuing the decline of mainstream JRPG franchises except Pokémon. With the exception of Pokémon games, individual JRPG sales continue to pale in comparison against individual WRPGs such asThe Elder Scrolls V: SkyrimandGuild Wars 2.However, JRPGs released by Nintendo continue to prosper, withDragon Quest IX,Fire Emblem Awakening,andBravely Defaultselling well above expectations for the genre, andFinal Fantasy XIVhas reported such a strong revenue that Square Enix, its publisher, had expected turning a profit,so while certain games may still be ill-received, others are performing fairly well.

New directions and renaissance (2010s–present)

Hunting RPGs are a type of action RPG subgenre featuring the player and an optional team of up to three other players hunting down larger monsters with a set amount of time, using weapons crafted from the materials extracted from the map and/or from the monsters themselves. Unlike most RPG genres, the monsters have no health bars or hit points, but have stronger attack and defense stats, forcing the players to use survival items and coordinated strategies to eliminate a specific monster. First appeared inCapcom'sMonster Hunterfranchise, these games later expanded the hunting RPG genre into other games as well, such asBandai Namco Entertainment'sGod Eaterfranchise.

Soulslikegames are a relatively new genre born due to popularity of theDark Soulsseries.Those games generally have common elements like high difficulty, high-risk combat with hard-hitting enemies, sparse checkpoints, and enemies dropping souls (or some other resource used for upgrading stats and/or weapons that is lost upon death), but the player has one chance to regain the dropped souls if they can reach the place of their death without dying again.

Since 2016, Japanese RPGs have been experiencing a resurgence,as part of a renaissance for the Japanese video game industry.In 2016, the global success ofPokémon GohelpedPokémon Sun and Moonset sales records around the world.Final Fantasy XVwas also a major success, selling millions. There were also other Japanese RPGs that earned commercial success and/or critical acclaim that year, includingDragon Quest VII: Fragments of the Forgotten Past,Shin Megami Tensei IV: Apocalypse,Bravely Second,Fire Emblem Fates,Dragon Quest Builders,World of Final Fantasy,Exist Archive,andI am Setsuna.

In 2017, Japanese RPGs gained further commercial success and greater critical acclaim.The year started withGravity Rush 2,followed byYakuza 0,which some critics consider the best in theYakuzaseries,Niohwhich is considered to have one of theeighth-generation's best RPG combat systems, and thenNier Automatawhich has gameplay and storytelling thought to be some of the best in recent years.Persona 5won the Best Role Playing Game award atThe Game Awards 2017.Some Japanese RPGs that were previously considered niche gained notoriety, and became million-sellers in 2017, includingPersona 5,Nier: Automata,Nioh,andXenoblade Chronicles 2on theNintendo Switch.2017 was considered a strong year for Japanese RPGs, with other notable releases includingDragon Quest VIIIon theNintendo 3DS,Tales of Berseria,Valkyria Revolution,Ever Oasis,Final Fantasy XII: The Zodiac Age,Ys VIII,Etrian Odyssey V,Dragon Quest Heroes II,The Legend of Heroes: Trails in the Sky the 3rd,Fire Emblem Echoes: Shadows of Valentia,Final Fantasy XIV: Stormblood,andTokyo Xanadu.

2018'sMonster Hunter: Worldsold over 10 million copies,becomingCapcom's best-selling single software title.Square Enix'sDragon Quest XI: Echoes of an Elusive Agesold over four million copies. Its launch was the franchise's best in North America.A retro-inspired turn-based JRPGOctopath Travelersold over 1 million units exclusively on the Nintendo Switch.Dragon Questspin-off sandbox action RPGDragon Quest Buildersdebuted in the west.Ni no Kuni II: Revenant Kingdomearned critical acclaims and sold over a million copies.The first main game on a home consolePokémon: Let's Go, Pikachu! and Let's Go, Eevee!sold 10 million units.SEGA'sRyu ga Gotoku StadioreleasedYakuza 6: The Song of Life,Yakuza Kiwami 2andFist of the North Star: Lost Paradise.2018 saw a decent amount of JRPG remasters from the past generations includingDark Souls: Remastered,Shining Resonance Refrain,The World Ends with You: Final Remix,The Last Remnant: Remastered,Secret of Mana,Dragon's Crown ProandShenmue I & II.On handhelds,AtlusreleasedThe Alliance Alive,Radiant Historia: Perfect Chronology,andShin Megami Tensei: Strange Journey Redux.Other notable games includeThe Legend of Heroes: Trails of Cold Steel II,Lost Sphear,Valkyria Chronicles 4,Monster Hunter Generations Ultimate,andXenoblade Chronicles 2: Torna – The Golden Country.

In 2019,Square EnixreleasedKingdom Hearts IIIselling over 5 million copies in the first month.Sekiro: Shadows Die Twiceearned both critical and commercial success reaching nearly 4 million sales.With the release of a large expansionFinal Fantasy XIV: Shadowbringers,the game marked over a million active players.Nintendo's tactical role-playing gameFire Emblem: Three Housesearned critical acclaim.Capcom releasedMonster Hunter World: Iceborne.Square Enix releasedDragon Quest XI S: Echoes of an Elusive Age – Definitive Editionfor the Nintendo Switch. There were notable remasters released in 2019 includingTales of Vesperia: Definitive Edition,Final Fantasy VIII Remastered,andNi no Kuni: Wrath of the White Witch Remastered.On handhelds,Mario & Luigi: Bowser's Inside Story + Bowser Jr.'s JourneyandPersona Q2: New Cinema Labyrinthboth for the3DSwere released. Other notable JRPGs includeGod Eater 3,Dragon Quest Builders 2,Oninaki,andCode Vein.

South Korean role-playing games

Main article:Video gaming in South Korea

See also:Video games developed in South KoreaandHistory of massively multiplayer online games

1980s–1990s

South Korea's RPG industry began in the early 1980/ with licensed and translated versions of internation titles. Later on, The country's first fully-fledged computer RPG wasSin'geom-ui Jeonseol,also known asLegend of the Sword,released for theApple IIcomputer platform in 1987. It was programmed by Nam In-Hwan and distributed by Aproman, and was primarily influenced by theUltimaseries. In the late 1980s, the Korean company Topia began producingaction role-playing games,one of which wasPungnyu Hyeopgaekfor theMS-DOSin 1989. It was the first Korean title published forIBM PC compatiblesand is set inancient Koreaandancient China.Another action RPG released by Topia that same year wasMirae Sonyeon Conan,a video game adaptation ofHayao Miyazaki's Japanese 1978animeseriesFuture Boy Conan,for theMSX2platform.

1994 saw the release of two major Korean RPGs:Astonishia Story,and anMS-DOSenhanced remakeYs II Special,developed by Mantra. The latter was a mash-up ofNihon Falcom's gameYs II(1988) with theanimeYs II: Castle in the Heavens(1992) along with a large amount of new content, including more secrets than any other version ofYs II.Both games were a success in Korea,Astonishia Storymore so.

Commercialonline gamingbecame very popular in South Korea from the mid-1990s.Nexus: The Kingdom of the Winds,designed by Jake Song, was commercially released in 1996 and eventually gained over one million subscribers. It was one of the earliestmassively multiplayer online role-playing games.Song's next game,Lineage(1998), enjoyed even greater success gaining millions of subscribers in Korea and Taiwan. This helped to secure developerNCsoft's dominance in the global MMORPG market for several years.

2000s–present

In 2002, thesprite-basedRagnarok Online,produced by Korean companyGravity Corp,was released. Though unknown to many Western players, the game took Asia by storm asLineagehad done. The publisher has claimed in excess of 25 million subscribers of the game, although this number is based upon a quantity of registered users (rather than active subscribers).2002 also saw the release ofMapleStory,another sprite-based title, which was completelyfree-to-play—instead of charging a monthly fee, it generated revenue by selling in-game "enhancements".MapleStorywould go on to become a major player in the new market for free-to-play MMORPGs (generating huge numbers of registered accounts across its many versions), if it did not introduce the market by itself.

In October 2003,Lineage II(NCsoft's sequel toLineage) became the latest MMORPG to achieve huge success across Asia. It received the Presidential Award at the 2003 Korean Game awards. As of the first half of 2005,Lineage IIcounted over 2.25 million subscribers worldwide, with servers in Japan, China, North America, Taiwan, and Europe, once the popularity of the game had surged in the West. To date, theLineagefranchise has attracted 43 million players.

Chinese and Taiwanese role-playing games

See also:Video games in China,Video games developed in Taiwan,andVideo games developed in Hong Kong

Ruyijiwas released in Taiwan in 1986. It's arole-playing gameand the first commercial Chinese game.

Xuan-Yuan Sword,a Taiwaneserole-playing gamebased onChinese mythology,was released in 1990. It has become a series and its latest sequel was released in 2020.

Heroes of Jin Yong(1996), a Taiwanesetactical role-playing gamebased on the popular historicalwuxianovels byJin Yong,featured a number of melee and rangedkung fuskills to train and develop, as well as a grid-based movement system.

China has a number of domestically produced games. These includeWestward Journey,Perfect World,andThe Incorruptible Warrior.There are a large number of domestically-producedMMORPGsin China, although many generally remain unheard of outside the country.

Genshin Impact(2020), a Chineseopen-worldaction role-playing game,features an action-based battle system involving elemental magic and character switching, and it also usesgacha gamemonetizationfor players to obtain new characters, weapons, and other resources.According to some media reports,Genshin Impactwas the biggest international launch of any Chinese video game at the time of its release.

See also

• Cultural differences in role-playing video games
• History of Western role-playing video games
• Dating sim
• Visual novel
• List of best-selling Japanese role-playing game franchises

Further reading

• Barton, Matt (23 February 2007)."The History of Computer Role-Playing Games Part 1: The Early Years (1980–1983)".Gamasutra.Retrieved5 September2010.
• Barton, Matt (23 February 2007)."The History of Computer Role-Playing Games Part 2: The Golden Age (1985–1993)".Gamasutra.Retrieved12 September2010.
• Barton, Matt (11 April 2007)."The History of Computer Role-Playing Games Part III: The Platinum and Modern Ages (1994–2004)".Gamasutra.Retrieved5 September2010.
• Loguidice, Bill; Barton, Matt (2009),Vintage Games: An Insider Look at the History of Grand Theft Auto, Super Mario, and the Most Influential Games of All Time,Focal Press,ISBN978-0-240-81146-8
• Vestal, Andrew (2 November 1998)."The History of Console RPGs".GameSpot.Archived fromthe originalon 2 August 2009.Retrieved10 September2009.
• Vestal, Andrew (2 November 1998)."The History of Final Fantasy".GameSpot.Archived fromthe originalon 8 July 2012.Retrieved11 September2009.
• Barton, Matt (2008).Dungeons & Desktops: The History of Computer Role-Playing Games.A K Peters, Ltd.ISBN978-1-56881-411-7.Retrieved8 September2010.
• King, Brad; Borland, John M. (2003).Dungeons and Dreamers: The Rise of Computer Game Culture from Geek to Chic.McGraw-Hill/Osborne.ISBN0-07-222888-1.Retrieved25 September2010.
• Harris, John (2 July 2009)."Game Design Essentials: 20 RPGs".Gamasutra.

External links

• Roschin, Oleg (26 March 2006)."The World of Asian RPGs".MobyGames.Archived fromthe originalon 16 August 2012.Retrieved10 September2009.