Jump to content

Japanese colonial empire

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Japanese colonial empire
1895–1945
Flag of Japanese
The Japanese Empire in 1942
  • Japan
  • Colonies/Mandates
  • Puppet states/Protectorates/Occupied territories
StatusColonial empire
CapitalTokyo City(1895–1943)
Tokyo(1943–)
Common languagesJapanese
Local:
Korean(Korea),Taiwanese Hokkien(Taiwan),Formosan languages(Taiwan)
History
• Established
1855
• Disestablished
1945[1]
CurrencyJapanese yen,
Japanese military yen,
Korean yen,
Taiwanese yen
Japan and theGreater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphereat its peak in 1942. Japan and its alliesThailandandFree Indiain dark red; occupied territories and client states in lighter red.Chōsen (Korea),Taiwan (Formosa),andKarafuto (South Sakhalin)were integral parts of Japan.

Theterritorial conquests of the Japanese Empirein the WesternPacific OceanandEast Asiabegan in 1895 with its victory overQing Chinain theFirst Sino-Japanese War.[1]Subsequent victories over theRussian Empire(Russo-Japanese War) and theGerman Empire(World War I) expanded Japanese rule toTaiwan,Korea,Micronesia,southern Sakhalin,severalconcessions in China,and theSouth Manchuria Railway.In 1931,Japan invaded Manchuria,resulting in the establishment of thepuppet stateofManchukuothe following year; thereafter, Japan adopted a policy of founding and supporting puppet states in conquered regions. These conquered territories became the basis for theGreater East Asia Co-Prosperity Spherein 1940.

IncludingMainland Japan,colonies, occupied territories, and puppet states, theJapanese Empireat its apex wasone of the largest empires in history.The total amount of land under Japanese sovereignty reached 8,510,000 km2(3,300,000 sq mi) in 1942.[2]By 1943, it accounted for more than 20% of the world's population at the time with 463 million people in its occupied regions and territories.[3][4]

After Japan was defeated by theAlliesin 1945, colonial control from Tokyo over the far-flung territories ended. The extent of Japanese governance was restricted to thenaichi(exceptingKarafuto Prefecture,which wasannexed by the Soviet Union); theNanpōandRyūkyū Islandswere returned to Japan by the US in 1968 and 1972 respectively.

The territorial expansion of the Japanese colonial empire was marked by aggression towards other nations, with the Japanese committingnumerous atrocities and war crimes,killing millions.[5]

Maximum extent of the Japanese Empire

Pre-1895

[edit]

The first overseas territories that Japan acquired were the islands of its surrounding seas. During the earlyMeiji era,Japan established control over the Nanpō,Ryukyu,andKuril Islands;it also strengthened control of thenaichi.But this effort was less an initial step toward colonial expansion than it was a reassertion of national authority over territories traditionally within the Japanese cultural sphere.[6]

Acquisition of colonies

[edit]

At the start of the twentieth century the rate of population increase in Japan was seen as a potential problem for the Japanese government, and colonial expansion into Korea and Manchuria was seen as a possible solution.[7]

Taiwan

[edit]
Main article:Taiwan under Japanese rule

Between 1895 and 1945,Taiwan,including thePescadores,was acolonyof theJapanese Empire;following the defeat ofQing Chinain theFirst Sino-Japanese War,it ceded Taiwan to Japan under the terms of theTreaty of Shimonoseki.The short-livedRepublic of Formosaresistance movement was quickly suppressed by the Japanese military. Thefall of Tainanended organized resistance to Japanese occupation and inaugurated five decades of Japanese rule.

Since Taiwan was Japan's first overseas colony, the central and colonial governments turned their efforts into making the island a "model colony".[8]These resulted in the modernization of the island's economy, infrastructure, industry, public works, andforced assimilation.

In 1945, after the defeat of theJapanese EmpireinWorld War II,Taiwan placed under the control of theRepublic of Chinawith the signing of theJapanese Instrument of Surrender.[9]The experience of Japanese rule,Kuomintang rule,and theFebruary 28 Incidentof 1947 continues to affect issues such asRetrocession Day,national and ethnic identity, and theTaiwan independence movement.

Korea

[edit]
Main article:Korea under Japanese rule

In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, various Western countries competed for influence, trade, and territory inEast Asia,and Japan sought to join these modern colonial powers. The newly modernizedMeiji governmentof Japan turned to Korea, then in thesphere of influenceof China'sQing dynasty.The Japanese government initially sought to separate Korea from Qing and make Korea aJapanese satelliteto further their security and national interests.[10]

In January 1876, Japan employedgunboat diplomacyto pressureKorea,under theJoseon Dynasty,to sign theJapan–Korea Treaty of 1876,which grantedextraterritorial rightsto Japanese citizens and opened three Korean ports to Japanese trade. The rights granted to Japan under thisunequal treaty,[11]were similar to those granted to western powers in Japan following the visit ofCommodore Perry.[11]Japanese involvement in Korea increased during the 1890s, a period of political upheaval.

Korea was occupied and declared a Japaneseprotectoratefollowing theJapan–Korea Treaty of 1905;it was annexed in 1910 through theannexation treaty.Koreawas renamed Chōsen and remained a part of the Japanese Empire for 35 years; from August 22, 1910, until August 15, 1945, upon thesurrender of Japanin thePacific War.The 1905 and 1910 treaties were officially declared "null and void" by both Japan and South Korea in 1965.

South Sakhalin

[edit]
Main article:Karafuto Prefecture

During the 19th century, Russia and Japan vied for control ofSakhalin Island.Following theMeiji Restorationin 1868, Japanese settlers were sent to southern Sakhalin to exploit its resources.[12]Japan ceded southern Sakhalin to Russia in 1875 in exchange for the Kuril Islands under theTreaty of Saint Petersburg.After achieving victory in theRusso-Japanese War,Japan was ceded southern Sakhalin under the terms of theTreaty of Portsmouth.Japan established its colonial government in 1907, whereupon South Sakhalin was renamedKarafuto Prefecture.

Japanese and Korean migrants to the colony developed the fishing, forestry and mining industries. Taking advantage of theRussian Civil War,theImperial Japanese Armyoccupied northern Sakhalin between 1920 and 1925;[13]afterwards Japan retained favorable coal and oil concessions therein until 1944. In 1943, Karafuto was elevated tonaichistatus.

The Soviet Unioninvaded and annexed Karafutoat the end ofWorld War II.[14]

South Seas Mandate

[edit]
Main article:South Seas Mandate

Following the outbreak ofWorld War Iin 1914, theJapanese Empiredeclared war on theGerman Empireand quickly seized the possessions of theGerman colonial empirein thePacific Ocean(the NorthernMariana Islands,theCaroline Islandsand theMarshall Islands) with virtually no resistance. After the end of the war theTreaty of Versaillesformally recognized the Japanese occupation of former German colonies inMicronesianorth of theequator.ALeague of Nations mandateput them under the Japanese administration known as the Nan'yō Agency or South Seas Agency(Nam Dương thính,Nan'yō Chō)and the post ofGovernor of the South Seas Mandatewas created.[15]

The main significance of the South Seas Mandate to Japan was its strategic location, which dominated the sea lanes across the Pacific Ocean and provided convenient provisioning locations for ships. During the 1930s, theImperial Japanese Navybegan construction of airfields, fortifications, ports, and other military projects on the South Seas Mandate islands, viewing them as "unsinkable aircraft carriers"with a critical role to play in the defense of the Japanese home islands against potential invasion by the United States. The islands became important staging grounds for Japanese air and naval offensives during thePacific Warbut were lost to American military action between 1943 and 1945. The League of Nations mandate was formally revoked by theUnited Nationson July 18, 1947, according toSecurity Council Resolution 21,making the United States responsible for administration of the islands under the terms of a United Nations trusteeship agreement which established theTrust Territory of the Pacific Islands.

Manchuria

[edit]
Main article:Manchukuo

After emerging victorious againstQing Chinain theFirst Sino-Japanese War,Japan was ceded the southern part of theLiaodong Peninsulaunder the terms of theTreaty of Shimonoseki.Diplomatic pressure from Russia, Germany, and Franceforced Japan to quickly relinquish the territory, which allowed Russia to lease it from China in 1898. In 1905, Russia was defeated in theRusso-Japanese War;under the terms of theTreaty of Portsmouth,Russia returned the Liaodong Peninsula to Japan, whereupon it was renamed theKwantung Leased Territory.A governor and anImperial Japanese Armygarrison were established, the latter becoming theKwantung Armyin 1919.

As a result of Russia's defeat, it also lost influence inManchuria,which allowed Japan to take its place. In 1906, Japan laid theSouth Manchuria RailwaytoRyojun.Japan temporarily occupied Russian Manchuriain 1918, but returned it to theSoviet Unionin 1922. Manchuria came under the control of the Chinese warlordZhang Zuolinduring thewarlordperiod in China. He initially had Japanese backing, but the Kwantung Army found him too independent; he was assassinated in 1928.

TheJapanese invasion of Manchuriatook place in 1931 following theMukden Incident,a staged event engineered by Japanese military personnel from the Kwantung Army as a pretext for invasion.[16][17][18]The region was subsequently separated from Chinese control and the Japanese-aligned puppet state ofManchukuowas created.[19]The last Emperor of China,Puyi,was installed as head of state in 1932, and two years later he was declared Emperor of Manchukuo. The city ofChangchunwas renamed Xinjing and became the capital of Manchukuo. Animperial palacewas specially built for the emperor. He was, however, nothing more than a figurehead and real authority rested in the hands of the Japanese military officials. The Manchu ministers all served as front-men for their Japanese vice-ministers, who made all decisions.Anti-Japanese Volunteer Armieswere organized by the Chinese in Manchuria and thepacification of Manchukuorequired a war lasting several years.

During the 1930s the Japanese colonized Manchukuo. With Japanese investment and rich natural resources, theeconomy of Manchukuoexperienced rapid economic growth. Manchukuo's industrial system became one of the most advanced, making it one of the industrial powerhouses in the region.[20]Manchukuo's steel production exceeded Japan's in the late 1930s. The Japanese Army initially sponsored a policy of forced industrialization modeled after the Five Year Plan in the Soviet Union[21]but subsequently private capital was used in a very strongly state-directed economy. There was progress in the area's social systems and many Manchurian cities were modernized. Manchukuo issued banknotes and postal stamps, and several independent banks were founded. TheChinese Eastern Railwaywas bought from the Soviet Union In 1935. Traditional lands were taken and redistributed to Japanese farmers with local farmers relocated and forced intocollective farmingunits over smaller areas of land.

During this period Manchukuo was used as a base from which to invade China. In the summer of 1939, a border dispute between Manchukuo and theMongolian People's Republicresulted in theBattle of Khalkhin Gol.During this battle, a combinedSoviet Armyand Mongolian force defeated the JapaneseKwantung Army(Kantōgun) supported by limited Manchukuoan forces. TheSoviet Uniondeclared war on Japan on 8 August 1945 under the agreement at theYalta Conferenceand invaded Manchukuo from Russian Manchuria and Mongolia. This was calledManchurian Strategic Offensive Operation.The Army of Manchukuo was defeated and the Emperor was captured by Soviet forces. Most of the 1.5 million Japanese who had been left in Manchukuo at the end of World War II were sent back to their homeland in 1946-1948 by U.S. Navy ships in the operation now known as theJapanese repatriation from Huludao.

World War II

[edit]
Territory Japanese name Date Population est.(1943) Notes
Japan Naichi( nội địa ) 1868-1945 72,000,000 Present-day Japan, South Sakhalin, Kuril, and Ryukyu Islands
Karafuto/South Sakhalin Karafuto-chō( hoa quá thính ) 1905-1943 406,000 Ceded by the Russian Empireto Japan
Korea Chōsen ( Triều Tiên ) 1910-1945 25,500,000
Taiwan Taiwan ( Đài Loan ) 1895-1945 6,586,000 Ceded by Qing Chinato Japan
Mainland China Shina( chi kia ) 1931–1945 200,000,000(est.) Manchukuo50 million (1940),Rehe,Kwantung Leased Territory,Jiangsu, Shanghai, Shandong, Hebei, Beijing, Tianjin, plus parts of: Guangdong, Guangxi, Hubei, Hunan, Fu gian, Guizhou, Inner Mongolia
Hong Kong Honkon ( Hong Kong ) December 12, 1941 – August 15, 1945 1,400,000 Hong Kong
East Asia (subtotal) Higashi ajia( Đông Á tế á ) orTō-a( Đông Á ) – 306,792,000
Vietnam An'nan ( An Nam ) July 15, 1940 – August 29, 1945 22,122,000 AsFrench Indochina
Cambodia Kambojia (カンボジア) July 15, 1940 – August 29, 1945 3,100,000 AsFrench Indochina,Japanese occupation of Cambodia
Laos Raosu (ラオス) July 15, 1940 – August 29, 1945 1,400,000 AsFrench Indochina,Japanese occupation of Laos
Thailand Tai ( thái /タイ) December 8, 1941 – August 15, 1945 16,216,000 Independent state, but allied with Japan
Malaysia Maraya (マラヤ) or Marē (マレー), Kita Boruneo ( bắc ボルネオ) March 27, 1942 – September 6, 1945 (Malaya), March 29, 1942 – September 9, 1945 (Sarawak, Brunei, Labuan, North Borneo) 4,938,000 plus 39,000 (Brunei) AsMalaya,British Borneo,Brunei
Philippines Firipin ( so luật tân /フィリピン) or Hitō ( so đảo ) May 8, 1942 – July 5, 1945 17,419,000 Philippines
Dutch East Indies Higashi indo ( đông Ấn Độ ) January 18, 1942 – October 21, 1945 72,146,000 Dutch East Indies
Singapore Shōnan-tō ( chiêu nam đảo ) February 15, 1942 – September 9, 1945 795,000 Singapore
Burma Biruma (ビルマ) 1942–1945 16,800,000 Burma
East Timor Higashi chimōru ( đông チモール) February 19, 1942 – September 2, 1945 450,000 Portuguese Timor
Southeast Asia (subtotal) Tō-nan ajia ( Đông Nam Á tế á ) – 155,452,000
New Guinea Nyūginea (ニューギニア) December 27, 1941 – September 15, 1945 1,400,000 AsPapuaandNew Guinea
Guam Ōmiya Island ( đại cung đảo ) January 6, 1942 – October 24, 1945 fromGuam
South Seas Mandate Nan'yō guntō ( Nam Dương quần đảo ) 1919–1945 129,000 fromGerman Empire
Nauru Nauru (ナウル) August 26, 1942 – September 13, 1945 3,000 from United Kingdom, Australia and New Zealand
Wake Island,US Ōtori Island ( đại điểu đảo ) December 27, 1941 – September 4, 1945 nil USA
Kiribati Kiribasu (キリバス) December 1941 – January 22, 1944 28,000 fromGilbert Islands
Pacific Islands (subtotal) – – 1,433,000
Total Population – – 463,677,000

Disclaimer: Not all areas were considered part of the Empire of Japan, but within its sphere of influence, included separately for demographic purposes. Sources: POPULSTAT Asia[3]Oceania[4]

Other islands occupied by Japan during World War II:

Areas attacked but not conquered

[edit]

Raided without immediate intent of occupation

[edit]

Administration

[edit]

A shortage of Japanese administrators led to the establishment of colonial puppet states and the promotion of indigenous elites in the territories which came under Japanese control in the 1940s.[22]

Economic development

[edit]

According to Atul Kohli, the David K.E. Bruce Professor of International Affairs and Professor of Politics and International Affairs atPrinceton,"the Japanese made extensive use of state power for their own economic development and then used the same state power to pry open and transform Korea in a relatively short period of time".[23]Japan was "decisive in altering both the nature of the Korean state and the relationship of this state to various social classes."[24]How the Japanese centralized bureaucratic style of government was transferred to Korea; how they developed Korean human capital by a considerable expansion of education; how the Japanese invested heavily in infrastructure. Kohli's conclusion is that "the highly cohesive and disciplining state that the Japanese helped to construct in colonial Korea turned out to be an efficacious economic actor. The state utilized its bureaucratic capacities to undertake numerous economic tasks: collecting more taxes, building infrastructure, and undertaking production directly. More important, this highly purposive state made increasing production one of its priorities and incorporated property-owning classes into production-oriented alliances".[25]This sprawling bureaucratic state continued post-World War IIand after theKorean War.Japan's early colonial industrialisation of Korea also made it easier to rebuild after the Korean War, because there was no need to begin industrialisationab initio.Examining Korea's policies and achievements in the 1960s and 1970s, Kohli states that during this period the country was firmly heading towards "cohesive-capitalist development, mainly by re-creating an efficacious but brutal state that intervened extensively in the economy".[26]South Korean economic development was not market-driven—rather the "state intervened heavily to promote exports, using both market and non-market tools to achieve its goals".[27]

See also

[edit]

Footnotes

[edit]
  1. ^abPeattie 1988,p. 217.
  2. ^James, David H. (2010-11-01).The Rise and Fall of the Japanese Empire.Routledge.ISBN978-1-136-92546-7.Archivedfrom the original on 6 July 2019.Retrieved11 September2018.by 1942, this 'Empire' covered about 3,285,000 square miles
  3. ^abhttp:// populstat.info/Asia/asia.htmlArchived2020-02-23 at theWayback MachinePopulstat ASIA
  4. ^abhttp:// populstat.info/Oceania/oceania.htmlArchived2020-02-25 at theWayback MachinePopulstat OCEANIA
  5. ^Rigg, Bryan Mark(2024).Japan's Holocaust: History of Imperial Japan's Mass Murder and Rape During World War II.Knox Press. pp. 190–191, 276, 312.ISBN9781637586884.
  6. ^Peattie 1988,p. 224.
  7. ^"The Nation, Volume 74".The Nation.Vol. LXXIV. New York: New York Evening Post Company. 1902. p. 187.Retrieved20 December2011.In all the ameliorating conditions every one must rejoice; but when these are coupled with the old-time lack of self-control leading to universal early marriages, a problem is rolling up before which Japanese statesmen are appalled. At the present rate of increase, there will, before the middle of this century, be a hundred million people to provide for. It is this prospect that is leading Japanese statesmen to make such frantic efforts to secure opportunity for colonization. Being practically shut off from going to other foreign countries, and Formosa being already largely occupied, Japan would naturally look to Korea and Manchuria; but of these places, Korea would afford only partial relief, both because of its limited area and of its present population. The northern region of Manchuria, however, is still almost as much in a state of nature as were the prairies of the Mississippi valley when the Indians roamed freely over them.
  8. ^Pastreich, Emanuel."Sovereignty, Wealth, Culture, and Technology: Mainland China and Taiwan Grapple with the Parameters of" Nation-State "in the 21st Century".ResearchGate.
  9. ^Chen, C. Peter."Japan's Surrender".World War II Database.Lava Development, LLC.Retrieved22 December2014.
  10. ^Duus, Peter (1995).The Abacus and the Sword: The Japanese Penetration of Korea, 1895–1910.Berkeley: University of California Press.ISBN978-0-520-21361-6.
  11. ^abA reckless adventure in Taiwan amid Meiji Restoration turmoil,THE ASAHI SHIMBUN,Retrieved on July 22, 2007.
  12. ^Ohnuki-Tierney, Emiko (1981).Illness, and Healing Among the Sakhalin Ainu: A Symbolic Interpretation.CUP Archive. p. 214.ISBN978-0-521-23636-2.
  13. ^Paichadze, Svetlana; Seaton, Philip A. (2015).Voices from the Shifting Russo-Japanese Border: Karafuto / Sakhalin.Routledge Studies in the Modern History of Asia. Routledge. p. 21.ISBN978-1-317-61889-8.
  14. ^Wurm, Stephen A.; Mühlhäusler, Peter; Tryon, Darrell T. (1996).Atlas of Languages of Intercultural Communication in the Pacific, Asia, and the Americas.Trends in Linguistics. Documentation. Vol. 13. Walter de Gruyter. p. 379.ISBN978-3-11-081972-4.
  15. ^Ponsonby-Fane, Richard (1962).Sovereign and Subject.Ponsonby Memorial Society. pp. 346–353.
  16. ^The Cambridge History of Japan: The twentieth century, p. 294, Peter Duus, John Whitney Hall, Cambridge University Press: 1989ISBN978-0-521-22357-7
  17. ^An instinct for war: scenes from the battlefields of history, p. 315, Roger J. Spiller,ISBN978-0-674-01941-6;Harvard University Press
  18. ^Concise dictionary of modern Japanese history,p. 120, Janet Hunter, University of California Press: 1984,ISBN978-0-520-04557-6
  19. ^Yamamuro, Shin·ichi (2006).Manchuria under Japanese domination.Translated by Fogel, Joshua A. Philadelphia, Pa.: University of Pennsylvania Press. pp. 116–117.ISBN978-0-8122-3912-6.
  20. ^Prasenjit Duara."The New Imperialism and the Post-Colonial Developmental State: Manchukuo in comparative perspective".Retrieved25 July2010.
  21. ^Maiolo, JosephCry Havoc How the Arms Race Drove the World to War, 1931-1941,New York: Basic Books, 2010 page 30
  22. ^ Plowright, John (2007).The causes, course and outcomes of World War Two.Histories and Controversies. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. p. 167.ISBN978-0-333-79345-9.Retrieved2010-08-29.The success of the Japanese had other consequences for Britain's—and others'—former colonies. Lacking sufficient numbers of skilled personnel to administer their newly conquered lands, they sometimes either set up puppet governments or entrusted relatively high administrative responsibilities to the local nativeéliteswhom the former colonial powers had hitherto systematically kept in lower grade jobs[...]
  23. ^Kohli 2004,p. 27.
  24. ^Kohli 2004,p. 31.
  25. ^Kohli 2004,p. 56.
  26. ^Kohli 2004,p. 84.
  27. ^Kohli 2004,p. 119.

Bibliography

[edit]
  • "Fallacies in the Allied Nations' Historical Perception as Observed by a British Journalist" by Henry Scott Stokes
  • Chen, C. Peter. "Japan's Surrender". World War II Database. Lava Development, LLC.
  • Duus, Peter; Hall, John Whitney (1989). The Cambridge History of Japan: The twentieth century, Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-0-521-22357-7
  • Duus, Peter (1995). The Abacus and the Sword: The Japanese Penetration of Korea, 1895–1910. Berkeley: University of California Press
  • Hunter, Janet (1984). Concise dictionary of modern Japanese history, University of California Press: 1984,ISBN978-0-520-04557-6
  • Kohli, Atul (2004).State-Directed Development: Political Power and Industrialization in the Global Periphery.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-0-521-54525-9.
  • Maiolo, Joseph (2010). Cry Havoc How the Arms Race Drove the World to War, 1931–1941, New York: Basic Books.
  • Myers, Ramon Hawley; Peattie, Mark R. (1984).The Japanese Colonial Empire, 1895-1945.Princeton: Princeton University Press.ISBN0-521-22352-0.
  • Ohnuki-Tierney, Emiko (1981). Illness and Healing Among the Sakhalin Ainu: A Symbolic Interpretation. CUP Archive.ISBN978-0-521-23636-2
  • Paichadze, Svetlana; Seaton, Philip A. (2015). Voices from the Shifting Russo-Japanese Border: Karafuto / Sakhalin. Routledge Studies in the Modern History of Asia. Routledge.ISBN978-1-317-61889-8
  • Pastreich, Emanuel (2003). "Sovereignty, Wealth, Culture, and Technology: Mainland China and Taiwan Grapple with the Parameters of" Nation State "in the 21st Century". Program in Arms Control, Disarmament, and International Security, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.
  • Peattie, Mark R. (1988). "Chapter 5 - The Japanese Colonial Empire 1895-1945".The Cambridge History of Japan Vol. 6.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.ISBN0-521-22352-0.
  • Peattie, Mark (1992).Nan'Yo: The Rise and Fall of the Japanese in Micronesia, 1885-1945.University of Hawaii Press.ISBN0-8248-1480-0.
  • Plowright, John (2007). The causes, course and outcomes of World War Two. Histories and Controversies. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.ISBN978-0-333-79345-9
  • Ponsonby-Fane, Richard (1962). Sovereign and Subject. Ponsonby Memorial Society.
  • Spiller, Roger J. (2007) An instinct for war: scenes from the battlefields of history, Harvard University Press.ISBN978-0-674-01941-6
  • Wurm, Stephen A.; Mühlhäusler, Peter; Tryon, Darrell T., ed. (1996). Atlas of Languages of Intercultural Communication in the Pacific, Asia, and the Americas. Trends in Linguistics. Documentation. Volume 13. Walter de Gruyter.
  • Yamamuro, Shin·ichi (2006). Manchuria under Japanese domination. Translated by Fogel, Joshua A. Philadelphia, Pa.: University of Pennsylvania
  • Ziomek, Kirsten L.Lost Histories: Recovering the Lives of Japan's Colonial Peoples(Harvard University Asia Center, 2019) 406 pp.online review
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Japanese_colonial_empire&oldid=1230210976"